phd write up year

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Writing up your PhD and Preparing for the Viva

Writing up and submitting your thesis on time should be your priority in your final year, but you should also make time to prepare for your next steps.

Typical milestones

These are the sorts of actions you will need to consider taking during the end phase of your PhD.

Completing your research :

• draw up a plan to cut writing up into manageable pieces
• chapter by chapter; complete a first draft
• submit thesis and practice for the viva
• viva, corrections and graduation....celebrate!

Communicate your findings :

• present research findings at conferences / seminars.

Plan your career :

• Visit the careers service and work on updating your CV.
• Apply for jobs or funding, or think about entrepreneurial activities, like starting your own business or ‘spinning out’ your research.

Remember to add your own additional actions that relate to your own personal circumstances and project.

Support from your supervisor and School

As you near completion, you will be the expert in your field, your relationship with your supervisor has probably changed dramatically since day one. Now your meetings should focus on critically discussing your work. Let them advise you on the process of submission and learn from their experience.

It is vital at this stage that you revisit the PhD regulations, particularly those on submitting your thesis. Remember that the guidance may have been updated since you first started your PhD.

Codes and regulations for research students

Writing up qualitative research

This independent self study pack is aimed at Postgraduate Researchers working on a qualitative thesis who have completed their data collection and analysis and are at the stage of writing up.

Note: this self-study pack was written in 2013 so is not an expecially up-to-date resource, but it may still contain helpful general information.

The units available for download are:

Writing up: course introduction (PDF - 3 pages)

Unit 1: structure and introduction (PDF - 13 pages)

Unit 2: literature review (PDF - 15 pages)

Unit 3: methodology (PDF - 9 pages)

Unit 4: data chapters (PDF - 17 pages)

Unit 5: the final chapter (PDF - 19 pages)

Unit 6: the first few pages (PDF - 9 pages)

Independent study notes (PDF - 11 pages)

Preparing for the Viva

A Guide for Viva Preparation (PDF)

Preparing for an Online Viva (PDF)

It may be particularly important now that you get advice and support on your next career steps. Read out career management section for some timely advice, and an overview of support you can access from the University’s careers service.

Career management advice for PhD students

Training courses

To help you in the final stages of your research programme, we recommend attending some of the following  IAD  courses:

• 7 Reasons you'll Pass your Viva
• Thesis Workshops - School Specific
• Viva Survivor

Doing a skills audit to help plan your development

Revisit your skills audit and update it, you will have learnt a lot in during your PhD, and the chances are your development needs have now changed. Your focus for future development should now be on the skills you need to move forward into your career. Think about these carefully and if you want to, seek advice from the Careers Service.

Get help from the University Careers Service

If you haven’t done a skills audit before, doing an audit (i.e. an assessment) of your skills is useful; if you can identify what skills are important to your research success, and whether you are strong or weak in these areas. You can then focus your precious time on developing the areas that will help you most.

Other sources of support

Vitae: The Vitae resources on writing up, submitting and defending your thesis are particularly helpful at this stage.

Vitae guidance on completing your doctorate

This article was published on 2024-02-26

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Fourth Year: writing up and completion

The Department of Computer Science and Technology expects that all PhD students will submit during their fourth year. Instructions about what to do when you are ready to submit may be found at Submitting your thesis .

Most PhD students' funding will finish at the end of the third year though some scholarships continue for a further 6 months. Some tenth term funding may be available from Colleges and from the Cambridge Trusts for those supported by the Gates Cambridge Trust, the Cambridge International Scholarship Scheme (CISS) or Cambridge Home and EU Scholarship Scheme (CHESS). Applications should be made directly to the Colleges or Cambridge Trusts.

 Hardship funding may be also available from the College or department. Applications should be made in the first instance to the Postgraduate Education Manager. Applications will be considered on a case-by-case basis and are at the discretion of the department.

Other sources of income include undergraduate supervision, of course, but students should bear in mind visa restrictions, the department's guidance of taking on no more than six hours of supervision per week in term time, and balancing your work load with finishing your thesis

Tuition and College fees are generally exempted after nine terms of a research degree. You may receive an email from the Student Registry explaining that you or your sponsor are no longer required to pay tuition fees as you are in the 'writing-up' period.

You should have submitted your third-year progress statement at the end of your ninth term. This will have given you the chance to reflect upon how much more work needed to be done, a firm outline of the chapters, and a timetable for submission. You may have already passed a draft of your thesis to your supervisor. Some guidelines as to its format are available  here  as a reminder. Your supervisor should be active in providing feedback on your thesis. They may recommend that you have others read your thesis to help pick up typographical and other errors.

Overrunning - beyond four years

If there is any risk that you may not be able to submit your thesis within four years of your admission date (or the date recorded on your CamSIS self service page), you must talk with the Postgraduate Education Manager, (email: phd-admin (at) cst (dot) cam (dot) ac (dot) uk). Failure to submit will lead to being removed from the Register of Postgraduate Students within a few days of the 'end of registration date'. Deregistration will lead to the revocation of student visas, and a loss of College and departmental access.

Once deregistered, the 'clock' does not stop ticking. You may apply to be reinstated to the Register only once you have submitted your thesis to the Degree Committee.

It is possible to apply for an extension to the end of registration date although the Degree Committee will only consider applications in exceptional circumstances.

Secretary of the Degree Committee September 2015, updated February 2020; updated August 2023

Department of Computer Science and Technology University of Cambridge William Gates Building 15 JJ Thomson Avenue Cambridge CB3 0FD

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Wharton Stories

How to prepare a strong phd application.

Doctoral candidates and departmental coordinators at the Wharton School outline a few tips to help you navigate the PhD application process.

It’s no secret the application process can be intimidating. Where do you start? What exactly are schools looking for on your application? What materials do you need to submit? Doctoral candidates and departmental coordinators at the Wharton School have outlined a few tips to help you navigate the process.

Don’t Delay the Process

A successful PhD applicant starts thinking about their application months or even years before the deadlines. For Alejandro Lopez Lira , a third year student in Finance, the application process began a year before he actually submitted the paperwork. He said, “I spoke to my advisors way before, like one year before, about my letters of recommendation, where to apply, everything involved in the process.”

Each program has different requirements, which can make for a tedious process. Karren Knowlton , a third year in Management, said, “I took a little while to draft a personal statement. I had my mom, who teaches creative writing, and a few other people that I trust just read over it. Then you have to tweak it for different schools because they want slightly different things.”

Taking time to prepare your application is critical. Starting the process sooner rather than later gives you several advantages:

• It allows your letter of recommendation writers enough time in advance to thoughtfully prepare a letter that speaks to who you are as a PhD candidate.
• It gives you more time to review your materials, fix any errors, and proofread, proofread, proofread.
• Finally, it means a lot less stress when the deadline starts rapidly approaching. By planning ahead, you’ll have a much smoother process applying.

Get Letters of Recommendation

Prof. Matthew Bidwell , who previously served as the doctoral coordinator for the Management program , said a common mistake he sees are letters of recommendations from employers. Although he said it is impressive to see work experience, having an employer write a letter is not the best choice.

“We don’t pay very much attention to those because rightly or wrongly, we worry that they’re not looking for the kinds of things that we’re looking for,” he said. “If you have one, it’s not a disaster, but when you see people with two or three — most of their recommendations coming from their work — that kind of heightens our concern. You’re committing to a fairly specialized career, do you really know what that career entails?”

Instead, he suggests getting to know an academic who will be able to write a recommendation attesting to your ability to manage doctoral-level research and work.

Include Research/Work Experience in Your Field

Each program has a unique set of criteria to evaluate applicants, but several doctoral coordinators agree that some research and work experience in your field of interest will strengthen your application overall.

Prof. Fernando Ferreira , doctoral coordinator for the Business Economics and Public Policy and Real Estate programs, thinks work experience can be useful in demonstrating an applicant’s abilities. He said, “Any work experience after undergraduate school is important. If that experience is more related to research it’s even better, but work experience in general is always good.”

Prof. Guy David , doctoral coordinator for the Health Care Management & Economics program , thinks that work experience benefits applicants in terms of giving them a broader view of business. “Work experience creates retrospection about how the world works, how organizations make decisions, and how people function in various situations,” he said.

However, he warns that spending too much time away from an academic setting can have its drawbacks too. “It may lead people to start their PhD later when they are not in the habit of immersing themselves in rigorous studies and have a shorter horizons to develop a name for themselves,” he said.

