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Crisis Management

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Crisis management, global challenges, and sustainable development from an Asian perspective

• Published: 30 May 2020
• Volume 19 , pages 271–276, ( 2020 )

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• Yipeng Liu 1 , 2 &
• Fabian Jintae Froese 3  

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Research on crisis management has accumulated a vast body of knowledge that has assisted us with comprehending complex business and management phenomena. Yet, the existing studies have not paid sufficient attention to global challenges and sustainable development. We join the current conversation being conducted from the global challenges perspective of crisis management by suggesting that investigating global challenges and sustainable development can advance our collective understanding of crisis management in important ways. This article has three general objectives. First, we show that crisis management has been a long-standing issue in business and management research and provide an overview of the puzzles that informed and motivated this focussed issue. Second, we highlight the key insights and contributions made by the papers included in this focussed issue by reviewing their theoretical underpinnings, methodological approaches, and findings. Finally, we invite scholars to join the debate in order to move this important crisis management research agenda forward by tackling global challenges with the goal of achieving sustainable development.

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Crisis management from a multi-level and multidisciplinary perspective

The 2020 COVID-19 global health crisis, the 2008 global financial crisis, the 1997 Asian financial crisis, and the list could go on. Nothing seems to be certain but death and crises. Accordingly, crisis management has been a long-standing issue in business management and organisational studies (Bundy et al. 2017 ). Over the past three decades, the three crises mentioned above have had major impacts on economic development and business evolution in Asia. The 1997 Asian financial crisis affected a wide region in East Asia and Southeast Asia and subsequently triggered fears of a worldwide economic meltdown. The 2008 financial crisis originating in Wall Street had a substantial and detrimental impact on the global economy, including Asian countries. In 2020, the unfolding of the COVID-19 global health crisis has been significantly reshaping business and management practices in Asian countries and beyond. Thus, understanding, managing, and intervening crisis is a critical challenge for all stakeholders involved. In order to capture the nuances of crisis management and organisational response, it can be useful to view crisis management from a multi-level and multidisciplinary perspective, including the individual, organisational, and institutional levels.

At the individual level, personal traits and emotional reactions can determine the extent of a crisis’ effects. CEO empathy may help employees in making sense and finding meaning when faced by a crisis (König et al. 2020 ). The individual strategies adopted in coping with crises can be significantly influenced by cultural characteristics (Liu 2020 ), for instance, the influence of Confucianism prevailing in many Asian countries (Froese 2013 ; Xing et al. 2020 ). At the organisational level, organisational resources and capabilities can substantially determine whether organisations can survive dealing with a major crisis. Organisational learning and capability building are essential for organisations to learn, reflect upon, and accumulate lessons and experiences useful to handle the next crisis (Rerup 2009 ). In light of economic growth, rapid development, and previous crisis experience in Asian countries, organisational capabilities and crisis-handling abilities have been tediously honed and have remarkably improved over time. Asian countries have dealt with the COVID-19 global health crisis dramatically better than many of their Western counterparts, largely due to the experience accumulated during the 2003 SARS outbreak (Liu et al. 2020 ). At the institutional level, the varieties of Asian capitalism (Witt and Redding 2013 ) and institutional development can help the institutional infrastructure to be more resilient in absorbing any unprecedented but forthcoming crisis. Increasingly, cultivating appropriate crisis-coping strategies and building resilience is essential for individuals, organisations, and society to thrive in an age of uncertainties (Liu et al. 2019 ). Specifically, the juxtaposition of resilience research with crisis management (Williams et al. 2017 ) may offer revealing insights suited to solidify and improve business and management practices in Asian countries and beyond.

Global challenges and sustainable development

In today’s uncertain world, global challenges are becoming ever more complex and sophisticated, and necessitate a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach. We believe that management research can and should make useful contributions to understanding and tackling global grand challenges (George et al. 2016 ) by addressing important questions (Tihanyi 2020 ). The United Nations envisaged 17 Sustainable Development Goals aimed at facilitating the achievement of sustainable development for mankind. For example, addressing sustainability challenges requires a collaborative approach in leveraging the power of entrepreneurship (Sarasvathy and Ramesh 2019 ). In the domain of international business, scholars urgently call for research to tackle ‘big questions’ and address ‘grand challenges’ in global business (Buckley et al. 2017 ). In a similar vein, we urge scholars in Asian contexts to step up and address the pressing global challenges faced by individuals, organisations, and society with good potential and value propositions suited to contribute novel insights in regard to both business practice and theoretical development.

A wide range of global challenges and associated research topics can be addressed in Asian contexts. Entrepreneurship and innovation activities are proactive and dynamic in Asia. The fast changing entrepreneurship landscape found in China and India continues to shape contemporary business and management practices and the future of both Asia and the world (Khanna 2008 ; Wu and Si 2018 ). Not only commercial entrepreneurship, but also hybrid entrepreneurship—including social, environmental, and institutional entrepreneurship—are taking place in Asian contexts in shaping the organisations and societies in which we live. Researching important challenges in Asian contexts may help to reveal novel business and management practices: for example, the reasons that, against expectations, caused Western internet digital giants to fail in the Chinese markets (Li 2019 ), and the implications for innovation management for foreign companies operating in Asian contexts (Froese et al. 2019 ). As for the promotion and development of a greener economy, Asian countries, such as China, tend to deliver substance, rather than symbolic gestures, in reporting and implementing CSR initiatives (Marquis and Qian 2014 ). Furthermore, achieving sustainable development requires collaboration and partnerships that cross disciplinary boundaries. The importance of and interest elicited by Asian contexts notwithstanding, we believe that synergy can be generated and should be captured when scholars actively draw connections between Western and Eastern perspectives in management research (Filatotchev et al. 2020 ; Xing and Liu 2015 ) and theory development (Rhee 2010 ) for crisis management in particular, and for management and organisation theories in general.

A brief introduction to the papers in this focussed issue

In this section, we will introduce the six papers in this focussed issue, which zoom in on different aspects of crisis management. We discuss the papers’ theoretical underpinnings, methodological approaches, findings, and overall contributions to the study of crisis management, global challenges, and sustainable development. While the first four papers deal with the COVID-19 crisis, the remaining two centre on corporate crises in different contexts.

In the first paper, Liu et al. ( 2020 ) examine the business and economic implications of COVID-19 from an Asian perspective, focussing on the cases of China, South Korea, and Singapore. The authors take a novel approach by drawing from the theoretical underpinnings of entrepreneurship, agility, and resilience, which enables them to link the global health crisis to business and government responses. The novelty of the paper lies in the fact that it shows the impact COVID-19 is having on economies and businesses, the support provided by governments to businesses and societies, and the implications for global supply chain disruptions.

Following this seminal paper, three others delve deeper into the various business implications of COVID-19, covering human resource management, corporate governance, and supply chain management in different Asian contexts. Haak-Saheem ( 2020 ) discusses the consequences for talent management of the COVID-19 crisis by drawing from the case of Dubai, as the country’s workforce is heavily reliant on expatriates. Yoshikawa and Chua ( 2020 ) explore the growing momentum of shareholder activism in Japan and articulate its relationship with the COVID-19 global health crisis, as well as the direction it could take post-COVID-19. Gao and Ren ( 2020 ) discuss the challenges to and opportunities for global value chains and the extent to which the current dependency on Asian countries may be reshaped in light of COVID-19 from the Australian and New Zealand perspectives.

In the fifth paper, Yang and Rhee ( 2020 ) show how public reactions to corporate bad deeds can influence CSR disclosure speed. By using a sample of 1023 boycott events targeting 93 firms in Korea between 2006 and 2016, the study contributes to the CSR literature by identifying the positive correlation between boycotts and CSR disclosure speed. Furthermore, the study shows that such correlation is moderated by business environment, suggesting that CSR disclosure is a risk-reduction mechanism against boycotts. Thus, the study highlights important contingencies and boundary conditions in examining CSR disclosure speed specifically, and the role played by sustainable development in crisis management in general.

In the sixth article, Lee and Zhong ( 2020 ) examine the way firms respond when their alliance partners misbehave. This study contributes to the broader crisis management literature by identifying the nuanced correlations that exist between responses to alliance partners’ misbehaviours and firm performance as a function of the type of response strategy adopted. The paper’s empirical setting includes Chinese equity-based alliances from 2001 to 2013, with a total sample of 457 instances of misbehaviour. The results show that identity accommodation is associated with higher firm performance, while event defence is associated with lower firm performance. An important contribution made by the paper is in showing that the event-based view of alliance dynamics sheds new light on the ways in which firms manage uncertainty from partners and their effectiveness.

Collectively, these six papers effectively illustrate the wide scope of the topics of crisis management, global challenges, and sustainable development by including the COVID-19 global health crisis, talent management, shareholder activism, global value chain (in)dependence, CSR disclosure, and responses to alliance partners’ misbehaviours. In conclusion, understanding the multifaceted aspects of crisis management through the global challenge and sustainable development perspectives can help us better understand and predict the antecedents, outcomes, and contingencies related to crisis management at multiple levels. We invite other scholars to join the debate to move forward this important and interesting research agenda.

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Liu, Y., Froese, F.J. Crisis management, global challenges, and sustainable development from an Asian perspective. Asian Bus Manage 19 , 271–276 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41291-020-00124-0

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Published : 30 May 2020

Issue Date : July 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41291-020-00124-0

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Crisis management research (1985–2020) in the hospitality and tourism industry: A review and research agenda

Associated data.

The global tourism industry has already suffered an enormous loss due to COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019) in 2020. Crisis management, including disaster management and risk management, has been becoming a hot topic for organisations in the hospitality and tourism industry. This study aims to investigate relevant research domains in the hospitality and tourism industry context. To understand how crisis management practices have been adopted in the industry, the authors reviewed 512 articles including 79 papers on COVID-19, spanning 36 years, between 1985 and 2020. The findings showed that the research focus of crisis management, crisis impact and recovery, as well as risk management, risk perception and disaster management dominated mainstream crisis management research. Look back the past decade (2010 to present), health-related crisis (including COVID-19), social media, political disturbances and terrorism themes are the biggest trends. This paper proposed a new conceptual framework for future research agenda of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. Besides, ten possible further research areas were also suggested in a TCM (theory-context-method) model: the theories of crisis prevention and preparedness, risk communication, crisis management education and training, risk assessment, and crisis events in the contexts of COVID-19, data privacy in hospitality and tourism, political-related crisis events, digital media, and alternative analytical methods and approaches. In addition, specific research questions in these future research areas were also presented in this paper.

1. Introduction

A crisis is defined as ‘an unpredictable event that threatens important expectancies of stakeholders related to health, safety, environmental, and economic issues, which can seriously impact an organisation's performance and generate negative comments' ( Coombs, 2019 , p. 3). Today's hospitality and tourism industry is sensitive to various external and internal challenges and crises ( Fink, 1986 ; Henderson, 2003 ; Laws et al., 2005 ; McKercher & Hui, 2004 ). According to McKercher and Hui (2004 , p.101), crises ‘disrupt the tourism and hospitality industry on a regular basis’. The reduction of tourist arrivals and expenditures due to the crises hits the industry and its related stakeholders; and creates vulnerability. Different service providers (consisting of those pertaining to accommodation, transportation, inbound and outbound tourism, and others) may have to suffer for a short or longer period of time before full recovery. Moreover, pressures from competitors also worsened the situations for certain organisations due to the change in comparative and competitive advantages ( Wut, 2019 ). Only a few studies in crisis management were conducted in the early years, and most of them related to crisis impacts on tourism industry ( Blake & Sinclair, 2003 ). Fortunately, a growing body of crisis management studies in the hospitality and tourism industry has emerged over the past decade.

The scope of crisis management includes crisis prevention, crisis preparedness, crisis response and crisis revision ( Hoise & Smith, 2004 ). Detecting any warning signs is an important task in crisis prevention. Crisis preparedness usually involves forming crisis management teams, formulating crisis preparedness plans and training spokespersons. Organisation response is usually under the spotlight. The mechanism by which we learn from a crisis is a central topic under crisis revision ( Crandall et al., 2014 ). Unfortunately, crisis management received insufficient attention in the hospitality and tourism research for decades ( Pforr & Hosie, 2008 ). This research stream started with natural disaster management, terrorism and disease management ( Laws et al., 2005 ). Recently, information technology has been heavily used in the business and tourism sectors ( Buhalis & Law, 2008 ; Navio-Marco et al., 2018 ). Social media is becoming an emerging research focus that triggers new thoughts on crisis management in the contemporary world ( Zeng & Gerritsen, 2014 ). Data security and privacy over confidential company information and customer personal information are the main concerns. Nowadays, given the global outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic downturn faced by many countries, crisis management has again attracted organisational and research attention ( Qiu et al., 2020a , b ; Gössling et al., 2020 ).

Crisis management also involves risk management, as crisis happens when risk is not managed properly and effectively. For instance, if tourism providers do not pay attention to risk management may put the lives of the tourists at risk. According to Dorfman and Cather (2013) , risk is the possibility of harm or possible loss. Risk refers to the fluctuation in neutral or negative outcomes that result from an uncertain event on the basis of probability. Risk management is a process in which an organisation identifies and manages its exposures to risk to match its strategic goals. The scope includes goals setting, risk identification, risk measurement, handling of risk and implementation techniques, and effectiveness of monitoring ( Dorfman & Cather, 2013 ).

Crises in extreme scales with catastrophic consequences can be disasters. Disasters normally refer to events that an organisation cannot control, like natural disasters. Possible disaster events include terrorism, floods, hurricanes and earthquakes. The term ‘crisis’ has a broad meaning that includes events involving technical or human mistakes as well as disasters ( Coombs, 2019 ; Faulkner, 2001 ). Thus, crisis management in this study covers both risk management and disaster management.

Several review papers on crisis management and recovery are available. Mair et al. (2016) conducted a review on post-crisis recovery with 64 articles published between 2000 and 2012. A short summary on tourism crisis and disaster was also published ( Aliperti et al., 2019 ). Ritchie and Jiang (2019) reviewed 142 papers on tourism crisis and disaster management; and identified three areas including crisis preparedness and planning; crisis response and recovery; and crisis resolution and reflection. It was found that the papers, including the framework testing, lack conceptual and theoretical foundation, which exhibited unbalanced research themes ( Ritchie & Jiang, 2019 ). A bibliometric study of citation networks was conducted by other researchers but only on the crisis and disaster management topic ( Jiang, Ritchie, & Verreynne, 2019 ). The most recent one was focused on diseases ( Chen, Law, & Zhang, 2020 ). The afore-said review articles followed the traditional classification of the three-stage crisis management model (pre-crisis, crisis event and post-crisis) ( Richardson, 1994 ). A clear research gap exists in the review literature in terms of the kind of crisis management, risk management and disaster management research that has been conducted in the hospitality and tourism fields, especially in the digital era; and such research need becomes significant due to the spread of COVID-19. This current review paper considers risk management and disaster management as part of crisis management. This review scope is much wider than those of past review papers. Furthermore, past literature review emphasised only the research published in top academic journals. Zanfardini et al. (2016) concluded that analyses of literature should not be confined to the highest impact journals because crisis management is an interdisciplinary subject; and the related articles might not necessarily appear only in the top journals. Thus, surveying also the lower impact journals would be useful, and this study would also shed light on those works.

This study aims to systematically examine and evaluate the literature of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. As the research areas emerge, more papers were recorded in the last decade. It is expected that many research papers on topics relating to the COVID-19 crises will be produced shortly in the near future. The major themes and future research opportunities and agenda will be identified after a thematic content analysis of related peer-reviewed journal articles.

This study seeks to address the following questions:

• 1) What are the main themes of the crisis management literature in the hospitality and tourism industry?
• 2) What is the future research agenda regarding the hospitality and tourism industry and crisis management?

2. Methodology

This systematic literature review adopted steps suggested by Liberati et al. (2009) for the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA): 1) related articles were identified through databases and other sources, 2) records were obtained after the duplicates were removed, 3) the records were screened, 4) full-text papers were assessed for eligibility and 5) the studies were included in the qualitative synthesis ( Liberati et al., 2009 ).

We targeted our literature search on electronic databases for peer-reviewed journal articles that focused on crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry and from journals published since 1980. The search included numerous academic platforms consisting of the ABI/Inform, Academic Research Premier (via EBSCO host), Business Source Complete (via EBSCO host), Web of Science and Scopus databases to capture academic journal papers with the captioned topic. This approach was considered suitable for a literature review analysis centred on a subject that has undoubtedly been researched from a multi-disciplinary perspective ( Wut et al., 2021 ). Literature search was organised around eight keywords consisting of ‘tourism’, ‘hospitality’, ‘crisis’, ‘crisis management’, ‘risk’, ‘risk management’, ‘disaster’ and ‘disaster management’. Papers retained for subsequent analyses met the following criteria:

• (i) Published in peer-reviewed journals since 1980;
• (ii) Published in the English language;
• (iii) Involves the field of business, management and accounting;
• (iv) Seeks to study crisis management, including risk management and disaster management, in the tourism and hospitality industry;
• (v) Comprise studies presenting primary or secondary research data published as full length papers or short reports;
• (vi) Removal of duplicate papers from database findings (Same paper generated from different platforms).

In total, 1168 papers were generated from the literature search which involves different combinations of the aforementioned keywords. The earliest article was published in 1985. Overall, the selected articles were published between 1985 and 2020. Figures for 2020 are incomplete and given here for reference only. Authors assessed the full-text papers retrieved for inclusion in this review.

The titles, abstracts and full texts of the papers were reviewed and examined ( Wut et al., 2021 ). Two coders were involved in the process to avoid subjective bias judgement from a single coder ( Neuendorf, 2002 ). Discussions between coders were arranged to resolve the discrepancy ( Krippendorff, 2013 ). After initial screening, 534 papers meeting the above criteria were selected. A subsequent step involved checking if the research questions of this study can be answered through analysing the papers in the database. A total of 22 papers were dropped as they could not answer one of the research questions. The final analysis involved 512 papers for subsequent descriptive analyses in various aspects like the number of authors, the first author's nationality and study locations. Papers involving more than one study location were classified under Global. Attention was paid to the themes of journals under the category of tourism, hospitality and others as business-related journals. Publications that covered both tourism and hospitality were classified under hospitality. We also identified the key topics of each article. These items were used for statistical analysis to identify longitudinal trends of research themes. The papers were categorised under various hospitality and tourism industry sectors, including tour operators/travel agencies, hotels, airlines, restaurants and ocean cruising industry. They were then assigned to one of the six crisis types: political events, terrorism, health issues, financial crisis, natural disasters and human errors. The research foci of the articles were subsequently ascertained and summarised. The identification process was completed by content analysis for which an inductive approach was adopted. If any doubt regarding classification emerged for a particular paper, a new category was devised for that paper to minimise ambiguity ( Eisenhardt, 1989 ). When more than one topic was discussed in a paper (for example, crisis prevention and crisis preparedness), the paper was classified under the category of crisis management (multiple topics). Thus, 10 specific research topics were obtained for a general crisis management area: crisis management (multiple topics), crisis impact, crisis recovery, crisis resilience, crisis communication, crisis response, crisis event (description), crisis preparedness, crisis prevention and crisis management (organisational) learning. Four research topics were identified for a general risk management area: risk management (multiple topics), risk perception, risk assessment and risk communication. Finally, three research topics were found for a general disaster management area: disaster management (multiple topics), disaster event (description) and disaster recovery. COVID-19 was categorised as a separate topic, as the related articles covered the areas in both crisis and risk management.

3. Findings

3.1. journals, authors and study locations.

The results indicated that 308 (60.2%) of the papers came from 10 journals; and 204 papers were come from other journals. Among these 10 journals, Tourism Management published 85 papers; Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing published 44 papers, International Journal of Hospitality Management had 34 papers and Current Issues in Tourism had 33 papers. Annuals of Tourism Research published 26 papers, and Journal of Travel Research secured 25 papers. The publications were highly ranked according to the Scimago Journal and Country Ranking (SRJ). In the last decade, all these journals except for the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing published more papers than before ( Table 1 ). Furthermore, other high ranking journals were included in the ‘Others’ category, including the Journal of Vacation Marketing with two papers. One paper appeared in the Public Relation Review, a top Journal in the field of public relations. Another paper was from the Journal of World Business, a first quarter journal according to the SRJ. Three other papers appeared in Asia Pacific Business Review, a second quarter journal according to the SRJ. Thus, crisis management has been considered a hot research topic by the scholars and high ranking academic journals in the hospitality and tourism field.

List of tourism and hospitality journals (N = 512).

As a whole, tourism-focused journals were comparatively favoured (286 papers) to hospitality (74 papers) or other (152 papers) journals on the crisis management topic and related research objectives. Among the tourism-focused journals, Tourism Management has been the dominant outlet. The number of papers increased by three times over the last decade. Among the hospitality journals, International Journal of Hospitality Management (34 papers) has been the most popular.

Regarding authorship, two authors collaboration (157 papers, 30.7%) has been found to be the most common occurrence in these papers. Three-person authorship was also highly adopted (143 papers, 27.9%), followed by single authorship for 129 papers (25.2%). Note that a total of 60 papers had four authors (11.7%), five authors (14 papers, 2.7%), six authors (7 papers, 1.4%), seven authors (1 paper, 0.2%), and eight authors (2 papers, 0.4%). Collaborations among authors are common. The most productive first authors in this field were Joan C. Henderson (9 papers), Bingjie Liu (9 papers), Bruce Prideaux (7 papers) and Brent W. Ritchie (6 papers). The most productive second authors were Lori Pennington-Gray (13 papers), Brent W. Ritchie (9 papers), Mehmet Altinay, Susanne Becken and Hany Kim (4 papers). Henderson comes from Nanyang Technological University and had publications in the early years (from 1999 to 2004). Liu is from the University of Florida. Most of her publications were related to bed bugs and were rather recent (from 2015 to 2016).

Location was studied for the first authors of the papers. The first authors tend to be most interested in the study topics relating to crisis management and may have secured fair level of research experience in this area. Europe (157 papers, 30.7%) had the greatest number of interested scholars who appeared as the first authors. This figure was followed by Asia (132 papers, 25.8%) and Oceania (110 papers, 21.5%). In Europe, the United Kingdom (59 papers) had the most interested scholars in this area. The first authors from Asia were mainly from Mainland China (29 papers), Israel, Singapore, Japan and Taiwan. The other first authors were from Australia (101 papers) and United States (88 papers) ( Table 2 is a short version of this list. An extended version is in the Appendix).

Location of first author (N = 512).

In terms of the research context, Asia was the most studied region (152 papers, 29.7%), followed by Global (109 papers, 21.3%), and then Europe (101 papers, 19.7%). Several disasters occurred in Asia, including the Japan earthquakes in 2011, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak in 2003 and the Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami in 2004. Many papers took a global or multiple countries approach (109 papers, 21.3%). First authors also tend to conduct research in his or her place-of-residence or nearby locations ( Table 3 ).

Study location (N = 512).