Although having both research and work experience can strengthen your application, you will not be denied entry because you are lacking either.

Prof. Bidwell said, “I think research experience does give us some confidence that people have some idea about what it is that we do. In terms of work experience, I think we don’t have a strong view. We quite like work experience, but we also take people straight out of undergrad.”

Prepare for the Standardized Tests

Most PhD programs require students to take the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE). Having high test scores is a key part of an application as it tests skills learned over the course of many years in school. Quantitative skills are especially important when applying to doctoral programs in business areas. Much like any other standardized test, the GRE requires preparation.

Karren, who took the GRE twice to ensure her scores were high enough, offered advice to those who may be struggling. “I would absolutely recommend practicing the writing beforehand. Look up examples and have your outline structured,” she said. “So much of it is just getting the right structure and how you formulate your arguments so knowing what they’re looking for is key.”

Test prep can be time-consuming, but like anything else, practice makes perfect. There are multiple text books and online sites to help you prepare for the exam. Karren aimed to improve her math scores the second time she took the GRE and recommended this site to help strengthen math skills.

Taking advantage of resources to help you study can limit the number of times you need to take the GRE while ensuring you score high enough to remain in the applicant pool.

Watch a Webinar with Former Wharton Vice Dean Catherine Schrand

Posted: August 4, 2017

• Admissions and Applying
• Advancement and Transition

Doctoral Programs

Start your doctoral journey.

Whether you’re just starting your research on PhD programs or you’re ready to apply, we’ll walk you through the steps to take to become a successful PhD candidate.

Deciding to get a PhD

You might be surprised to find out what you can do with a PhD in business.

Is an Academic Career for You ? What Makes a Successful PhD Student

Preparing for the Doctoral Path

The skills, relationships, and knowledge you need to prepare yourself for a career in academics.

How the PhD Program Works How to Become a Successful PhD Applicant

Choosing the right program

What’s the difference between PhD programs? Find out how to choose one that fits your goals.

What to Consider When Choosing a Doctoral Program What Differentiates R1 Universities?

Starting an application

Tips for a successful application process.

Application Requirements Preparing Your PhD Application

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• Supervisors' Guide
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PhD Timeline

At the start of a student’s research degree, you should provide appropriate guidance about:

• The nature of research
• The standard expected
• How to plan the programme to ensure that candidates will complete their research and experimental work within three years, with one year of writing up (if needed) to meet the maximum four-year submission deadline.  

The following sections highlight the College’s research degree milestones and information about progression.  However, your department may also have additional specific requirements for students to complete such as a research plan confirmation at three months or six monthly reports.  You are advised to check with your Director of Postgraduate Studies or Postgraduate Administrator if you are unsure.

A summary of the College’s updated milestones is provided below:

Early stage assessment.

The College requires assessment of a student’s research potential to be carried out through the ESA to determine whether registration for the PhD can continue.

This involves your student to submit a written report and complete an oral examination (by 12 months for full time students, and 24 months for part time students), which may include one opportunity for re-assessment.

ESA Requirements

• You must have discussed and agreed with your student how your partnership will work using the College’s Mutual Expectations
• Students must have completed the online Plagiarism Awareness course by their ESA.
• Prior to the ESA, your student’s ESA report should be submitted to Turnitin through your department’s Blackboard Thesis submission centre.
• Students should have obtained a minimum of two Graduate School Professional Skills credits.
• Students that are not exempt from Imperial’s Doctoral Academic Communication Requirement who score level 1 or 2 are required to take a progress check to complete the ESA. Students who score level 3 or 4 are considered to have fulfilled the requirement.

Following the ESA, you should provide formal feedback to the student on their performance (Students will be asked to comment on the quality of the feedback they receive in the Postgraduate Research Experience Survey, which is used to benchmark institutions). You should also discuss future training (internal and external) and professional skills development. For students starting on or after the 24 September 2019, you should also discuss the outcome of the Turnitin Similarity Report.

Access  Guidance and forms for the ESA (plus guidance on giving effective feedback) and information on Advice on Graduate School Course Selection .

Late Stage Review

The College requires that a further review of a PhD student’s research ability be carried out through the LSR to determine whether registration for the PhD can continue.

The form of the review will be determined by the student’s department (and approved by the College) and must be completed by 24 months for full time students/48 months for part time students, which may include one opportunity for re-assessment.

LSR Requirements

• Typically, as a minimum, students will be required to submit a research plan by 24 months which shows how they will complete their programme by 36 months and start writing up.
• Students should have obtained four Graduate School professional skills credits (two by ESA plus two more by LSR)

You should encourage your student(s) to produce written work which may often provide them with the basis for the preparation of their final thesis.  Be prepared to read these and provide students with feedback on their examination, progress and final year research plan, making it clear when progress is inadequate or when standards fall below that which is expected.  Where students are experiencing difficulty with their English, you should require them to attend English classes and support from the Centre for Academic English. You may also wish to discuss professional development and skills training (internal and external), including thos suited to your students’ future career plans.

Access Guidance and forms for the LSR (plus guidance on giving effective feedback) and information on Advice on Graduate School Course Selection .

Progress Review (and writing up)

A formal monitoring point – the Progress Review - must be completed at 36 months (or equivalent part-time) to ensure that students who have not submitted within 36 months have a realistic plan for submitting the thesis within 48 months of their start date. The outcome of this assessment is to determine whether students have completed all experimental and data gathering work, and can move into the Writing up period.

A student who still has experimental work to perform at this stage cannot move into Writing up status and will continue to pay full fees.

The writing up period will last for a maximum of 12 months, but will terminate at 48 months from your student’s start date if earlier. During the writing up period the student will remain registered and no fees will be charged.

Students may request to enter the writing up period before 36 months. Any such request must be recommended by the Main Supervisor and approved by the DPS (or nominee) and will bring forward the expected thesis submission deadline accordingly.

Further details can be read in the College’s  Writing Up procedure [Pdf].

It is common for students to need support when the begin writing up (first 3-6 months). During this time, you should expect to provide regular feedback on draft chapters and student written work. You should continue to have conversations about research integrity and plagiarism awareness and provide guidance to your students on these matters.

Supervisors are reminded that the Graduate School has a special Thesis Writing Retreat available to students who are due to submit within the next six months.

Examination Entry

It is the student’s decision to enter for examination, however, full-time students are required to enter for examination no later than 44 months after initial registration for the research degree. Part-time PhD students are required to enter for examination no later than 88 months after initial registration for the research degree.

At least 4 months prior to thesis submission, your students can intitate the examination entry process through the PGR milestones section of My Imperial. Upon entry from examination, the primary supervisor will be prompted to nominate an examination panel in accordance with the College’s Procedure for Appointment of Examiners for Research Degrees , which will be subject to review and approval by the student’s DPS and Registry Assessment Records Team.

Read further information on the Conduct of Oral Examinations for Research Degrees .

Research degree  vivas  should take place on-site, in person.  Exceptionally, where travel restrictions make it difficult for external examiners or students to attend, mixed mode or remote  vivas  can be scheduled.  Directors of Postgraduate Studies are responsible for deciding whether, in exceptional circumstances, a mixed mode or remote  viva  can take place. 

Thesis Submission

The thesis must be submitted by 48 months for full-times students (96 months for part-time students). When the thesis is ready for submission and examination, your student will need to formally submit this via the PGR Milestones section of MyImperial.

Once this has been done, the Main Supervisor and their student will receive confirmation of receipt by the Registry Assessment Records Team, and will be notified as soon as the thesis has been sent to the examiners for review.

Other important information:

External study leave.

External Study Leave is defined as a period of time away from the College (minimum of two weeks) to undertake research which counts towards the degree registration. Ordinarily, this is either field work or a placement, but also covers split-PhDs. It will be recorded as an External Study Leave Milestone. Before taking a period of External Study Leave, supervisors and students are advised to check the terms and conditions of the student’s funding body which may stipulate restrictions on taking this type of leave and may impact on the stipend.

The College is required to notify the Home Office immediately if a student on a Tier 4 visa is taking a period of time away from the College. This will be reported to the Home Office as a Change of Study Location but will not impact on their visa status in the UK.

Read Guidelines for doctoral students wishing to take External Study Leave [pdf]

Interruption of Studies

An Interruption of Study (IOS) is available for students who require a temporary break from their studies and plan to resume their studies at a future date.

Students do not have an automatic right to interrupt their studies and the College expects that student will normally complete their studies in a single continuous period. An IOS should be requested for any period of time in which the student will not be engaging with their studies (e.g. due to health difficulties or work commitments etc).

An IOS can be taken at any stage of the PhD, with no penalty to the student, and the confirmed thesis submission deadline will be updated to reflect the duration of the IOS period. Students and supervisors are advised to check the terms and conditions of their funding body prior to applying for an interruption.

Taking an interruption means:

• PhD milestones and registration will pause and will resume once the IOS has finished.
• The thesis submission date will be adjusted for the period of time interrupted.
• Tuition fees will not be charged for the duration of the interruption.
• Stipends will not be paid for the duration of the interruption – except where a funder provides financial support for students interrupting on medical grounds/health reasons.
• There will be implications for student visas. Queries should be directed to the international student support office before students proceed to interrupt.
• Student ID cards wil become inactive for the period of interruption, which will affect access to resources including the Library.

Read more in the Interruption of Study Guidelines [Pdf] .

Thesis extensions

In cases where students are unable to submit within four years (or equivalent part-time), a thesis extension application can be submitted by the department for consideration by the Imperial College Graduate School. The thesis extension request procedure is available to postgraduate research candidates in cases where mitigating circumstances have affected their progress towards their final submission deadline.

All thesis extension requests are subject to departmental approval by the Director of Postgraduate Studies prior to submission to the Registry Research Degrees Team. Upon submission to Registry, the request will be submitted to a Special Case Panel for review and approval on behalf of the Postgraduate Research Quality Committee.

For further information on submitting a thesis extension request, please consult the relevant departmental administrator in the first instance and the College's Thesis Extension request guidance.‌ Guidance and the request form are available on the administration pages.

Professional Development

The primary purpose of the Graduate School is to develop and deliver a world-class, innovative and engaging provision ensuring all postgraduate students are provided with excellent professional development training to complement their academic studies and providing opportunity to develop skills for a range of careers.

As supervisor, you should have regular discussions with your students about their professional development and work together to select courses which are of most use and benefit to each student.  Advice on Graduate School Course Selection and an overview of the programme of professional skills courses for Doctoral students can be found in the For your students section of Cornerstone.

The Graduate School’s programme also includes Graduate Teaching Assistant (GTA) training courses for students who teach.  Attendance at these courses contributes towards the portfolio of work required for Associate Fellowship of the Higher Education Academy.  You should discuss with your student(s) teacher training and opportunities within the department to teach. More information can be found on the GTA webpage.

Research Skills

As a supervisor, you are responsible for developing students’ research skills. Some key research skills are academic writing, planning, presenting, critical thinking, statistical analysis and computing skills.

To develop student’s academic writing skills, it is recommended that supervisors advise doctoral students to ‘write early and write often’. It is important to make writing integral to the research process and not a final “write-up” task. Maintained engagement with writing throughout the research process promotes making-meaning through writing. This engagement encourages the development of the doctoral student’s professional identity and the production and communication of knowledge in their discipline. Hence it is important to see academic writing as integral to the research process and not only a product. Furthermore, engaging with writing only at the assessment stages (i.e. ESA, LSR and final thesis stage) may lead to doctoral students to associate writing with assessment and performance which in turn may lead to stress.

Planning skills play a central role in maintaining a student’s motivation. Hence, it is important that supervisors and their students and are advised that doctoral researchers can build their self-efficacy by setting smaller, achievable goals. Staff and students should be aware that there is research evidence to show the link between goal setting, self-efficacy, and motivation. Supervisors and students should plan together so that extended tasks such as thesis writing are broken down into smaller achievable goals hence building self-efficacy and motivation at critical stages of the doctorate.

Presenting skills develop through practice, you should provide opportunities for students to present to others whenever you can, for example at group meetings or departmental research seminars.

Data processing and analysis

To help with research data analysis and processing, Graduate School has introduced an extensive range of data science and computing skills courses.   You can find out more about the Graduate School’s programme and guidance on supporting students to choose the most appropriate courses in the ‘ For your students ' section of the Cornerstone website.

Other skills

There may also be other taught courses being delivered in the College which may be of benefit to the student to develop their research skills.

You should also provide training in requisite techniques and ensure good practice in research data management and support students who wish to publish. Supervisors should also have good knowledge of issues around plagiarism and copyright. The Graduate School has an online course in plagiarism awareness and copyright which supervisors are free to enrol on if they wish.

Supervisors should also be familiar with the College’s policy on, and procedures for, the investigation of allegations of research misconduct .

Cohort Building

In partnership with academics, students across the College and the Graduate Students’ Union, the Graduate School provides opportunities for students to meet each other at a variety of social and academic events, promoting interdisciplinary knowledge exchange, encouraging collaborations and creating supportive global research communities and peer groups.   

Cohort building aims to enhance support for research students and help improve the research environment. Research students working in cohorts can improve their understanding and gain access to professional and personal development as well as pastoral care.  The Postgraduate Community Fund is available to students who wish to apply for money to support cohort building activities.

Coaching and one-to-one support

The Graduate School also offers a coaching programme to postgraduate students with a focus on developing effective working relationships and self-development issues. 

Additionally, the Graduate School is able to offer dedicated one-to-one support for students who have particular challenges they would like extra support with, for example, presentation skills.   Please advise your students to contact  [email protected] if they would like to have this support.

Extra-curricular activities

Students should be encouraged to take part in the wide range of opportunities available to them, including Graduate School events and courses.  Students should be reminded that the Union’s clubs and societies are also available to postgraduate students. 

Information about these and more is available on the making the most of your Imperial experience webpages.

The  Enterprising students  webpages offer a range of opportunities for students interested in gaining entrepreneurship experience.  Opportunities for extra-curricular learning available via the Imperial College Union and the Outreach team are detailed below. 

The scheme supports students to identify and articulate the skills and experiences gained through volunteering.  All training workshops can be accessed by anybody recording their volunteer hours toward Imperial Plus.  Postgraduate roles which can count towards the scheme are:

• Any elected roles with the Graduate Students’ Union
• Any volunteering through college schemes such as Pimlico Connections or President’s Ambassadors
• Hall seniors
• Any role through  Community Connections

The  Volunteer Certificate  rewards the hours volunteered, from 25 up to 500 hours, and also gives access to all of the training workshops linked to the programme.

The  Volunteer Accreditation  offers students more scope to reflect on the skills they have developed during the hours they have spent volunteering in a more structured way.

Finally, once a year, volunteers are invited to apply to undertake a  Volunteer Qualification , an Institute of Leadership & Management (ILM) Level 5 Award in the Management of Volunteers, a valuable leadership qualification for any career path they choose.

Student Lifecycle

The Student Experience on the College’s milestones

Ahmed Shamso, Zaynab Jawad, and Yu Xia, PhD Candidates at Imperial College London, explain what they find valuable about the research degree assessment milestones.

Three students talking about why they value the research degree assessment milestones.

Dr Stefanos Zafeiriou's top tips for supervisors

Dr Zafeiriou shares his top tips for supervisors.

We asked Dr Stefanos Zafeiriou,  Department of Computing and winner of a Student Academic Choice Award for Best Supervisor, to share his top tips.

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10 tips for writing a PhD thesis

Ingrid curl shares simple rules for keeping your work clear and jargon-free.

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Writing up a PhD can often take place in a frenzy of activity in the last few months of your degree study, after years of hard work. But there are some steps that you can take to increase your chances of success.