An increasing trend emerged throughout the 36 years study period, as shown in Fig. 1 . The number of articles in 2020 is listed for reference and some articles could not be presented due to availability issues. All papers, whether from tourism-focused journals, hospitality journals or journals in the other fields, generally displayed an upward trend ( Fig. 2 ). Almost all top ten English-language academic journals in the tourism and hospitality field witnessed an increasing trend, except for the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing which experienced a downward trend ( Fig. 3 ). The three periods were identified in the X-axis and spans 36 years. The first period from 1985 to 1996 reflects the start of the discussion about crisis management. Only six papers were published for 12 years. The second period of 1997–2008 involved 115 papers. During this period, most of the papers were published in the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing and in Tourism Management. The last period of 2009 to present involved 389 papers. Most of the papers were published in Tourism Management. At this period, as many as 63 papers were published in Tourism Management. The number of papers published in Tourism Management is almost the sum of the numbers of the first runner up, and second runner up. ( Table 1 ).

Studies related to crisis management in the tourism and hospitality literature (1985–2020).

Numbers of tourism and hospitality publications in English on crisis management.

Top Ten Journals on crisis management.

3.2. Types of crises in the hospitality and tourism industry

The 512 papers revealed that five business sectors within the hospitality and tourism industry, an outcome which mirrored the findings of Wut et al. (2021) who performed a systematic review on corporate social responsibility research in the hospitality and tourism industry. The most commonly investigated industry sectors comprised tour operators/travel agencies, hotel operators, airlines, restaurants and ocean cruising sectors. Their crises types are summarised below for illustration purposes ( Table 4 ):

Typology of crisis types in hospitality and tourism industry (Source: authors).

Crisis types were previously organised under the three categories of natural disasters, technical error accidents and human error accidents, depending on the level of organisational responsibility. Limited organisational responsibility is clearly involved for natural disasters because those events are usually beyond operational control ( Coombs, 2019 ). Only reactive strategies can be developed to minimise loss. A low level of organisational responsibility occurs on technical error accidents as the organisation can hardly do much about technical errors. However, organisations should bear the main responsibility for preventable crises as they involve human errors ( Coombs, 2019 ). Natural disasters are the most common type, and the other two are mainly related to complaints on social media.

3.3. Methodological design of previous research

Almost half of the studies adopted quantitative research methods (215 studies, 42%). Approximately 34% of the papers relied on qualitative research methods (174 studies). Only 24 studies (4.7%) integrated both qualitative and quantitative research methods. And there also appeared 99 conceptual papers. In terms of research design, exploratory design (qualitative) dominated (159 studies, 31.1%). Most researchers used in-depth interview and focus group in exploratory design. This research design is followed by adopting primary data from surveys (139 studies, 27.1%) and using secondary data and databases (74 studies, 14.5%). For the statistical and analytical methods of research, the main method was identified for each paper. Most qualitative studies relied on case studies (85 studies, 16.6%) and content analysis (81 studies, 15.8%). Descriptive analysis (54 studies, 10.5%) and regression analysis (40 studies, 7.8%) were primarily used in the quantitative studies. When appeared more than one method of analysis was utilised (for example, both descriptive and regression analysis), only the most complex method was counted (in this case, regression analysis) ( Table 5 ).

Analysis by research methodology (N = 512).

3.4. Traditional Research focus

The research themes in the literature were organised in such manner: Papers with a specific topic of crisis management, risk management or disaster management were grouped under the category carrying the name of the focal topic, such as crisis impact, crisis recovery and risk perception. Papers on crisis management in general ( Beirman, 2001 ) or focusing on crisis management in relation to other topics, for example, brand management ( Balakrishnan, 2011 ), or those on more than one topic of crisis management such as crisis preparedness and organisational learning ( Anderson, 2006 ) were all included under a category named “Crisis management/with multiple topics”. Similar logic was applied to the “Risk management/with multiple topics” category, which included papers embracing risk management in general ( Angel et al., 2018 ) or multiple topics regarding risk identification, the influential factors and related risk management practices ( Chen, 2013 ). This logic was further applied to the “Disaster management/with multiple topics” category. Another category refers to COVID-19, which has been a hot topic since last year. All the COVID-19 papers that concerned about crisis and/or crisis management were put under this separate category. Such arrangement could help summarise the focuses and trends of COVID-19 research and facilitate the researchers who may have continuing interests to explore further in future years. Lastly, the remaining papers hardly put into previous categories were put under the category of others. As a result of adopting the above rationale in papers classification, among the reviewed studies, 16% (82 papers) were related to crisis management/with multiple topics and 15.4% (79 papers) related to COVID-19. These two primary categories were found in terms of the number of papers collected ( Table 6 ). Risk management/with multiple topics is the second runner-up with 13.7% (70 papers). Risk perception was found with 44 papers (8.6%). Crisis impacts involved 32 studies (6.3%), and crisis recovery was examined in 31 studies (6.1%). Further, fairly sufficient, 21 papers focused on crisis resilience (4.1%), 18 papers investigated crisis communication (3.5%) and 15 papers examined crisis response (2.9%). Disaster management/with multiple topics was studied by 20 papers (3.9%), and disaster recovery was investigated in 16 papers (3.1%). The areas worthy of significant note have collected even less than 10 papers in the study period, inclusive of crisis preparedness and prevention, learning, risk assessment and communication ( Table 6 ).

Crisis management research focus (N = 512).

The most explored research foci in the study period included crisis management/with multiple topics, risk management/with multiple topics, and disaster management (event). Crisis impact and crisis recovery, as well as risk perception also involved more than 30 papers respectively, that can represent the traditional focus of crisis management research at the theoretical level. The COVID-19 theme has more than 70 papers published (N = 79) in 2020, which surprisingly made it as one of the top ranking research themes in the summary. Its discussion will be presented in the next section involving the emerging research themes over the last decade (2010 to present).

3.4.1. Crisis management/with multiple topics

Crisis management has attracted academic attention for the entire study period. Anticipating crises and responding to them accordingly is crucial ( Henderson, 1999a ). A crisis or disaster management framework based on the model by Fink (1986) was proposed. Six elements of responses were suggested: precursors, mobilisation, action, recovery, reconstruction and re-assessment, and review. Risk assessment and disaster contingency plans were provided ( Faulkner, 2001 ). The crisis management framework of Ritchie (2004) follows the prescriptive model Richardson (1994) applied on the tourism industry: pre-crisis; crisis event and post crisis. This ‘one size fits all’ approach might cater to all sudden events ( Speakman & Sharpley, 2012 ).

By contrast, chaos theory assumes a random, complex and dynamic situation. That theory was used to explain the Mexican H1N1 crisis. Companies in the tourism industry operate in a relatively stable situation but are subject to unexpected attacks. The trigger case in Mexico is an outbreak of the H1N1 disease ( Coles, 2004 ; Speakman & Sharpley, 2012 ).

Co-management's characteristics ‘have been identified in the literature: (1) pluralism, (2) communication/negotiation, (3) transactive decision-making, (4) social learning, and (5) shared action/commitment’ ( Pennington-Gray et al., 2014a , 3). That management refers to combining resources from various stakeholders in the community for crisis management ( Pennington-Gray et al., 2014a ).

Researchers neglected crisis preparation and organisational learning in the tourism industry ( Clements, 1998 ; Cheung & Law, 2006 ; Anderson, 2006 ). In practice, large companies do have crisis management plans, unlike small business and tourism operators ( Cushnahan, 2004 ; Gruman et al., 2011 ).

3.4.2. Crisis impact

The Asian financial crisis and global economic crisis of 2008/09 affected the tourism industry ( Boukas & Ziakas, 2013 ; Henderson, 1999c ; Jones et al., 2011 ). In these events, people generally lost their spending power. If a host country suffers from a domestic crisis, then it usually attracts more visitors from other countries because of devaluation of the host country's currency ( Khalid et al., 2020 ). The lower demand for local tourism is counter-balanced by the arrival of more international tourists.

Usually, crisis impact could be measured by the drop of the number of inbound or outbound tourists and the spending of visitors ( Jin et al., 2019 ; Khalid et al., 2020 ; Wang, 2009 ). In turn, the impact would be reflected by economic indicators, such as the unemployment rate of the tourism industry ( Blake & Sinclair, 2003 ). People must also be convinced that everything is back to normal before they travel again.

The studies concentrated on sales loss and the drop in customers ( Jones et al., 2011 ; Liu, 2014 ). Financial ratio analysis is more objective but usually cannot capture instant impacts. Few investigations employed stock price to measure the effect of crises. Abnormal returns were a good indicator of the future earnings of a listed company ( Seo et al., 2014 ). Another dimension is the emotional aspect. Anger and outrage are emotional responses from customers. These reactions produce intangible effect on corporations ( Coombs & Holladay, 2010 ).

Aside from the economic impact, environmental and social cultural impacts must also be considered. For instance, the natural environment is vulnerable to disaster risks. Pollution problems could also affect the image of a city such as Beijing ( Tsai et al., 2016 ). From a social cultural perspective, local culture should be protected and revived.

3.4.3. Crisis recovery

The process wherein tourism operators' attempt to return to normal business and achieves good economic performance after a crisis is called crisis recovery ( Coombs, 2019 ). Various crisis recovery approaches were proposed. Restoration of confidence, media role, other stakeholder support and speed of the response are critical success factors for crisis recovery ( de Sausmarez, 2007a ). Analysis of the crisis, audience and place must be conducted before formulating a media strategy. The message source, target audience and the message itself are essential features for designing the media strategy in attempt to repair the image of the place ( Avraham & Ketter, 2017 ). In summary, image recovery is vital ( Ryu et al., 2013 ).

Other than media strategy, turnaround strategies usually entail increasing income and decreasing cost ( Campiranon & Scott, 2014 ). Price discount appears to be a common recovery strategy applied in the hospitality and tourism industry ( Kim et al., 2019 ; Okuyama, 2018 ).

A marketing program is a usual tactic in crisis recovery ( Carlsen & Hughes, 2008 ; Chacko & Marcell, 2008 ; Ladkin et al., 2008 ). Celebrity endorsement was also one of the best ways for implementing recovery marketing plans. Marketing campaigns should be continued after a crisis ( Walters & Mair, 2012 ). Some researchers expressed reservations about marketing programs. They instead prefer a demarketing approach if the place was seriously damaged and remains unsafe for visitors ( Orchiston & Higham, 2016 ).

3.4.4. Risk management/with multiple topics

Risk management is important for business operations ( Bharwani & Mathews, 2012 ). However, different companies may present different levels of risk appetite in terms of their willingness to manage risks ( Zhang, Paraskevas, & Altinay, 2019 ). The main types of business risks include operating risks, strategic risks and financial risks ( Harland et al., 2003 ). Financial risks can be categorised as systematic (common to whole economy) and unsystematic risks (firm-specific) ( Chen, 2013 ). According to Oroian and Gheres (2012) , all internal risks (e.g. organisational risks) and external risks (e.g. nature, competitiveness, economic, political and infrastructure risks) should be considered. Chang et al. (2019) found that financial risks, competing risks and supply chain risks may be classified as high priority by the travel industry.

Given the nature of the industry, hospitality and tourism companies may possibly face more particular environmental risks ( Böhm & Pfister, 2011 ; Cunliffe, 2004 ; Hillman, 2019 ), such as the weather conditions and climate change ( Ballotta et al., 2020 ; Bentley et al., 2010 ; Córdoba Azcárate, 2019 ; de Urioste-Stone, 2016 ; Hopkins & Maclean, 2014 ; Steiger et al., 2019 ; Tang & Jang, 2011 ), which will result in financial risks ( Franzoni & Pelizzari, 2019b ) and other types of business risks for companies.