• Do not be daunted by the task of “writing up”. Work on the text as your PhD takes shape, remember that all writers need editing, and help yourself by using these basic tips to make life easier. Read what great writers say about how to write before you start, and take their advice to heart. There is no dark art to clear, concise work; it is mostly a result of editing, and editing again. Above all, keep Elmore Leonard’s advice in mind: “If it reads like writing…rewrite it.”
• Plan the structure of your thesis carefully with your supervisor. Create rough drafts as you go so that you can refine them as you become more focused on the write-up. Much of writing comprises rewriting so be prepared to rework each chapter many times. Even Ernest Hemingway said: “The first draft of everything is shit.”
• Academic writing does not have to be dry. Inject some flair into your work. Read advice on writing and remember George Orwell’s words in Why I Write : “Never use the passive where you can use the active”; and Mark Twain’s on adjectives: “When you catch an adjective, kill it.” If you prefer, Stephen King said: “The road to hell is paved with adverbs.”
• Do not write up in chronological order. Work on each chapter while it is fresh in your mind or pertinent to what you are doing at that moment, but come back to it all later and work it up into a consistent, coherent piece, restructuring sections where necessary.
• Think carefully about your writing. Write your first draft, leave it and then come back to it with a critical eye. Look objectively at the writing and read it closely for style and sense. Look out for common errors such as dangling modifiers, subject-verb disagreement and inconsistency. If you are too involved with the text to be able to take a step back and do this, then ask a friend or colleague to read it with a critical eye. Remember Hemingway’s advice: “Prose is architecture, not interior decoration.” Clarity is key.
• Most universities use a preferred style of references. Make sure you know what this is and stick to it. One of the most common errors in academic writing is to cite papers in the text that do not then appear in the bibliography. All references in your thesis need to be cross-checked with the bibliography before submission. Using a database during your research can save a great deal of time in the writing-up process. Helpful software includes EndNote or Paperpile. Managing your bibliography from day one may seem obsessive but it will save you a great deal of time and stress by the end of the PhD process.
• Use a house style. Professional publications such as Times Higher Education use a house style guide to ensure consistency in spelling. For example, do not use both -ise spellings and -ize spellings, stick to British spelling and be consistent when referring to organisations or bodies. Because dictionaries vary in their use of hyphenation, use one dictionary and stick to it throughout the writing process. If you consult the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors , you will note the extraordinary number of words with alternative spellings. It can also be a very useful guide to preferred spellings, use of italicisation and foreign phrases.
• Take care when quoting from other sources. Ensure you note whether the italic emphasis is in the original and take careful notes when you are collecting quotes for your thesis. Transcribe them accurately to save work later and keep original spellings (even if they differ from your chosen style) to ensure fidelity to your source.
• Think about plagiarism. If you are quoting from works, quote from them accurately and paraphrase where necessary for your argument. This is where careful note-taking and use of references is invaluable and will help you to avoid even inadvertently plagiarising another work.
• Remember that your thesis is your chance to present your work in the best possible light. Consider your opening paragraphs, entice your reader with your writing and above all be clear about your hypothesis and your conclusion. Append material where it adds value but not where it merely bulks out your work. Consider your reader at all times. This is your chance to showcase your work.

If you stick to these simple rules, your writing will be clear and jargon-free. Above all, take to heart Orwell’s advice: “Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.”

Ingrid Curl is associate editor of  Times Higher Education , and a former PhD student.

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How the PhD Program Works

Program Overview

Completing your doctorate at Wharton requires 5 years of full-time study. The first 2 years in the program prepare you for admission to candidacy by taking courses, qualifying exams, and starting research projects. In the last few years, you are primarily conducting research full-time including writing and defending your doctoral dissertation.

Admission to candidacy.

You begin by taking courses required for your program of study. All programs requires a preliminary exam, which may be either oral or written.

Some programs may have further requirements, such as an additional exam or research paper. If you enter with a master’s degree or other transfer credit, you may satisfy the formal course requirements more quickly.

Beginning the Wharton PhD Curriculum How the first two years of the Wharton program helped students discover their interests, learn the tools of the profession, and fuel their passion for teaching.

The Doctoral Dissertation

Upon successful completion of coursework and passing a preliminary examination, you are admitted to candidacy for the dissertation phase of your studies.

Your doctoral dissertation should contain original research that meets standards for published scholarship in your field. You are expected to be an expert in the topic you choose to research.

You are admitted to candidacy for the dissertation phase of your studies upon successful completion of coursework and passing a preliminary examination, but you can start thinking about and working on research of relevance at any time.

The dissertation process culminates with a “defense,” in which you defend the proposal orally before your dissertation committee.

While working on your dissertation, you interact extensively with Wharton faculty. Together with interested faculty, you create your own research community that includes your dissertation advisor and dissertation committee.

Policies and Procedures

Get more detailed explanation of course requirements, academic standards, the Teacher Development Program, time limits, and dissertation procedures and requirements.

Sample Program Sequence

Years 1 & 2.

Coursework Examination Research Papers Research Activities Field-Specific Requirements

Directed Reading & Research Admission to Candidacy Formulation of Research Topic

Years 4 & 5

Continued Research Oral Examination Dissertation

Hear From Our Doctoral Community

Closing the tenure gap for business faculty of color.

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Wharton’s PhD Program Prepared This Doctor to Perform Economic Evaluations in Health Care

Phd student creates a new pipeline for women in academia.

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The writing-up phase following fieldwork is a period of intensive work, involving regular consultation with your supervisor.  

Writing up should take from one year to a maximum of fifteen months, and includes the process of drafting, revising and finalising your dissertation.  

Your supervisor will arrange a Return From Fieldwork Interview (with your Faculty Advisor also present if possible). The interview will give you the opportunity to reflect on your fieldwork experience, identify your current learning needs, discuss your timetable for completion and address your supervision and other practical arrangements during your writing up.

Producing a clear writing-up timeline is strongly recommended, in close consultation with your supervisor: i.e. when will each chapter be submitted, revised and finalised, to ensure that you complete well in time for your submission deadline.

Writing-Up Students writing up are required by University Regulations to be resident in Cambridge in order to take full advantage of the training and support the Department provides for its research students and to participate fully in the writing-up programme, including the weekly writing-up seminars and Friday senior research seminars.

Toward the end of the writing-up period students may sometimes wish to make a case for permission to reside outside Cambridge for financial or other reasons. In cases of this kind, and always subject to their supervisor's approval, you must   apply for ‘ Permission to Reside Outside University Precincts ‘ or ‘ Leave to Work Away ‘ as appropriate. 

On this page:

Notification of return 


Writing-up programme



Writing-up timeline 


Writing-up facilities


I.T. provision 


Interim appraisal of work  

Notification of return

As soon as you have made your travel arrangements to return to Cambridge, please contact the Postgraduate Administrator.  You will be asked to complete a Return from Fieldwork Form. The form will ensure that we have an up-to-date address and other contact details.

You should inform your Supervisor of your return at the earliest opportunity. Your Supervisor should arrange a Return from Fieldwork Interview with you, and your Faculty Advisor will be invited to attend. The interview will give you the opportunity to reflect on your fieldwork experience, identify your current learning needs, discuss your timetable for completion and address your supervision and other practical arrangements during your writing up. 

Writing-up programme

The writing-up seminar.

All students returned from the field are expected to attend the writing-up seminars, which are held on Wednesday afternoons during term. Presentations are prepared and circulated in advance via the PhD Writing-Up Moodle Course so that maximum feedback can be given to the presenter. A senior member of staff chairs the seminar but its liveliness and success depend very much on the quality and collegiality that come from the student participants.

The senior research seminar

Held at 3.15pm on Fridays during term, the seminar is open to all PhD students, including those in the pre-fieldwork year. During your writing up, in particular, you should endeavour to take an active part in the senior seminar. This is an opportunity both to try out your ideas and to acquire professional experience and training in seminar and conference work. As you submit your thesis you may be asked to give a presentation to the senior seminar.

Anthropological Lives

Anthropological Lives explores the lives of anthropologists who made striking and distinctive career decisions and/ or unexpected use of their anthropological material.

The series is conceived as a means of 'decentering' the discipline in a constructive and positive spirit of appreciation for its richness and breadth. The series reflects both ongoing and new knowledge and interests on the part of Departmental teaching staff, in addition to contributions from former Department members now based elsewhere.

Anthropology, Beyond the Academy

A series of presentations scheduled throughout the academic year in which speakers from a diverse range of fields reflect on how their study of anthropology has informed their subsequent careers.  The series highlights the many different kinds of lives that may be enhanced through study and research in anthropology.

Highlights have included a visit by artist Sir Antony Gormley, acclaimed author, publisher and philanthropist Dr Sigrid Rausing, and contributors from such fields as advertising, public administration, international health care, and global aid and diplomacy.   

Writing-up timeline

Producing a clear timeline on return from the field is strongly recommended, in close consultation with one's supervisor: i.e. when will each chapter be submitted, revised and finalized  Students have an absolute deadline of up to 4 years from the time of your admission to the PhD course (taking account of any period of intermission ), but the Department usually expects you to complete and submit by the end of the first term of your fourth year (i.e. within ten terms).