Regarding risk management and practices, various risk mitigation and reduction strategies have been studied. Loehr (2020) proposed a Tourism Adaptation System for this purpose. Portfolio analysis was adopted for risk reduction and management in the industry ( Minato & Morimoto, 2011 ; Tan et al., 2017 ). The scenario planning approach was also employed by Orchiston (2012) for risk forecasting. Safety and security measures, through security checkpoints, security systems and procedures, are of vital importance in operational strategies ( Daniels et al., 2013 ; Peter et al., 2014 ). However, Rantala and Valkonen (2011) argued that safety issues in the hospitality and tourism industry are complex because of the infrastructure and technology, lack of experiences for customers and employees, and the safety culture in the industry. Vij (2019) examined the views of senior managers in the hospitality industry and highlighted the urgent safety need regarding cyberspace and data privacy. Stakeholder collaboration might be also considered for sharing the responsibility in risk management ( Gstaettner et al., 2019 ). As for the aspect of risk transfer, insurance contracts ( Dayour et al., 2020 ; Franzoni & Pelizzari, 2019a ) is a traditional focus for mitigating the negative impacts through transferring the risks to third parties. Nevertheless, that approach was not a common practice in the industry ( Waikar et al., 2016 ).

3.4.5. Risk perception

This work found that many risk perception-focused studies were conducted in the tourism context. Mass tourists are generally risk adverse in unfamiliar surroundings. The risks related to health, crime, accident, environment and disasters greatly affect the tourists' decision-making ( Carballo et al., 2017 ; George, 2010 ; Hunter-Jones, 2008 ). Some studies categorised those risks into physical, financial, psychological and health risks ( Jalilvand & Samiei, 2012 ; Sohn & Yoon, 2016 ). According to Carballo et al. (2017) , some risks for tourists can be controllable (e.g. illness and sunburn), whereas others are not.

The causes leading to the risk perceptions of tourists included demographic (e.g. age and nationality) and individual trip-related characteristics (e.g. visit purpose and frequency of travel) ( George, 2010 ; Jalilvand & Samiei, 2012 ), past experiences ( Schroeder, Pennington-Gray, Donohoe, & Kiousis, 2013 ), marketing communications ( Lepp et al., 2011 ; Liu-Lastres et al., 2020 ), media effects ( Kapuściński & Richards, 2016 ; Rashid & Robinson, 2010 ), mega-events, such as the FIFA World Cup) ( Lepp & Gibson, 2011 ) or Olympic Games ( Schroeder, Pennington-Gray, Donohoe, & Kiousis, 2013 ), as well as the destination risk management measures ( Toohey et al., 2003 ). Different directions of research or research findings were noted. Rashid and Robinson (2010) believed that the media effects exaggerated the risk perceptions. Kapuściński and Richards (2016) found that the media could either amplify or attenuate risk perceptions. George (2010) and Jalilvand and Samiei (2012) tended to compare the tourists' gender, age and trip-related characteristics for risk perception, but the latter study found more obvious difference among the groups.

Risk perceptions were also found to negatively impact various constructs. However, the dependent variables were overwhelmingly concentrated on destination image ( Chew & Jahari, 2014 ; Lepp et al., 2011 ; Liu-Lastres et al., 2020 ; Sohn & Yoon, 2016 ) and revisit intention ( Chew & Jahari, 2014 ; George, 2010 ; Zhang, Xie, et al., 2020 ). Other outcomes of risk perception, such as tourist hesitation ( Wong & Yeh, 2009 ), destination attitude ( Zhang, Hou, & Li, 2020 ), satisfaction and trust ( Wu et al., 2019 ), emotion ( Yüksel & Yüksel, 2007 ), recommendation to others ( George, 2010 ), decision-making process ( Taher et al., 2015 ) and travel behaviour modification ( Thapa et al., 2013 ), were also investigated.

Note that tourists may be motivated by risk-taking behaviours ( Cater, 2006 ; Chang, 2009 ). These tourists possibly favour novelty and adventurous tourism activities. Examples of risk-taking contexts in the hospitality and tourism industry include gaming ( Chang, 2009 ), mountain climbing ( George, 2010 ; Probstl-Haider et al., 2016 ) and other adventurous activities ( Cater, 2006 ). Pröbstl-Haider et al. (2016) indicated that the risk-taking behaviour may be attributed to the tourists' experience, participation frequency and commitment, their risk perceptions and the individual trade-off of risks.

3.4.6. Disaster management/disaster event (description)

This study consolidated disaster management and disaster event (description) into one generic category for subsequently summary and discussions. Following previous classical literature on disaster management ( Faulkner, 2001 ; Prideaux et al., 2003 ), disasters can be considered as unpredictable or unprecedented crisis situations with great complexity and gravity. Ritchie (2008) summarised the many natural disasters frequently studied in tourism literature as comprising hurricanes, flooding and tsunami, earthquake, biosecurity and diseases (e.g. foot and mouth disease and SARS). Huan et al. (2004) dubbed these incidents as ‘no-escape’ disasters.

As a result of the disasters, tourist fatalities may occur while the destination and business facilities are severely devastated ( Cohen, 2009 ). Different hospitality and tourism sectors may experience remarkably varied challenges ( Henderson, 2007 ). Previous literature also recorded a comparison across disasters for certain destinations ( Prideaux, 2003 ) or for the investigation of disasters across different destinations ( Bhati et al., 2016 ). Many studies focused on business and destination resilience ( Bhaskara et al., 2020 ; Bhati et al., 2016 ; Filimonau & De Coteau, 2020 ; Ghaderi et al., 2015 ; Lew, 2014 ). Hospitality and tourism business normally react without warning, deal with existing staff, reduce salaries over the short-term and consider rebuilding tourist confidence over the long-term ( Henderson, 2005 ). Filimonau and De Coteau (2020) emphasised that the destinations studied fail to react effectively. Ghaderi et al. (2015) found that the primate enterprises lacked knowledge and analysis of disasters to prepare for the future.

Faulkner (2001) presented a tourism disaster management framework that incorporated six stages: pre-event, prodromal, emergency, intermediate, long-term recovery and resolution. He suggested destination marketing and communications, risk assessment, disaster management teaming and disaster contingency plans as examples of management strategies. This seminal model was applied for different disaster case studies ( Faulkner & Vikulov, 2001 ; Miller & Ritchie, 2003 ). Walters and Clulow (2010) examined previous literature and indicated that disaster-recovery marketing may be ineffective for areas affected by disasters. By contrast, Biran et al. (2014) argued that even disaster attributes can possibly motivate certain future tourists.

4. Discussion on emerging research themes from 2010 to present

In Fig. 1 , the Y-axis showcases the number of publications that studied crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. The X-axis records the years. Obviously, an increasing trend occurred for the relevant publications over the past 36 years. Five distinct peaks were identified in these publication waves: the years 1999, 2008, 2013, 2017 and 2020. Publishing an academic paper usually takes two to three years from the start of an initial idea. In many cases, researchers can only observe impacts and report their findings several years after a crisis event, for example, during the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the wars in 1990s (including the Gulf War, 1990–91; Croatian War, 1991–95; Bosnian War, 1992–95 and the Afghan War, 1990–2001). Studies published in 1999 mainly involved the financial crisis and the terrorism at that time. However, the papers recorded in 2008 included the impacts of the 9/11 terrorist attack in 2001. Papers in the year 2013 were mostly related to the financial crisis which dated back to 2007 and 2008. Papers with political topics were published in 2017/18. Many COVID-19 papers were published in 2020. Four major themes emerged in the last decade (year 2010-present), namely the health-related crisis, social media, political disturbance and terrorism crises ( Table 7 ).

Research areas for crisis management studies in last decade (Year 2010 to Present).

4.1. Health-related crisis (including COVID-19)

The 2006 Avian Flu, Year, and the 2003 SARS, the 2001 Foot and Mouth disease are notable health-related crisis events that impacted the hospitality and tourism industry ( Baxter & Bowen, 2004 ; Chien & Law, 2003 ; Page et al., 2006 ; Tew et al., 2008 ). Further, 284,00 deaths were recorded in the 2009 Swine flu. Tourism loss was US$2.8 billion ( Rassy & Smith, 2013 ). Recent case of health-related crisis event is the Ebola outbreak in 2014 and 2015. The outbreak affected the Africa tourism industry by 5% revenue reduction in year 2015 ( Novelli et al., 2018 ). Lyme disease was studied from the perspective of tourism management ( Donohoe et al., 2015 ). The impact of Zika outbreak for 2016 in Latin America and the Caribbean caused losses of US$3.5 billion in tourism industry; and no vaccine is available ( World Bank, 2016 ). In the same year, the global outbreak of Dengue fever led to even severe economic impact of US$8.9 billion ( Shepard et al., 2016 ). The recent global outbreak of COVID-19 in 2020 is undeniably a vastly emerging research focus. An overview of health-related events has been presented by Hall et al. (2020) .

Large number of papers in COVID-19 has been published within a short period of time. Most of the papers tended to study the impacts of COVID-19 in hospitality and tourism industry ( Bulin & Tenie, 2020 ; Jaipuria et al., 2020 ; Knight et al., 2020 ; Qiu et al., 2020a , b ; Seraphin, 2020 ; Uğur & Akbıyık, 2020 ), some of which focused on particularly the hotel industry ( Bajrami et al., 2020 ; Vo-Thanh et al., 2020 ). Besides, some provided directions for recovery ( Yeh, 2020 ). For instance, using a private dining room or table could be one of the solutions in restaurant industry ( Kim & Lee, 2020 ). Resilience is another topic of discussion ( Butler, 2020 ). Rittichainuwat et al. (2020) found that the Thai hospitality, bleisure (business and leisure) and international standard venues are key factors for resilience of the exhibition industry. For tourism industry, travel after pandemic is arguably associated with protection motivation and pandemic travel fear ( Zheng et al., 2021 ).. Research topics could be about perceived risk and tourist decision making ( Matiza, 2020 ). In terms of the research methodologies in this research theme, most of the papers appeared to be conceptual papers ( Baum & Hai, 2020 ; Bausch et al., 2020 ; Haywood, 2020 ; Li et al., 2020 ; Zenker & Kock, 2020 ). A few qualitative studies used in-depth interview ( Awan et al., 2020 ; Loi et al., 2020 ) while some others adopted case studies ( Breier et al., 2021 ; Neuburger & Egger, 2020 ). Quantitatively, some relied on online survey ( Karl et al., 2020 ) or telephone survey ( Pappas & Glyptou, 2021 ) due to pandemic constraints.

Without effective crisis management in this regard, the entire hospitality and tourism industry could hardly recover by rebuilding tourists and guests' confidence who suffer from health-related crises, with no exception of COVID-19. According to Coombs (2019) , there are four stages in crisis management: crisis prevention, crisis preparation, crisis response and crisis recovery. The purpose of crisis prevention is to detect warning signals and to stop any possible negative events. Certain disasters cannot be prevented even for early preparation. Crisis management plan needs to list out every step we need to follow when crisis happens. A team can be organised beforehand to carry out some rehearsals regularly. Immediate, transparent and consistency are the basics in preparing crisis response. In post crisis period, people need to learn from the past, including the mistakes made. Business continuity plan guides us to recover from crisis quickly ( Coombs, 2019 ; Fung et al., 2020 ). These should be the basics of lessons for effective crisis management derived from the different health-related crisis events in history and the COVID-19 outbreak as well. All stakeholders should consolidate their knowledge and experiences to better prepare for the future.