PhD students will be automatically removed from the Register of Postgraduate Students at the 4 year point, unless an application to defer is agreed by the Board in advance of the 4 year date being reached.   If you need to go beyond this deadline you may apply for an Extension to Registration date via your self-service account. Applications are granted only for very good reason and must have the full support of your supervisor.   Before applying to extend your registration date or intermit, you should consult with your supervisor.

Adverse circumstances such as illness may temporarily prevent you from working on your thesis and thus provide grounds for extending your submission deadline. In order to do so you would need to complete an application for intermission for the relevant period via your self-service account . Such applications cannot normally be granted retrospectively, therefore you must apply for this as soon as the illness/adverse circumstances occur.

Once you have submitted your thesis, the remainder of your registration period can be used to prepare for your viva and pursue other valuable career-development activities such as writing conference papers, participating in and/ or organising workshops and conferences, producing articles and other work for publication, plus teaching and planning further or new research. 

Interim appraisal of work

An interim appraisal is required for ESRC-funded students and Gates scholars and is offered to other PhD students where possible approximately nine months after return from the field. See Interim appraisal . 

Course Resources

For additional teaching materials please see the PhD Writing Up Moodle Course .

Please note teaching staff and students enrolled on the PhD will automatically be enrolled on the PhD Writing Up Moodle course and you will find a link to the course in the ‘My Home’ section of Moodle.

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• How Long Does A PhD Take?
• Doing a PhD

Sometimes, just knowing how long a PhD takes can be enough to sway your decision on whether a research degree is for you. So with that in mind, exactly how long does a PhD take?

In the UK, a full-time PhD takes 3 to 4 years to finish whilst a part-time PhD takes twice as long at 6 to 7 years. Alongside these average durations, there are time limits on how long you can be enrolled on to a PhD programme. To discover these limits, the factors which most influence doctoral degree durations and how the UK durations compare to international PhDs, continue reading on.

How Long Does It Take to Get a Full-time PhD?

In the UK, a full-time PhD will typically take you 3 to 4 years. You will usually spend the first three years on the technical aspects of your doctorate. This includes undertaking independent research, designing your research methodology and collecting and analysing data. You will then spend an additional academic year on writing up your PhD thesis and sitting your viva.

How Long Does It Take to Get a Part-time PhD?

In the UK, a part-time PhD will typically take you 6 to 7 years; twice as long as doing a full-time PhD. The reason for this is that as a part-time PhD student, you would dedicate around 20 hours per week to your PhD as opposed to the typical 40 hours full-time students would put into their subject.

How Long Does a Distance Learning PhD Take?

Similarly, distance learning PhD’s take an average of 6 to 7 years to complete. This is because the vast majority of students who undertake a distance learning PhD do so because they can’t relocate closer to the university. Although these commitments will differ, they often mean the student isn’t able to dedicate 40 hours per week to their studies.

Students in STEM disciplines will often take longer to finish a distance learning doctorate degree than those in non-STEM disciplines. This because the progress of a STEM PhD student will be limited by how often they can access a laboratory for experiment work.

How Does Funding Impact a PhD’s Duration?

In reality, the actual time it will take you to complete your PhD degree will depend on your funding situation.

If you’re receiving  funding , it will usually only cover you for 3.5 years if you’re studying full-time or for 7 years at half the stipend if you’re studying part-time. Although this could vary slightly, most PhD funding providers, e.g. Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), follow this timescale as indicated on their ‘ length of PhD studentships’ page. Because of this, most students who obtain scholarships try to complete their PhD within the timeframe of their funding so they don’t incur additional fees which they need to cover themselves.

It’s also worth noting that some funded PhD positions have additional conditions attached to them as part of their eligibility requirements. For example, they may require teaching undergraduate students, hosting laboratory sessions or attend presentations and conferences. This will be especially true if you’re on a Graduate Teaching Assistantship (GTA). Although these shouldn’t add considerable time to the length of a PhD programme, they have the potential to do so if they aren’t managed properly.

As self-funded students cover their own annual tuition fees and other associated costs, how long they’ll spend to complete their PhD project will largely depend on their own personal financial situation. Because of this, most self-funded PhD students find it best to complete their PhD study in the shortest time-frame they can manage.

Are There Deadlines?

Yes – unfortunately, all good things must come to an end! Within the UK, the deadline for your PhD is defined as the last date which you must submit your final thesis by. This date is set by your university’s overall regulations and varies depending on the arrangements of your PhD, e.g. whether it’s full or part time. In the vast majority of cases, the adopted deadlines are four years for full-time PhDs and seven years for part-time PhDs from the date you were officially registered onto your programme, as shown below from the University of Leicester’s registration guidance page .

This time-frame may vary from university to university. For example, the University of Sheffield adopts an additional year for part-time PhDs as shown below.

Can I Complete It Faster?

Although it’s possible to complete a full-time PhD in under 3 years, it’s a significant feat that’s rarely heard of. When these feats occur, they’re usually where the doctoral student already has extensive knowledge and experience in their field before undertaking their PhD.

Whilst it’s possible to complete a part-time PhD in under 6 years, it largely depends on your commitments outside your studies. For example, if you have a part-time career alongside your PhD, it’s unlikely that you’ll be able to commit the additional hours required to complete your doctorate a year faster.

However, if instead of a steady part-time job you take on occasional work as a freelancer, you’ll be able to set aside many more hours towards your doctoral degree.

Will Having only A Bachelor’s Degree or Being an International Student Limit My Rate of Progression?

Not at all. While there are benefits to having a Master’s degree such as an additional year of learning and greater research experience due to your fourth-year dissertation project, this doesn’t mean not having one would limit you. A PhD is very different to both Bachelor and Master degrees due to being heavily research-based, therefore, both types of students will have just as much to learn on their way to completing their doctorate.

Similarly, whether you’re an international student will bear no influence on the duration of your PhD.

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

How Does This Compare to the Duration of EU and US PhDs?

PhD hosted by universities within the EU, such as those in France, Norway and Spain, have the same programme structure as those within the UK. As a result, there are no noticeable differences in the time to complete a doctorate between UK and EU institutions.

However, this is not the case in the US. Compared to PhDs conducted within the UK or EU, PhDs conducted within the US take considerably longer to obtain. According to a  2017 study conducted by the National Science Foundation, a US government agency which supports research and higher education, the average time to get a PhD within the US is 5.8 years. Besides this, the average completion time can further increase depending on the disciplines. For example, they found doctorates within the humanities and arts to take an average of 7.1 years to achieve.

The primary reason for this difference is the way PhD degrees are structured within the United States. As mentioned previously, PhDs conducted within UK and EU universities are essentially broken into two sections – one covering the analytical aspects and the other covering the writing up aspects. However, within the US, doctorate programmes comprise additional sections. PhD students are first required to undertake 2 to 3 years of courses, which cover a broad range of topics related to their schools’ discipline. This is then followed by coursework and several examinations, which only once passed can the PhD candidate then start working on their research project and dissertation.

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Writing up and submitting your research

You can find up-to-date guidance on submitting your thesis on the Doctoral Academy website:

• Thesis submission

The guidance includes information on:

• plagiarism and referencing
• how to format and present your thesis
• using a journal format for your thesis
• electronic submission
• submission deadlines, including submission pending
• thesis binding
• the viva/oral exam
• getting your result.

Presentation of thesis

The University has a specific format required for PGR theses. You will find this detailed in the Presentation of Theses Policy .

If you have queries about presentation, you can ask staff in the Doctoral Academy , or ask them to have a look at a draft document.

Traditional and journal thesis formats

You may hear your supervisors or other PGRS talk about the different types of thesis format that are accepted for examination at Manchester.

These are currently defined as 'standard' and 'journal' format, although you shouldn't get too concerned about the terminology used. One format is not inherently better or more widely regarded than the other.

The standard thesis will have an introduction, literature review, materials and methods, results and discussion and conclusion, references and appendices.

The journal format thesis comprises chapters that have been written in the form of journal papers.

These may be papers that have been submitted to a journal, already accepted and published or chapters that are written as journal papers but are not yet or even are not intended to be submitted.

The advantage of this format is that it gives you the experience of writing in journal paper format. This format is increasingly popular in some disciplines, and yet may not be appropriate for all projects. Your supervisory team is the best place to start discussing your thoughts on this.

There is no requirement to request permission to submit in journal format. However, it is important that you discuss the relative merits of this format with your supervisory team, and ensure that you pick the right format for you and your project. Further guidance is available in Journal Format Theses - Guiding Principles for Students and Staff (PDF).