4.2. Social media theme

Over the past decade, companies in the hospitality and tourism industry have greater attention to the use of social media in practice. Social media can distribute news over distances within a short period of time. That media could co-ordinate with different stakeholders in crisis events ( Antony & Jacob, 2019 ; Maia & Mariam, 2018 ). Meanwhile, a wide range of stakeholders (i.e. individual customers, governmental bodies, activist groups, rescue teams, consumers' bodies, mass media and others) can take part in management through social media ( Sigala, 2012 ). Zeng and Gerritsen (2014) summarised the social media research in tourism and highlighted clearly (p.34) that ‘giving its mobility and facility for instant interaction, social media can be expected to play a more important role in tourism destination management, particularly in crisis management … ’ Sigala (2012) further revealed that social media can be utilised throughout the different stages of crisis management involving mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. For example, Schroeder and Pennington-Gray (2015) studied the effect of social media in crisis communications. Travellers may possibly refer to feedback from social media in search of related information when a crisis occurs. Instead of discussing crisis impacts on tourism sectors in Hong Kong, researchers attempted to focus on the crisis communication through social media which affects social media users' subsequent attitude ( Luo & Zhai, 2017 ). Social media can also be used in the revision stage to develop resilience and adaptability. Moreover, social media has employed in fundraising events and in creating emotional support after crisis ( Coombs, 2019 ).

4.3. Political disturbances theme

The past decade witnessed a few examples of political disturbances or social movements ( Monterrubio, 2017 ). In Thailand, Cohen (2010) examined the sources of airport occupation. The occupation was a social movement opposed to the Thailand government. The movement changed the safety destination perception of Thailand and affected the tourism industry in the long term ( Cohen, 2010 ). In Hong Kong, the ‘yellow vest’ movement occurred on November 17, 2008. Protesters decided to continue to protest every Saturday. That situation might generate an unsafe image for incoming tourists ( Derr, 2020 ). A political event called Occupy Central in 2014 and 2015 in Hong Kong also requested for the election of a Chief executive. ‘Central’ is a place in Hong Kong that encompasses many important business and government offices. Another social movement involved Hong Kong's anti-extradition law amendment bill in 2019. These occurrences strongly impact the peaceful image of Hong Kong.

4.4. Terrorism theme

Unquestionably, the hospitality and tourism industry is vulnerable to terrorism. Tourists might possibly switch to other travel destinations because of perceived terrorist threats to their intended destination ( Sönmez et al., 1999 ; Walters et al., 2019 ). Terrorism has become a popular theme of research since 2001, when the terrorist attack of historic significance occurred on 11 September in the U.S. ( Evans & Elphick, 2005 ; O'Connor et al., 2008 ; Taylor, 2006 ; Yu et al., 2005 ). |Another example involves the targeting of Bali tourists by Al Qaeda in 2002 ( Xu & Grunewald, 2009 ).

Some terrorism-related studies from past decade focused on the hotel industry. One research indicated that terrorism affects the brand image of a local hotel if an attack from terrorists occurs on the destination. Thus, protecting the brand equity is an effective strategy ( Balakrishnan, 2011 ). Another paper compared the impacts of 9/11 on hotel room demand to those during the financial crisis of 2008 ( Kubickova et al., 2019 ). Stahura et al. (2012) emphasised that crisis management planning is essential when the industry confronts potential crisis from terrorist attacks.

5. Research opportunities

Following a systematic analysis of traditional research focuses over the 36 years and emerging research themes over the last decade, a new conceptual framework was presented in Fig. 4 to highlight the proposed future research directions of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. Further research areas were identified using a TCM (Theory-Context-Method) model ( Paul et al., 2017 ) presented in three layers.

Conceptual framework for future research of crisis management in hospitality and tourism industry.

The outer layer related to the crisis management at the theory level. Traditional research foci at the theoretical level appear to include crisis management/with multiple topics, crisis impact, crisis recovery, risk management/with multiple topics and risk perception and disaster management. Unfortunately, little attention has been paid to crisis management education and training, a feature which was rather regarded as the most effective method of crisis management in the long run for the tourism industry ( Henderson, 1999a ). The literature review also entailed relatively less academic attention to crisis prevention and preparedness, risk assessment and risk communication. In the second inner layer, proposed contexts of crisis management research were presented. The health-related crisis events including COVID-19, data privacy, digital media, political-related crisis events as well as other less explored contexts are suggested for the future research of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. It should be noted further that the health-related, data privacy and political-related crisis events are also related to the digital media area. This situation indicates that the transmission of crisis information is rather faster than ever before through digital media, so that management of various crises should be examined in this era of digital media. Meanwhile, the less explored industry sectors and contexts should be studied. The core and the inner layer suggest adopting new analytical research methods for designing various research and analysing related data. The following will detail the proposed future research areas and identify specific research questions for the benefit of future researchers ( Table 8 ).

100 specific future research questions in the ten future areas.

5.1. Theory development

Fink (1986) 's four stage model is influential in crisis management studies. His four-stage model was applied in diseases (1) prodromal, hints of potential crisis; (2) breakout; (3) chronic, the effect of crisis persists; (4) resolution, some clear signals the crisis is no longer a concern ( Fink, 1986 ). The other influential model is from Mitroff (1994) . His five stages model turns Fink's descriptive model to prescriptive approach. Crisis management efforts was divided into five phases: signal detection, prevention, damage containment, recovery and organisational learning ( Mitroff, 1994 ). Faulkner (2001) made a good comparison of the models. In fact, previous research have also indicated the cycling loop of crisis management ( Xu & Grunewald, 2009 ). For instance, Pursiainen (2018) explicitly explained the crisis management circle with some suggested procedural steps (prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, learning, risk assessment). This further provides the solid theoretical foundation for Fig. 4 that the proposed future research areas at theoretical level stay at different cycling stages in crisis management: from crisis prevention and preparedness to risk communication to crisis management education & training, and then to risk assessment, which has been also considered to pave the way for the next round of crisis prevention and preparedness.

5.1.1. Crisis prevention and preparedness

Papers on crisis preparedness (9 papers) and crisis prevention (7 papers) are notable fewer. In fact, preventing the crisis from happening is the best crisis management strategy. Crisis preparedness takes up most of a crisis manager's time ( Coombs, 2019 ; Pforr & Hosie, 2008 ). The recovery and experiences of crisis handling of one time can be translated into the crisis preparedness and precaution measures for the potential next time. The awareness and recognition of possible crises by managers and staff can be strategically important throughout the learning process and crisis management cycle ( Xu & Grunewald, 2009 ).

5.1.2. Risk communication

Compared to the risk management (68 papers) and risk perception (41 papers) categories, prior literature records only one paper ( Heimtun & Lovelock, 2017 ) which focused on ‘risk communications.’ Risk communication is indeed important in the hospitality and tourism industry. An uncertainty always exists because of the weather or some other uncontrollable factors. Risk communication is important when they promote tourism products to prospective customers ( Heimtun & Lovelock, 2017 ). It also relates to legal issues. For example, travel companies and tour organisers should explicitly explain to potential tourists the types of risks involved and tourists (risk bearers) could also express their concerns and fears about the risks in the process of their decision making. The outcomes of risk communication are expected to enhance customers' risk awareness and help them take personal proactive actions. The appropriate overestimation of risk can be also effective for helping consumers make decisions while avoiding possible legal risks ( Coombs & Holladay, 2010 ).

5.1.3. Crisis management education and training

Special attention should also be given to crisis management education and training in hospitality and tourism-related programmes. In the ever-increasingly diversified and changing market, hospitality and tourism companies have an urgent need of specialists and professionals in crisis management for their sustainable and healthy business development. Graduates equipped with relevant knowledge and working experiences will be highly needed by the industry. The presence of an experienced leader and crisis team consisting of qualified staff can be strategically significant in the different stages of crisis management in the tourism industry ( Ritchie, 2004 ). Surprisingly, scare research exists in this regard.

In this study, the US, Australia and the UK were well represented in terms of the leading authors of crisis management studies in the hospitality and tourism industry. Academic platforms may favour more interested researchers in this area who originate from other places. The cross-cultural approach is also strongly recommended for systematic comparisons of the findings generated from different cultural backgrounds. Future research could be extended to more developing countries, such as China and Vietnam, to compare their crisis prevention measures.

5.1.4. Risk assessment

Less than 10 papers focused on risk assessment, a figure which could suggest a future research direction. Undeniably, hospitality and tourism companies may be interested in identifying the possible risks according to their frequency, scale and level of loss, and assess their influences for developing effective risk management strategies ( Tsai & Chen, 2010 ). Roe et al. (2014) summarised many methodological approaches that are currently adopted to assess and manage the various risks, particularly environmental ones. They exemplified with the Environmental Impact Assessment, Environmental Audit and Ecological Footprint with support of Delphi Technique. In fact, tourists can also learn from the risk assessment results to manage their holiday travel plans and decide insurance purchase ( Olya & Alipour, 2015 ). However, as each assessment methodology has its own merits as well as limitations, methodological innovations and comprehensive assessment models are expected for future research, particularly in the hospitality and tourism context owing to the lack of research output in this regard ( Tsai & Chen, 2010 ).

5.2. Context

5.2.1. covid-19 (coronavirus disease 2019).

COVID-19 has threatened the lives and health of people globally and seriously disrupts the traffic flow of people worldwide. Hotels, travel agencies, airlines and all sorts of related industries face a serious challenge in 2020 ( Gössling et al., 2020 ; Qiu et al., 2020a , b ). In fact, the world may see a co-occurrence of various health risks and diseases in future. With lessons derived from COVID-19, health-related crisis management could be a universal issue.

The COVID-19 pandemic may not be over in year 2021 although different vaccines are available. Tourism and hospitality industry will still be seriously affected. Firstly, the impacts on the industry have already been estimated for the year 2020.70% of hotel employees have been laid off and 4.6 million supporting jobs was lost in United States ( American Hospitality and Lodging Association, 2020 ). The forecasted impacts for the year 2021 are still in progress and not yet available. Secondly, there could be new models for people travelling for leisure or business after the pandemic. Thirdly, new business model may evolve for the hotel, airlines, catering, or even the sharing business ( Farmaki et al., 2020 ).

5.2.2. Data privacy in hospitality and tourism

Today, most organisations are using information technology as a main or supplementary tool for their business operations and management. Extensive organisational/customer sensitive information is stored and/or processed in digital format, particularly when using social media for communications. Loss of confidential information would be disastrous for a company. Note that any inappropriate processing of such sensitive and personal information may cause great damage to organisational reputation with the expected decline of customer trust and loyalty ( Watson & Rodrigues, 2018 ). This fact was highlighted with no exception in the hospitality and tourism industry ( Chen & Jai, 2019 ). Unfortunately, very few papers have addressed this issue. Chen and Jai (2019) explored a research agenda to examine the relationship between data breach or privacy issues and customer relationship building and loyalty. They also suggested checking the different levels of privacy concerns by customers and their impacts.

5.2.3. Political-related crisis events

Many political-related crisis events also have impacts on hospitality and tourism industry. For example, in a historical sense, the US-Iran conflict has long influences over the development of Iran's tourism industry ( Estrada et al., 2020 ; Khodadadi, 2018 ). Recently, the Hong Kong extradition bill controversy (2019–2020) also shook Hong Kong's society and the tourism industry in particular ( Lee, 2020 ). More researchers are expected to express interest on these cases to discuss different research questions. These cases are related to risk and crisis management for destination marketers and various stakeholders. However, the natures of these circumstances vary, a situation which could possibly generate dissimilar research findings and shed light in the crisis management field. Future researchers could investigate the effects of crisis types on crisis management with case studies of new crisis events ( Coombs, 2019 ).