Submission pending

• Three-year PhD, MD and part-time - 12 months
• MPhil and 3.5-year PhD - 6 months

If you are a PGR on one of the programmes above and you do not submit by the end of programme, you may be able to register for the submission pending period.

You will need to have completed all your research (such as data collection and experiments) and should have a draft of the thesis completed (usually 80% of chapters in a reasonable draft form).

Your Student Support Administrator will provide details on registering for submission pending and paying the fee (£225 in the 2023/24 academic year).

You should be aware that during this writing up period, you are not considered to be a full-time PGR at the University.

You will still have access to facilities and your supervisory team will continue to support you towards submission of the thesis and preparation for the oral examination (as appropriate).

Once you enter submission pending, you may be returning to full-time work or be involved in a number of external activities that will reduce the amount of time that you have to spend on writing your thesis.

Please note that due to HMRC requirements, the University cannot make stipend payments to a PGR during the submission pending period.

Submission deadlines

It is important for your career development that you submit your thesis within the period of your programme as set out in your initial offer letter.

If you are eligible to use the submission pending period, remember that it will be increasingly difficult to find time to dedicate to completing your thesis once you are in full-time work.

Your final submission deadline will be stated on your original offer letter. If you are granted any periods of interruption or an extension to your programme, you will be notified of any change in your final submission deadline in the letter confirming this change to programme.

You will also see your submissions deadline displayed in eProg ('Thesis Submission Deadline' on the 'My Profile' page).

Extensions to final submission deadlines

Extensions to your final submission deadline will only be considered in exceptional circumstances and where permission is sought at least two months prior to the final submission deadline. Visit the Forms page on the Doctoral Academy website for the relevant forms to complete.

You will need to provide clear, documented evidence as to how your mitigating circumstances have impacted your ability to meet the deadline. Examples of appropriate exceptional circumstances can be found within the policy on circumstances leading to changes to postgraduate research study .

It is expected that your mitigating circumstances will have occurred within the submission pending period, or the last 12 months of a four-year programme.

Should your request for an extension to the final submission deadline be rejected, you will have the right of appeal.

Please note that even if you submit an appeal, you should still submit your thesis for examination by the final submission deadline.

Oral examination/viva

An integral part of the PhD/MD process is the oral examination (viva). This will take place at Manchester with your internal and external examiner.

The Academic and Researcher Development Team provide courses on preparing for this examination, and you will also receive guidance from your supervisory team on what to expect.

MPhil PGRs may have to undertake an oral examination, and this will be determined by the examiners following initial review of the thesis.

You may find it useful to refer to the full University policies on PGR examination .

Examiner recommendations

• A (i) no corrections
• A (ii) subject to minor corrections (four weeks to complete, exceptionally up to 12 weeks can be granted for completion of minor corrections)
• B (i) permitting submission of a revised thesis without further research and without further oral examination (six months to complete)
• B (ii) permitting submission of a revised thesis without further research but with a further oral examination (six months to complete, exceptionally up to 12 months)
• B (iii) permitting submission of a revised thesis with further research and with a further oral examination (12 months to complete)
• C (i) but award the degree of MPhil
• C (ii) award the degree of MPhil subject to minor corrections (four weeks to complete, exceptionally up to 12 weeks)
• C (iii) advising that the thesis be submitted, after revision, for examination for the degree of Master (six months to complete)
• C (iv) not permitting resubmission
• Your programme

Writing up your PhD – Struggles of a 4th year

Every PhD student practically dreams of and simultaneously dreads writing up their PhD.

Speak to any 4 th year student (and for those who think 4 th year is an extension, it is not; it is very much a part of your timeline, and rightfully so!), you will receive a classic nod in response to “ Hey! How’s it going?” . I was one of the privileged few to have completed my data collection before the start of my 4 th year (or writing up year, as it is colloquially called). Hence, there is an obvious expectation to feel more at ease because the end is nigh!

And, yes that is true, there is a light at the end of the tunnel! However, one cannot ignore that the process of writing up your PhD is an excruciatingly long one. On the bright side, I would say it does give you the “feels” of authoring a book, with your million notes, and a gazillion post-its and (metaphorically) tearing your hair apart. But the proverb ‘It’s a marathon, not a sprint’ definitely makes sense in this year more than ever. Another positive is that you are finally in control of your own timeline and you actually start believing these delusions that everything will happen according to plan. Unfortunately ‘delusions of a PhD student trying to finish up their thesis’ has not been officially categorised in the DSM-5 as a mental health disorder just yet…

But talking about my writing journey, a couple of chapters in (sort of), it feels achievable yet not so much. It definitely is a ritualistic one! Write… delete… write again… scream internally… and… delete again… rinse… repeat! Hence, I would say the save button (Ctrl + S) will become your best friend!

DON’T and I repeat… DON’T FORGET TO SAVE YOUR DRAFTS! No amount of pulling your hair apart or chewing your nails would be able to undo that!

While writing up is the most daunting part of your PhD, it is definitely the most rewarding one. All the years of conceptualising, hustling, collecting data, analysing comes to life, when you see your thesis unfold in front of you. That being said, it could get monotonous and drab as well, especially on days you suffer from writer’s block. Please note: I am simply using the phrase writer’s block as a self aggrandising expression.

Anyway, talking about writer’s block, it is best to just give in to the days where your academically creative juices are not flowing. It is absolutely natural to have days like these where you are not able to focus or the words are not pouring themselves on the page. For days like these, I usually rely on hobbies outside of work, seek out support from peers, or write blogs like these! #ShoutoutToResearchBow!

Your mind needs to be free of all anxieties and worries and considering you’re nearing the end of your PhD, the trouble of job hunting starts and then everything spirals into a ball of mess and emotions. Naturally, writing takes a hit!

Secondly, (didn’t realise there would be a secondly here) don’t underestimate the process of thinking while writing your PhD. You know the classic iceberg image you see in motivational videos and HR presentations, the actual writing is just the tip of the iceberg and thinking is everything under that. I am still trying to wrap my brain around that so I will probably let you know once I have overcome those anxieties.

That being said, I do enjoy writing my PhD, more than data collection for sure, and I hope you do too.

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Planning your PhD research: A 3-year PhD timeline example

Planning out a PhD trajectory can be overwhelming. Example PhD timelines can make the task easier and inspire. The following PhD timeline example describes the process and milestones of completing a PhD within 3 years.

Elements to include in a 3-year PhD timeline

The example scenario: completing a phd in 3 years, example: planning year 1 of a 3-year phd, example: planning year 2 of a 3-year phd, example: planning year 3 of a 3-year phd, example of a 3 year phd gantt chart timeline, final reflection.

Every successful PhD project begins with a proper plan. Even if there is a high chance that not everything will work out as planned. Having a well-established timeline will keep your work on track.

What to include in a 3-year PhD timeline depends on the unique characteristics of a PhD project, specific university requirements, agreements with the supervisor/s and the PhD student’s career ambitions.

For instance, some PhD students write a monograph while others complete a PhD based on several journal publications. Both monographs and cumulative dissertations have advantages and disadvantages , and not all universities allow both formats. The thesis type influences the PhD timeline.

Furthermore, PhD students ideally engage in several different activities throughout a PhD trajectory, which link to their career objectives. Regardless of whether they want to pursue a career within or outside of academia. PhD students should create an all-round profile to increase their future chances in the labour market. Think, for example, of activities such as organising a seminar, engaging in public outreach or showcasing leadership in a small grant application.

The most common elements included in a 3-year PhD timeline are the following:

• Data collection (fieldwork, experiments, etc.)
• Data analysis
• Writing of different chapters, or a plan for journal publication
• Conferences
• Additional activities

The whole process is described in more detail in my post on how to develop an awesome PhD timeline step-by-step .

Many (starting) PhD students look for examples of how to plan a PhD in 3 years. Therefore, let’s look at an example scenario of a fictional PhD student. Let’s call her Maria.

Maria is doing a PhD in Social Sciences at a university where it is customary to write a cumulative dissertation, meaning a PhD thesis based on journal publications. Maria’s university regulations require her to write four articles as part of her PhD. In order to graduate, one article has to be published in an international peer-reviewed journal. The other three have to be submitted.

Furthermore, Maria’s cumulative dissertation needs an introduction and conclusion chapter which frame the four individual journal articles, which form the thesis chapters.

In order to complete her PhD programme, Maria also needs to complete coursework and earn 15 credits, or ECTS in her case.

Maria likes the idea of doing a postdoc after her graduation. However, she is aware that the academic job market is tough and therefore wants to keep her options open. She could, for instance, imagine to work for a community or non-profit organisation. Therefore, she wants to place emphasis on collaborating with a community organisation during her PhD.

You may also like: Creating awesome Gantt charts for your PhD timeline

Most PhD students start their first year with a rough idea, but not a well-worked out plan and timeline. Therefore, they usually begin with working on a more elaborate research proposal in the first months of their PhD. This is also the case for our example PhD student Maria.

• Months 1-4: Maria works on a detailed research proposal, defines her research methodology and breaks down her thesis into concrete tasks.
• Month 5 : Maria follows a short intensive course in academic writing to improve her writing skills.
• Months 5-10: Maria works on her first journal paper, which is based on an extensive literature review of her research topic. At the end of Month 10, she submits the manuscript. At the same time, she follows a course connected to her research topic.
• Months 11-12: Maria does her data collection.

Maria completed her first round of data collection according to plan, and starts the second year of her PhD with a lot of material. In her second year, she will focus on turning this data into two journal articles.

• Months 1-2: Maria works on her data analysis.
• Months 3-7: Maria works on her second journal paper.
• Month 7: Maria attends her first conference, and presents the results of her literature-review paper.
• Month 8: Maria received ‘major revisions’ on her first manuscript submission, and implements the changes in Month 8 before resubmitting her first journal paper for publication.
• Month 9: Maria follows a course on research valorisation to learn strategies to increase the societal impact of her thesis.
• Months 9-12: Maria works on her third journal paper. She uses the same data that she collected for the previous paper, which is why she is able to complete the third manuscript a bit faster than the previous one.

Time flies, and Maria finds herself in the last year of her PhD. There is still a lot of work to be done, but she sticks to the plan and does her best to complete her PhD.

• Month 1: Maria starts a second round of data collection, this time in collaboration with a community organisation. Together, they develop and host several focus groups with Maria’s target audience.
• Month 2: Maria starts to analyse the material of the focus group and develops the argumentation for her fourth journal paper.
• Month 3: Maria presents the results of her second journal paper at an international conference. Furthermore, she helps out her supervisor with a grant application. They apply for funding to run a small project that is thematically connected to her PhD.
• Months 4-9: Maria writes her fourth and final journal article that is required for her PhD.
• Month 10: Maria writes her thesis introduction .
• Month 11: Maria works on her thesis conclusion.
• Month 12 : Maria works on the final edits and proof-reading of her thesis before submitting it.

Combining the 3-year planning for our example PhD student Maria, it results in the following PhD timeline:

Creating these PhD timelines, also called Gantt charts, is easy. You can find instructions and templates here.

Completing a PhD in 3 years is not an easy task. The example of our fictional PhD student Maria shows how packed her timeline is, and how little time there is for things to go wrong.

In fact, in real life, many PhD students spend four years full-time to complete a PhD based on four papers, instead of three. Some extend their studies even longer.

Furthermore, plan in some time for thesis editing, which is a legitimate practice and can bring your writing to the next level. Finding a reputable thesis editor can be challenging, so make sure you make an informed choice.

Finishing a PhD in 3 years is not impossible, but it surely is not easy. So be kind to yourself if things don’t work out entirely as planned, and make use of all the help you can get.

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• Typical timetable for full-time PhD student (3 ...

Typical timetable for full-time PhD student (3 Year)

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How I write papers

There is plenty of advice out there on how to write academic publications, from general stylistic tips to field-specific guides. Yet, I’ve found most of that advice tends to be abstract, or focused on the final product, never giving you a step-by-step account of the process. In this post, I share the writing process I find myself using after 70+ academic publications. This will give you an idea of where to start writing your paper (especially if you have never written one), and it will show you that all polished papers have humble (even crappy) origins. Kill perfectionism, and the dreaded “academic writer’s block” will eventually disappear.

In a previous post , I went over several reasons why I think scientific writing is difficult for many doctoral students: the lack of specific training, the focus on the finished product (vs. how to get there), the fact that it is a collaborative process, or that many of us don’t use our mother tongue when we write. As a way to counter many of those, I thought it could be useful to share what my own writing process is 1 , which I have come to after more than 10 years of trying (and quite a few “loaves of bread sold” 2 ). This process assumes that you are collaborating with others, in that it defines when and what to send to co-authors and other collaborators. This is also the process that we recommend in the “writing seminar” I have helped teach at our university.

This may result in a post longer than usual, so… For those of you that want to get to the point right away and run off:

My paper writing process

For those of us that need a bit more explanation, read on below. I will try to illustrate each step with an example from a recent paper I co-authored (still under review) 3 . You will see how different the finished product is, compared with its humble origins:

Step 1. Define the main idea

Once you decide you want to write a paper, start with a blank piece of paper (e.g., a post-it), or a new document in your computer. Do not start from the full report of your study 4 , or other random pieces of text you may have written during your research about the topic. Blank paper. OK, now, just try to answer in one sentence : What is the paper about? What is the main research contribution 5 you are trying to make here? or, in other words, what is the “reusable knowledge” that you think other researchers need to know, and could build upon? Write that one sentence down. That’s it 6

• Diving into my archives I found the earliest “main idea” I had about this recently-published paper of mine: “Active or passive [data] gathering? Design-based research studies on technological support for evidence-based teacher reflection” . As you can see, this initial idea had quite a few problems (for starters, it was two sentences, not one! plus, what is the new knowledge I wanted to convey is not very clear either). It looks nothing like the final title of the paper. However, it tried to convey that it was about certain studies we had done, and that active/passive data gathering seemed to play an important role in what we discovered. That will have to do for now. Let’s move on.

Step 2. Define the audience

This one is probably the first point where my advice may deviate from other advice out there. Scientific writing (or any writing, really) is basically an act of communication. And, by definition, it requires a sender (you), a message (see point #1), and a receiver . You have to have one. Pitching a contribution to the wrong audience is one of the most common causes of rejection for scientific papers, so… don’t make this mistake. Define who will be interested in the main idea of the paper, who cares about this kind of thing you’re proposing. If it’s your first paper, you may not be sure, and that’s OK. But there are things you can do to find out, like a) asking your advisor or more experienced colleagues; b) looking at similar papers you have read: which conferences or journals are they published in? Narrow it down to 1-3 concrete options of journals/conferences. Write them down. Look at the venue’s author and submission guidelines. The good thing about setting this from the outset is that now you have already indications of the expected length of the piece, its tone, level of specificity, things the readers probably know already, etc.

• I initially set my paper to be sent to the British Journal of Educational Technology (BJET). The main reasons for this decision were that it was a journal in the field of educational technology, and a really inter-disciplinary one (our paper was neither very technical nor very educational), that it is quite high-quality and high-impact, and that they make a point of publishing research that also has relevance for teachers (which I think our paper idea had) 7 .

Step 3: Define the team

Once you know what you write about and for whom, you can decide who can help you in doing it. In most fields, you do not do your research alone, but collaborating with others (but in some fields it may be required that you write some papers alone – check with your advisors). This additional team members can be your advisor(s), some colleague who helped you with the data gathering or data analysis 8 … but think wider. Is there somebody else you know (in your department, or elsewhere) who knows a lot about the literature on topic X that your paper addresses? or data analysis technique Y? That could save you some time, and this person could bring in new, interesting ideas to the paper.

Then, send your idea and target venue to potential co-authors : this can be a short email, a chat over coffee… The main point is to pitch them the idea, see what they think and whether they are interested. In this process, it is good that you set expectations about what their role will be, how much time you think this will take them, what can be the expected author order, etc. All of those can change during the writing process (depending on how the different people behave), but it is good to have some baseline expectation. From this conversation, you can already get some valuable information to help you refine the core idea (maybe they think this is not about keyword X, but rather keyword Y, or they suggest some other venue for publication, or analyses that you had not run yet).

• In my paper’s case, I simply told my boss back then, that I was thinking of writing this paper for this venue (he agreed). I also contacted the professional development specialist who had helped co-design the tool we were proposing, and helped manage the data gathering in the school. Later on during the process, I also contacted one of my PhD students, since her topic was closely related to that of the paper – and she was doing a lot of reading on some of the related literature we needed to cover anyway.