5.2.4. Digital media theme

Digital media plays a major role in future. People may like to use social media more often to express and share their views. However, a crisis may occur for the companies that fail to adequately manage the social communications of their products and brands. For example, customers may complain on social media. How the complaint is transmitted through the Internet and the responses from the organisation are rather practical topics for researchers. Ryschka et al. (2016) is one of the few to explore how a company's response to a crisis raised on social media affects its reputation. Their results showed that the speed of response is important as well as the brand familiarity and cultural values. Unfortunately, their research context (cruise industry) has its special nature and may not be applicable to other industry sectors or businesses at large. Sigala (2012) indicated that future studies could analyse role of social media in crisis communications and its impacts on organisation image. The factors that contribute to the motivations and barriers of using social media by companies can also be studied accordingly ( Sigala, 2012 ). Luo and Zhai (2017) highlighted the need for further research about cyber nationalism and bilateral relationships concerning the tourism boycott and destination crisis.

5.2.5. Other less explored contexts

Most of the reviewed crisis management studies focused on hotels as a sector of the hospitality and tourism industry. Studies should be more diversified across other sectors of the industry. Certain hospitality and tourism industry sectors are under-explored, including airlines, travel agencies, restaurants, the conference sector, ocean cruising, theme parks and wellness spas. For instance, any destination and tourism crisis may affect tour operators and travel agencies which play an important role in tourism flows ( Cavlek, 2002 ). Emphasis on tour operators is suggested for their strategic importance towards destination recovery in the post-crisis period ( Cavlek, 2002 ). The airline industry is also very sensitive to economic downturns and global crises ( Hatty & Hollmeier, 2003 ). Accordingly, the companies involved in that industry may be unable to adjust immediately when facing declining demands in the market. Sangpikul and Kim (2009) identified different factors of barriers affecting the convention and meeting industry. For example, they revealed political unrest as the source of crisis for the MICE (Meeting, Incentive, Conventions and Exhibitions) industry. However, few studies have investigated this sector.

Previous crisis management research relied on traditional methodologies including case studies, content analysis, descriptive analysis and regression analysis ( Table 5 ). Researchers could consider analysing images and/or pictures of the crisis event. Case study in crisis research usually involves with very small sample size. Two diseases cases (SARS and H1N1) were covered in a crisis management study ( Fung et al., 2020 ). Generalization of a case study usually is a difficult task for researcher. Thus, case study sometimes was conducted by way of an exploratory study; or simply used to test a pre-established theory. Besides, case study would also be used to demonstrate a good crisis management practice and propose a relationship or association among variables ( Eisenbhardt, 1989 ). As a whole, case study is a perfect choice to explain and answer the questions on “how” and “why”.

Researchers can consider qualitative comparative analysis. In literature, less than one percentage of crisis management articles used qualitative comparative analysis (see Table 5 ). Most of the focal researches examined relationships among variables in a linear manner using regression analysis and ignored the complexities that might possibly exist across the variables. Even in the case of low level of multi-collinearity, one variable might depend on the other explanatory variable ( Woodside, 2013 ). Often, the impacts on tourism due to crisis might not work in a linear relationship. The qualitative comparative analysis can be a suitable analysis method ( Papatheodorou & Pappas, 2017 ).

5.9 percent or thirty of crisis management papers adopted structural equation modelling as their main analysis method ( Table 5 ). Partial Least Squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) has not been used extensively in particular hospitality and tourism research but rather preferred in marketing and management studies in general ( Ali et al., 2018 ). Conceptually, PLS has some advantages including smaller sample size and less restricted data normality requirement. For example, with 5% significant level, minimum R-square 10% and number of arrows pointing at a construct is five, 150 samples is sufficient ( Hair et al., 2019 ). This fits the current research situation under pandemic concerns that achieving big sample size may not be an easy task. Moreover, models in risk perception sometimes evolve more than one dependent variable and some other mediating or moderating variables, such as perceived security, perceived risk, destination image or willingness to visit ( Zenker et al., 2019 ). Complex predicting model could be handled by PLS easily.

Conjoint analysis is sometimes used in hospitality research. For example, it could explain how tourists choose a particular hotel. It depends on a lot of considerations at the same time. Costs, time, word-of-mouth, activities, past experience and so on are possible reasons ( Suess & Mody, 2017 ). Only a subset of combinations needs to be tested in the field in order to get the answer. In crisis management research, crisis response can be one of the possible topics using this method. For example, one has to take into account different factors before formally making an apology for a customer complaint. Possible factors can include seriousness of crisis, crisis history, and responsibility of company ( Coombs, 2019 ).

6.1. Specific future research questions

Based on the above analysis, ten key future areas were identified. This study took a step further to prepare a total of 100 specific research questions ( Table 8 ) that warrant greater attention in the future. Research findings in these areas were also reported (first column of Table 8 ). Future researchers of crisis management in hospitality and tourism industry can take the specific questions as a direct reference to prepare their projects. Among these specific questions, some questions were reported as unanswered in the existing literature in these areas (second column of Table 8 ), thus being worthy of future research. Other specific questions (last column of Table 8 ) were generated from analyses in this study, after a critical review of literature.

7. Conclusions

This study systematically reviewed crisis management literature in the hospitality and tourism industry from 1985 to 2020, spanning 36 years; and found that only few articles were produced during earlier period. A sharp increase of related research interests emerged thereafter. This work analysed various major academic journals and presented the trends of their collection of crisis management studies; and discussed the study locations and authorship. Moreover, a systematic summary of the crisis types and the different industry sectors within the hospitality and tourism industry can be found this study.

Under the area of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry, traditional research foci were found to comprise crisis management and risk management/with multiple topics, disaster management, crisis impacts and recovery, and risk perception. This study summarised further that the main emerging themes over the last decade have revolved around health-related crisis including COVID-19, social media crisis, political disturbance crisis and terrorism crisis. The research cases and environments covered different industry sectors.

Crisis management research will likely be conducted continually with scholarly passion in the near future. A three-layer TCM (theory-context-method) framework for further research of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism is proposed. Ten directions are suggested for future research agenda: 1) crisis prevention and preparedness, 2) risk communication, 3) crisis management education and training, 4) risk assessment, 5) COVID-19 and other health-related crisis events, 6) data privacy in hospitality and tourism, 7) political-related crisis events, 8) digital media theme, 9) other less explored research contexts, and 10) adopting newer analytical methods and approaches. A summary of important works up to date and the suggested 100 specific research questions were also presented for future research purpose.

This study has its natural limitations, the papers collected were published within a specific time period (1985–2020). Using more keywords in literature search can found more papers in this field. Exploring this topic further at different academic platforms, particularly for those in languages other than English, can for sure generated more search results. Investigation of crisis management with a regional focus is also suggested for analysing the research outputs recorded in the local and regional languages.

Author statement

Wut, T. M.: Conceptualization; Data curation; formal analysis; funding acquisition; investigation; Methodology; original draft, Xu, B.: Funding acquisition; review and editing, Wong, S.: Project Administration; resources; supervision.

Declaration of competing interest

We declare that there is no potential conflict of interest

Biographies

Wut, Tai Ming; Dr Wut is a senior lecturer in the School of Professional Education and Executive Development, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, where he teaches courses in risk management, crisis management and corporate social responsibility. His interdisciplinary research interests cover engineering management, corporate social responsibility and engineers' role in society. He has published papers in international journals such as International Journal of Consumer Studies and Young Consumers. He has also presented his papers in international academic conferences.

Xu, Bill; Dr Bill Xu is a senior lecturer in the School of Professional Education and Executive Development, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. With respect to research, he has published academic articles and book reviews in international journals like the Journal of China Tourism Research, the Asian Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, the International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Tourism Management, etc. He also presented papers in international academic conferences. His teaching and research interests include consumer behaviour and consumption experience (in tourism and hospitality management), tourism psychology and sociology, tour operations and wholesaling, China tourism and hotel businesses, hospitality management in China, and quality service management.

Wong, Helen Shun-mun; Dr Helen Wong obtained her Bachelor of Arts (First Class Hons) from The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Master of Science from the University of London, and Doctor of Business Administration from the University of South Australia. She is also a fellow member of ACCA, an associate member of HKICPA, and CGA. Dr Wong has a diversified business background and several years' accounting and finance experience in Hong Kong and Canada. Prior to joining HKCC, she had worked for various well-known organisations, such as PricewaterhouseCoopers, Hong Kong Stock Exchange, and the University of Toronto.

Appendix B Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104307 .

Appendix A. 

Location of first author (N = 512) (Extended version of Table 1 )

(Source: authors)

Impact statement

Crises events and crisis management often become research topics for hospitality and tourism researchers. However, review papers in this field are lacking. An updated systematic literature review of crisis management research in hospitality and tourism industry is highly needed for the time being, to show what has progressed in recent decades and what would possibly progress in the near future. Under the outbreak of COVID-19, more hospitality and tourism researchers are expected to develop their research interests in crisis management field in the near future. Our paper fills in the research gap to summarise and discuss the traditionally dominated crisis management research themes and the emerging themes over the last decade from 2010. Meanwhile, it also sheds lights in providing clear and detailed advice to future researchers through eliciting what kind of crisis management research areas and specific research questions can be considered.

Appendix B. Supplementary data

The following is the Supplementary data to this article:

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Articles on Crisis management

Displaying 1 - 20 of 44 articles.

Brad Banducci checks out from Woolworths, signalling a business out-of -touch with its customers

Peter Roberts , UNSW Sydney

The Optus chief was right to quit but real change is unlikely at the telco until bigger issues are fixed

Helen Bird , Swinburne University of Technology

The Optus outage shows us the perils of having vital networks in private hands

Time after time, tragedies like the Titan disaster occur because leaders ignore red flags

Tony Jaques , RMIT University

Jacinda Ardern’s resignation: gender and the toll of strong, compassionate leadership

Suze Wilson , Massey University

A foot and mouth outbreak in NZ would affect more than agriculture – tourism needs a plan too

Stu Hayes , University of Otago

Why Jacinda Ardern’s ‘clumsy’ leadership response to Delta could still be the right approach

Public health officials are failing to communicate effectively about AstraZeneca

Sibo Chen , Toronto Metropolitan University

8 ways business managers can use fiction to prepare for the uncertain reality of coronavirus

Nada Elnahla , Carleton University and Ruth McKay , Carleton University

‘Never let a crisis go to waste’: how three CEOs helped their companies thrive in a pandemic

Thomas Malnight , International Institute for Management Development (IMD) and Ivy Buche , International Institute for Management Development (IMD)

When good intentions aren’t enough: where New Zealand’s border quarantine system really went wrong

Barbara Allen , Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of Wellington and Flavia Donadelli , Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of Wellington

3 crisis-leadership lessons from Abraham Lincoln

Adrian Brettle , Arizona State University

Coronavirus lessons from past crises: how WWI and WWII spurred scientific innovation in Australia

Tom Spurling , Swinburne University of Technology and Garrett Upstill , Swinburne University of Technology

Three reasons why Jacinda Ardern’s coronavirus response has been a masterclass in crisis leadership

Debate: How Beijing is trying to save face in the global fight against  Covid-19

Emmanuel Véron , Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales (Inalco) and Emmanuel Lincot , Institut catholique de Paris (ICP)

Coronavirus will have long-term implications for business leaders. Here are the top five

Ralph Hamann , University of Cape Town

Coronavirus, rail blockades: Crisis management plans protect companies

Sean Spence , University of Portsmouth

The importance of travel security for employees going abroad

Good communication is a key part of disaster response

Shannon A. Bowen , University of South Carolina

How to manage in a crisis: lessons from the West Africa Ebola outbreak

Anthoni van Nieuwkerk , University of the Witwatersrand

Related Topics

• Communication
• Coronavirus
• Corporate governance
• New Zealand
• Public relations
• Social media

Top contributors

Senior Lecturer, School of Management, Massey University

Fellow of the Centre for Leadership Studies, University of Exeter

Doctorate Student in Security Risk Management, Royal Military College of Canada

Industry Fellow, Corporate Governance & Senior Lecturer, Swinburne Law School, Swinburne University of Technology

Senior Research Associate, RMIT University

Director of Advisory Board, Centre for Risk Studies, Cambridge Judge Business School

Professor, Graduate School of Business and Law, RMIT University

Professor of Digital Communications and Culture, The University of Sydney, University of Sydney

Professor of Political Marketing, Deputy Dean (Strategic Projects), University of Leicester

Senior Lecturer and Coordinator, Health and Medical Humanities, University of Sydney

Dean, School of Management, University of Bath

Professor of Innovation Studies, Swinburne University of Technology

Senior Lecturer, Communications, Media and Culture, University of Stirling

Associate Professor of Economics, Carleton University

Senior Lecturer, Tourism, University of Technology Sydney

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Research programme

The Leiden University Crisis Research Center

Explaining the origins , patterns and outcomes of crisis management efforts.