Step 4: Write a pseudo-abstract

Now that you have an idea of something scientific to write about, some scholars you want to tell it to, and some people we want to write it with, let’s flesh out the idea a little bit more. Not a lot. Just a little bit. I call this step “pseudo-abstract”, because it more or less has all the elements that a good abstract should have… only it is not really an abstract (i.e., one paragraph of nice text) yet. It is basically a series of bullet points with simple, clear messages, in three parts 9 : a) what is known about the topic of the paper (1-3 bullets); b) what this paper adds to such current knowledge, i.e., what contribution(s) it brings (1-2 bullets); and c) what are the implications of this contribution for other researchers, or practitioners, policy-makers or the society at large (1-3 bullets). Keep the bullets as complete sentences, but simple ones (e.g., not more than 100 characters). You can also think about this step as the “grandmother’s version of your scientific contribution” (i.e., how you would communicate this contribution to a non-expert) – remember, most of our grandmothers are not biochemists or sociology researchers!

• Below, you can see a pseudo-abstract for the same paper, which I did some months later than the original “main idea”. You can see that the title there has already changed (but still looks pretty generic), and some more ideas have been added, especially regarding what is known about the topic (i.e., what would be the main take-away message from the literature about the relevant keywords, like “teacher reflection”), and what are the implications (in this case, how a teacher or a school leader could use the tools/ideas we present in the paper).

Example pseudo-abstract from a real paper

Step 5: Create a weighted outline

Now that you have fleshed out the basic idea, let’s start thinking about how we are going to write it. A first step in this is to do an outline of the sections of the paper, as you would find it in a table of contents of a book: sections, subsections, sub-subsections… And, since we already know where we want to send it, we know how long the paper should be (in pages, or words), so we can assign estimated lengths to every section and subsection 10 . Why do this weighted outline? First, it makes us reflect about the relative importance of the different parts of the text (i.e.: more important parts –like the paper’s main contribution– should be described in more detail, and hence should be longer). Secondly, and since for many people writing is a bit painful, we do not want to write 30 pages of text on a topic, only to find out that we only needed three pages (so, we have to throw away 90% of that hard-worked text). Furthermore, downsizing text is just plain difficult: once you got used to saying things at a certain level of detail, it has some kind of “anchoring effect” that makes it very difficult to change our frame of mind (i.e., we think that all we said there is really important to be said). In a sense, making this weighted outline tries to put the anchoring on your side so that you will keep the paper close to the length you actually need.

Once you have the main idea (which can be the working title), the co-authors, the target venue, the pseudo-abstract and the weighted outline, it is a good moment to send all this to the co-authors for feedback. This should be a one-page document, so it is more likely that even busy people can give you quickly some ideas about the general direction, section titles and relevant keywords, etc. Once you get this feedback and make the necessary corrections, you can also polish this into an actual title, abstract and outline with lengths, which you can send to the editor of your target journal(s), to inquire whether they think this kind of paper fits the scope of the journal – and their opinion actually matters a lot, since they are the first filter even before your paper reaches the reviewers! Although they are not obliged to answer, they will often be nice enough to tell you (since by responding, they will get either a good paper, or less out-of-scope papers, later on).

• You can take a look at the weighted outline from my example paper here , which I wrote still aiming at the BJET journal, which had a maximum length of 6,000 words. One thing you can notice is that some of the subsections end up being very short (100 words?), which should have made me think that something was not totally right (one-paragraph sections are rare!). Also, the total length was well over 80% of the hard limit (since you also have to count abstract and the other front matter in those 6,000 words). As you will see, these clues became quite important later on…

More steps… after the break

Wow, this post is getting a bit long! Since we have now reached the middle point within the process, and it was a lot to absorb, I think we can make a break here, until next week. Then, we will go into the details of the paper. As they say, the devil is always in the details but, once the groundwork of these first five steps is there, and you have already gotten feedback from your co-authors a couple of times, you can have some confidence that your shot (and the effort that each step takes) cannot go too far off the mark.

In the meantime, why don’t you give these five steps a try? Do you have an idea for a paper about some research you did, but you don’t know where to start? Try this and let me know how it went, in the comments below!

The emphasis on “my own” is important. Writing is still mostly an art (yes, even scientific writing), a very complex skill that requires many smaller skills and abilities, which not all of us can tap in the same way. As they say, “your mileage may vary”. Even I don’t always follow this process every single time (e.g., if I’m pressed for time, I might jump a step here and there). This process is just what most of my writing processes resemble, especially if I have some kind of control about the paper (e.g., if I am the first author). ↩︎

If you don’t get the reference, go read the previous post . It has cute baker drawings! ↩︎

Prieto, L. P., Magnuson, P., Dillenbourg, P., & Saar, M. (2017). Reflection for action: Designing tools to support teacher reflection on everyday evidence. Preprint Available at https://osf.io/bj2rp . ↩︎

See a later post for why you should have a full, detailed research report vs. writing up your papers directly from the research. Suffice to say that the report is where you describe your full process and results, which are of interest to you and your team. A paper is a wholly different thing, and the audience is normally interested in a small subset of that only. ↩︎

The topic of what constitutes a valid research contribution is a complex and thorny one, since it varies a lot depending on your research field. In general, it seems that most fields require that a contribution is a piece of reusable knowledge (i.e., you can convey it to others and they can reproduce it and build upon it), which is relevant to a certain scientific community (e.g., astrophysicists, engineers, linguists, whatever your field is), which is novel (i.e., new and non-obvious), and has some kind of usefulness (but this one varies a lot from applied to more basic/theoretical fields). Furthermore, you have to provide some evidence that all of the above is true (be it with mathematical proofs, data from empirical studies, or whatever method your field considers valid). In the end, the goal of the paper and its different parts is basically to prove your point on all these regards! ↩︎

Pro tip: instead of writing the one idea in a piece of paper, try writing three different main ideas in three post-its, and then choose the best one (or pitch them to a colleague). You can even go further and try what in design circles is called “crazy 8s” (i.e., eight different ideas for the main contribution, in 8 minutes). Try to make each idea meaningful, different from the previous ones, but don’t worry if they end up being crap. That is the whole point of the exercise. For empirical proof that this seems to help both the quality of the outputs and your own feeling of self-efficacy, see, for example, Dow, S. P., Glassco, A., Kass, J., Schwarz, M., Schwartz, D. L., & Klemmer, S. R. (2010). Parallel prototyping leads to better design results, more divergence, and increased self-efficacy. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI) , 17 (4), 18. ↩︎

Interestingly, this is not the journal where we have the paper now under review. In case you’re curious, the main reason for the eventual change was that our draft ended up being much longer than what the journal allowed. This was in part due to my lack of discipline when writing, and the fact that we chose to tell our contribution in a way that could not really be made much shorter. Even when we changed our target journal to another one more adequate to the manuscript length, but with similar characteristics to BJET, our paper was rejected (i.e., the reviewers did not appreciate the contribution enough). Thus, we had to improve the paper based on some of the reviewer feedback and find yet another journal to submit it to – where it is now under review. In retrospect, I’d say that this last journal was probably the best choice anyway (it’s just that we did not even know about this journal at the outset when the paper started). This is worth taking into account: no plan survives contact with reality – but that doesn’t mean you shouldn’t have one. ↩︎

Who should count as co-author in your papers? This is another topic for an entire post, but for now: anybody that made substantial contributions to the design, data gathering, analysis or interpretation of the evidence; AND helps you drafting or revising the paper; AND checks out the final version for publishing; AND agrees to be responsible for its contents. You can check out things like the Vancouver Convention , or this very complete site from the Norwegian Research Ethics Committee . ↩︎

This kind of structure is used in many journals, under the name “highlights” or “practitioner notes”. Basically, they are aimed at summarizing the paper in a nutshell, in relatively simple language, so that other scientists and people that are not necessarily experts in your field, can understand them… which is precisely what we want to do at this point! ↩︎

Pro tip: journals and conferences normally offer a hard maximum length limit… don’t target that number! make it about 80% of the length limit, or even less if you think the contribution should be shorter. You will probably go over your target length anyways during the writing of actual text – and shortening text is both painful and difficult. ↩︎

• Communication

Luis P. Prieto

Luis P. is a Ramón y Cajal research fellow at the University of Valladolid (Spain), investigating learning technologies, especially learning analytics. He is also an avid learner about doctoral education and supervision, and he's the main author at the A Happy PhD blog.

Google Scholar profile

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