The Leiden University Crisis Research Center (CRC), established in 1989, studies crisis management in the public sector. One of the oldest crisis research centers in Europe, the CRC analyzes how governments prepare for and manage all types of crisis. The Center engages in academic research that aims to explain the origins, patterns and outcomes of crisis management efforts.

The center has traditionally engaged closely with the world of practice and aims to reach out to both the academic and expert community interested in the management of crises. We define crises as a “serious threat to the basic structures or the fundamental values and norms of a system, which under time pressure and highly uncertain circumstances necessitates making vital decisions (Rosenthal, Charles and ‘t Hart, 1989: 10). Though the nature of crises, the tools of the policy makers, the political pressure and the public perception may have changed over time, the classic definition still holds.

We view crises as the outcome of a process of accumulation of deficiencies or tensions within a system. We therefore study both the incubation of crises and the governance of safety and security.  The CRC embraces a multi-actor and organizational perspective on crisis prevention, management and recovery or enhanced resilience.

Within the Institute of Security and Global Affairs, the CRC aims to address critical issues of crisis management such as:

• strategic leadership and the politics of crisis management
• networked governance of security events and crisis response
• the challenges of transboundary crises
• the role of new technologies involving citizens in crisis management

Journal Risk, Hazards and Crisis in Public Policy

Convene academics and practitioners with a keen interest in risk and crisis management in an online platform for dissemination of cutting-edge research, best practices, lessons learned and innovative ideas.  Read more

Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries

The broad scope of the journal is  process safety . Process safety is defined as the prevention and mitigation of process-related injuries and damage arising from process incidents involving fire, explosion and toxic release. Such undesired events occur in the process industries during the use, storage, manufacture, handling, and transportation of highly hazardous chemicals.  Read more

• crisis and disaster management
• crisis management
• crisis security management

118 Crisis Management Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best crisis management topic ideas & essay examples, 💡 interesting topics to write about crisis management, 📝 good research topics about crisis management, 👍 simple & easy crisis management essay titles, ❓ crisis management questions.

• Crisis Management: Nissan Company and the 2011 Earthquake Expand on the points made in the case to identify the potential costs and benefits of these actions. The sharing of information was quite beneficial to Nissan in its response to the disaster.
• AirAsia: Crisis Management Case Study The crash was the first to be recorded in the eighteen years of operation of AirAsia. It was described as the third worst plane crash in the year 2014.
• Crisis Management: British Petroleum Company It was claimed to be one of the greatest disasters that led to human deaths and oil spills that affected the ecosystem adversely. In addition to that, the management team was affected because it had […]
• The Role of Social Media in Aviation Crisis Management Therefore, this paper considers the general role that social media might play in a crisis or emergency in the airline industry and describes methods that could be used to deal with the potential adverse outcomes […]
• Critical Analysis of Crisis Management Theory and Frameworks If the event of September 11, 2001 is recalled then one would realize that the events of September 11, 2001 were an overwhelming reminder of the need to be prepared for crises.
• Fraud at Bank of Baroda: Risk and Crisis Management The negative publicity that BoB received as a result of its recklessness has clearly affected the investment risks to a considerable degree, yet the current strategy used by the company to manage the situation does […]
• How McDonalds Handles Their Crisis Management Program Globally? Crisis management, therefore, becomes a crucial factor of checking and controlling the performance of the organization by acting in a proactive and active way to prevent an event which has a potential likelihood of leading […]
• Toyota Recall – Global Crisis Management Devlin asserts that it is the premise of an organization’s management and the Public Relation offices to ensure that in the event of a crisis, the organization recovers gracefully and in a timely manner.
• Public Relations and Crisis Management Link The significance of developing a CMP lies in the fact that it aids in the process of collecting the necessary information to deal with the crisis.
• Crisis Management & Communication During COVID-19 Topic of the Paper: The actual effectiveness and success of the various crisis communication and management methods used by the governments of different countries. 3, 2021, pp.1-7.
• The Carnival Triumph Cruise Ship’s Crisis Management This paper is a critical analysis of the crisis communication surrounding the marooning of the Carnival Triumph Cruise ship. The contribution of the Carnival’s PR in addressing the Triumph crisis is subject to analysis to […]
• Tesco Plc’s Crisis & Communication Management The company, Tesco Plc, must prioritise its activities, decision, and other factors to resolve the effects of the current economic depression on the company with the resolve to avoid such pitfalls.
• Crisis Management Models for Risk Assessment To assess the relative risk of each of the risk events, the assessment tool quantified the probability of occurrence, impact on students, impact on staff, impact on learning, the preparedness of the institution, and the […]
• The 2012 Tel Aviv Bus Bombing and Crisis Management Musa was the manufacturer and detonator of the bomb, which he used Mafarji to deliver inside the Tel Aviv-based commuter bus.
• Understanding Crisis Management and Resilience The book is especially interesting for understanding the global financial crisis, the climate crisis, the poverty crisis, and the financial crisis of 2008. In this book, the author discusses the origin, dynamics, and uses of […]
• Pennsylvania’s Crisis Management and Response For instance, the development of relationships between service agencies, national and local crisis responding organizations, state and local affiliates, and even governments is required for efficient planning that allows to minimize the consequences of a […]
• Poor Communication in the National Emergency Crisis and Disaster Management Authority The UAE National Emergency Crisis and Disaster Management Authority is a quite essential and recently introduced government department that addresses various natural and man-made accidents and issues and maintains the safety of the community.
• Quality Management in a Crisis in Qatar The development of the new economy, occurring in the context of strategic change, may be accompanied by the emergence of unstable or crises. As for the solution to the current crisis, the government needs to […]
• Managing an Organization During a Crisis To alter the negative consequences of the crisis and enhance our situation, we need to create a video message in which our company will express our concerns and regrets about the tragic death of a […]
• Being a Public Manager in Times of Crisis Stakeholder Engagement and Storytelling might be implemented to acquire the public’s confidence, and public managers need to understand how their citizens will view their ideas and activities.
• COVID-19 Crisis Management in China vs. the US The current paper is going to provide a detailed analysis of crisis management approaches taken by China and the United States in an attempt to curb the Covid-19 pandemic and protect the local population from […]
• Public Transportation in Dubai: Critical Factors Affecting Crisis Management Problems RTA is currently facing are related to the sector’s exposure to numerous environmental and market forces that require constant changes and foster relational complexity.
• Aviation Crisis Management Toolkit The impacts on these organisations vary considerably depending on the type of crisis, the severity of the crisis and the way in which the organisation has planned for, and responded to the crisis.
• Crisis Management: The Interactive Simulation The objective of this article is to outline and explain one of these new techniques, the interactive simulation, and to discuss some of the problems and possibilities of this approach.
• Crisis Management in the Healthcare Setup The process starting from the reception up to the discharging of the patient needs much attention in order to avert any crises.
• Tsunami: Crisis Management The saving of lives during a disaster and emergency incident will depend on the proper coordination of the rescue team, delivery of the right skills to the scene which can only be achieved through the […]
• Crisis Management: 1998 North American Ice Storm According to the academy of management executives the field of crises management is still in the young stages of development and thus more is required to be done so as to get the required effectiveness.
• Crisis Management and Communications Though it may not be entirely responsible for the management of the crisis it’s usually instrumental in communicating the strategies laid down to deal with the crisis and especially to the media.
• Crisis Response, Behavior Intervention, and Management Safety of the children is a priority, and the crisis management team ought to be trained on the identification of stress-induced symptoms in children as a result of a crisis.
• Financial Crisis Management in the United Nations A crisis can be defined as the perception of an abnormal situation that is beyond the capability of the business and its scope to deal with.
• Crisis Management and Environmentalism: A Natural Fit For an organization to be effective in planning, it should integrate both global and the local aspects of managing a crisis.
• Templeton Engine Company’s Crisis Management The advantage of this alternative is that it will help the company to regulate the price of its products because it will be using its own raw materials.
• Clinical Aspects of Crisis Management What I realized working on the case is that there are differences between the patients who are in crisis and the ones who are not, and the primary is their desire to cooperate with me […]
• Hurricane Harvey Crisis Management This paper will provide a series of bullet points that will outline the damage, how it was handled, what outcomes were present, and the possible ways in which it could have been done better.4.
• Crisis Management in the Film “Apollo 13” However, it was also a success, as, despite major damage to the spaceship, all astronauts returned to the Earth in safety. The film shows that the crew and the team worked hard to develop ways […]
• European Union: Legitimacy and the Euro Crisis Management Chapters included in the paper will discuss such topics as sources of legitimacy in the EU, the Eurozone crisis, main actors that should participate in the management of the crisis, as well as problems of […]
• Crisis Management and National Security Strategy This is a crisis because the company will lack the expertise to enhance the operations of the business. In addition, crisis assessment is a vital approach to ensure that the crisis does not affect or […]
• Risk and Crisis Management and Business Continuity The lack of clarity in the definitions of the identified concepts and the vagueness of the relationships between them undermine the field of risk management in several areas.
• Crisis Management for Vulnerable Populations The main goal of this paper is to assess alternative systems for communication and describe vulnerable populations and strategies for reaching and communicating with them during a crisis.
• Tourism Industry: Emergency and Crisis Management The technological and scientific breakthrough that has been witnessed over the past several decades has created the foil for the rapid development of the tourism industry. What are the primary causes of emergencies and crises […]
• FlyDubai Company’s History and Crisis Management The company takes pride in its comfortability and environmental friendliness, presented by loyalty and security of the staff, and by fuel productivity. Despite a horrific incident, the company made everything possible to sustain its popularity […]
• School Crisis Management: Bomb Threat and Shooting As for the shooting incident, the initial step was to calm down the students to avoid the panic, and after that, inform the rest of the school about the red code situation and initiate the […]
• Business Continuity and Crisis Management The biggest challenge for an organisation operating in a disaster-prone business environment is the development of mechanisms of predicting risks and ways of protecting their brands from collapsing in the event of organisational crisis.
• Crisis and Risk Management Communication: Qatar World Cup 2020 While the willingness of the Qatar government to look innocent is quite understandable, the fact that the authorities’ statements conflict with the ones that cycle around the modern media exacerbates the situation for Qatar, creating […]
• Crisis Management: Overdose of Premature Babies in Indianapolis, Indiana The hospital was quick to respond to the issue and it gave details of the error that had led to the death of the premature babies.
• Crisis Management in the Organization Crisis is an unexpected catastrophe happening in or to a company and it threatens the operations of the company. Recognize the crisis Identify the potential effect of the crisis on the company and take action.
• PRs Role in Crisis Management: BP and Toyota Provision The department of PR should ensure that there is the improvement of an even provision at the crisis management stage.
• Crisis Management: Toyota Company and EU Crisis is subject to a domain of several variables particularly in international business which include; the features of the event, the significance to both parties, the magnitude of the impact on both parties and the […]
• Crisis Management at Organizational Level They have also put in place measures to be taken and how the public is expected to respond in case of a tsunami emergency.
• Organizational Crises: Management or Crisis Response System Some of key learning points include: Planning for crisis Stages of crisis Causes of crisis Consequences of crisis Cautions of crisis Traditional approach on crisis management New approach to crisis management Complexity-informed framework for effective […]
• Crisis Management: Online Banking Security Breach Despite the initial statement, the negative media attention given to the company, and growing concerns from our consumers, clients, stakeholders and the public as a whole, the company has taken upon itself to get to […]
• Crisis Management: Fire and Rescue Services The model postulates that for a crisis to be effectively managed there is need to define the crisis that has occurred and the factors that have contributed to the occurrence of the crisis.
• Crisis Management From the Perspective of the Austrian Business Cycle
• Crisis Management and Emergency Response Plans: OSHA Standards
• Financial Crisis Management: Why Did Alitalia Go Out of Business
• Difference Between Crisis Management and Risk Management
• Learning From the Katrina About Crisis Management
• Effective Crisis Management Techniques
• Bhopal Disaster – an Example of Unsuccessful Crisis Management
• The Crisis Management Lesson From Toyota: The Smart Business Process
• Conceptual Dynamic Framework for Crisis Management
• Afghanistan Public Sector: From Crisis Management to Comprehensive Reform Strategy
• Funding Hungary: Exposing Normal and Dysfunctional Crisis Management
• Crisis Management and Financial Stability: Some Lessons from the United Kingdom
• Baderman Island Crisis Management Plan
• Crisis Management Approaches and Philanthropic Motives
• Gender and Rescue Services in Crisis Management: Male Leadership Positions and Women’s Personal Experiences
• The Crisis Management System in Germany
• Information Literacy Skills Assessment in Digital Crisis Management
• Crisis Management: The 2010 Melbourne Storm Salary Cap Scandal
• Crisis Management’s Psychological Aspects
• Analysis of Maggi Crisis: Crisis Management and Image Restoration through Social Networking
• Crisis Management Strategies and the Long-Term Effects of Product Recalls on Firm Value
• Nestlé Crisis Management: The Baby Killer
• Mattel Crisis Management or Management Crisis: Barbie Dolls and Hot Wheels Cars
• Preparing for Future: Creating a Crisis Management Team
• Business Ethics and Crisis Management: Circumstances for a Second Chance
• Crisis Management Dilemmas: Differences in Attitudes Towards Reactive Communication Strategies
• Crisis Management in the Reformed European Agricultural Policy
• Crisis Management: the Most Important Factors in the Hospitality Industry
• Systemic Crisis Management and Central Bank Independence
• Crisis Management Impact on the Accounting Policy of Enterprises
• General Motors: The Crisis Management and Controversy Today
• Crisis Management: Cathay Pacific Labor Dispute Analysis
• What Roles Does the Media Play in Crisis Management
• Crisis Management in Belgium: The Case of Coca‐Cola
• Role of Apologies in Crisis Management
• Crisis Management: Resolution for a European Banking System
• Role of Public Leaders in Crisis Management
• Crisis Management at Lego: Save the Whales
• Which Company Has the Best Crisis Management
• Integrating the Crisis Management Perspective into the Strategic Management Process
• Are Labor Market Reforms the Answer to Post-Euro-Crisis Management?
• Why Is Social Media Monitoring an Important Part of Issue and Crisis Management?
• What Is the Most Important Thing in Crisis Management?
• Is Crisis Management a Part of Risk Management?
• What Are the Most Important Components of a Tourism Crisis Management Plan?
• What Makes a Good Crisis Management Plan?
• How Does Having an Ethical Crisis Management Plan Benefit a Company?
• What Is Considered the Most Important Step of Crisis Management?
• What Are the Tools of Crisis Management?
• How Are Risk Management and Crisis Management Similar?
• What Is the Relationship Between Crisis Management and Crisis Communication?
• What Is the Purpose of Crisis Management?
• Is Crisis Management Part of the Business Continuity Plan?
• What Is the Importance of Disaster Risk Reduction Management and Crisis Management?
• Why Should Ethical Decision Making Be Incorporated Into Crisis Management?
• Does Starbucks Have a Crisis Management Team?
• What Is the First Rule of Crisis Management?
• Is There a Correlation Between Organizational Culture and Crisis Management?
• What Is the Role of Internal Audit in Crisis Management?
• Is Crisis Management and Disaster Management the Same?
• What Skills Are Required for Crisis Management?
• Who Is Responsible for Crisis Management?
• How Does Crisis Management Affect Organizational Culture?
• What Is the Difference Between Crisis Management and Disaster Recovery?
• What Is Crisis Management in Public Relations Strategies?
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Mastering change: The new CFO mandate

One trend about CFOs that we’ve confirmed after years of research : the finance leader’s role  is ever evolving. That has never been more true than it is today, during an era of dramatic change—with, for instance, the COVID-19 pandemic, increased attention being paid to social and environmental issues, and the accelerated adoption of technology to address myriad business and social problems. All these trends are triggering fundamental shifts in how people and businesses get work done. According to the latest McKinsey Global Survey  on the role of the CFO, 1 The online survey was in the field from March 16 to April 5, 2021, and garnered responses from 351 participants in the C-suite, the finance function, or both. Of the participants, 151 are company CFOs and another 36 are CFOs of a business function or individual business unit. To adjust for differences in response rates, the data are weighted by the contribution of each respondent’s nation to global GDP. finance leaders are deeply involved in determining how businesses adapt to these trends—particularly in those places where digital and finance intersect.

The newest survey results show that in the throes of the pandemic, the CFO’s focus has shifted toward crisis management and away from longer-term responsibilities such as strategic leadership, organizational change, and finance capabilities. But the results also point to a way forward for CFOs and their companies, as more industries and economies move toward recovery—suggesting the degree to which finance leaders can have more impact in key areas of the business, and how companies can take advantage of missed opportunities to leverage the CFO’s insights and leadership.

Finance leaders are deeply involved in determining how businesses adapt to significant changes in how work gets done—particularly in places where digital and finance intersect.

In recent years, the CFO’s responsibilities have grown in a few important areas—particularly in digital. Between 2016 and 2021, the share of finance leaders who say that they are responsible for their companies’ digital activities has more than tripled. Investor relations has also grown dramatically as an area of focus for CFOs. Nearly two-thirds of finance leaders say that they are responsible for these activities, up from 44 percent in 2016.

Across the entire finance function, the survey results suggest that digital adoption is on the rise. The share of finance-function respondents reporting the use of robotics and artificial-intelligence (AI) tools has more than tripled since our 2018 survey, while the share saying that they use advanced analytics for finance tasks has almost doubled. What’s more, respondents say that their companies’ IT and digital investments have paid off. Nearly six in ten report either a positive or very positive ROI from investments made in the past year.

Additionally, the survey results suggest that increasing technology adoption in finance could have lasting effects on a company’s overall resilience. Respondents who describe their companies as significantly more prepared for future crises because of their response to the COVID-19 pandemic also report greater use of digital and automation technologies within the finance function. Among the companies that are best prepared, most are using advanced analytics for business operations.

Yet for all digital technology’s promise, the outlook for further adoption remains mixed. According to respondents, the most common obstacles to adopting new technologies are familiar ones: the high up-front costs, a lack of skills or capabilities needed to build and implement the technologies, and cultural and organizational resistance to changing existing processes. Still, no single reason is cited by much more than one-quarter of respondents, for either overall finance processes or planning, budgeting, and forecasting.

For finance organizations in the early days of digital adoption, where to start? The results suggest looking at those activities where increased use of digital technologies would add the most value—namely, revenue forecasting, cash-flow forecasting, and scenario management. Yet only 24 to 36 percent of finance respondents say that their companies currently use digital in these activities.

The survey highlights clear opportunities for the CFO to reengage with the CEO. When asked about the interactions CFOs have had with their CEOs on critical activities during the pandemic, both digital and environmental, social, and governance (ESG) topics took a back seat to the 11 other topics we asked about. That could change, however: with the increasing prevalence of digital technologies in finance’s day-to-day work and an increasing CFO focus on relations with investors (whose interest in ESG has only grown over time), the CFO and CEO will likely need to communicate more directly on these issues.

Indeed, CFOs have a meaningful role to play in their companies’ ESG programs—especially now, as finance leaders and CEOs report that investor interest in these issues has increased dramatically during the pandemic. For all three areas related to environmental, social, and governance programs, CFO involvement also seems to support greater alignment between these programs and the company’s strategic and financial objectives.

By contrast, CFO and CEO interactions on organizational transformation have increased significantly during the COVID-19 crisis, and the data show that CFOs’ leadership in this area adds significant value. Respondents say that they are pursuing transformations for a range of reasons, particularly in support of performance improvement and digital initiatives.

A transformation initiated by the CFO is just as likely to succeed as one started by the CEO, even though it is much more common for the CEO to initiate such an effort. What’s more, finance leaders view their own role and contribution in a transformation more expansively than do their fellow executives. CFOs say that their time on transformations would be best spent on role-modeling new mindsets and behaviors, setting high-level goals, and communicating the transformation’s results—when, in practice, they are most often charged with traditional finance-oriented responsibilities.

Looking ahead

It’s no surprise, perhaps, that CFOs have been at the forefront of addressing the many challenges that the global COVID-19 pandemic has wrought across industries and geographies. Many of them have had to focus on their business’s shorter-term needs and have closely monitored performance, costs, and productivity. But the longer-term implications of many critical business trends—digital, transformation, and ESG among them—are now apparent and require the CFO’s leadership as well. Given the CFO’s focus on the kind of value creation that relies on their deep understanding of the economics of the company’s business model, their strategic perspective on sector-shaping trends, and their role as thought partner with the CEO and the board, they are best qualified to drive these changes.

CFOs are uniquely qualified to drive changes in how their companies experiment with new technologies, evaluate ESG risks and opportunities, and execute transformations.

In particular, CFOs can continue to experiment with new tools and technologies, digitize their own functions, and, with that experience, help spread digitization throughout the organization. They can lead the way in evaluating ESG risks and opportunities by factoring ESG-related criteria into the company’s investment objectives and decision making. CFOs can also take on a bigger role in executing transformations, beyond just traditional financial tasks, since they control most of the key business levers that determine a transformation’s success.

The contributors to the development and analysis of this survey include Ankur Agrawal , a partner in McKinsey’s New York office; Christian Grube, a partner in the Munich office; and Meagan Hill, a vice president in McKinsey’s Transformation Practice who is based in the Boston office, where Jacob Marcus is an associate partner.

They wish to thank Vanessa Palmer for her contributions to this article.

This article was edited by Daniella Seiler, a senior editor in the New York office.

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New Healthy Community Center transforms historic library into beacon of wellness

Senior Staff Writer, Photographer Ohio State Wexner Medical Center

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On a bright, sunny afternoon in early May , nearly 300 members of Columbus’ Near East Side gathered to celebrate their new community center. Among the first to arrive was Ann B. Walker, a centenarian deeply woven into the fabric of the neighborhood.

Seated in the front row at the ribbon-cutting ceremony of The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center Healthy Community Center, Walker looked thoughtfully at the transformation of the building located on Long Street in the historically Black neighborhood. Once bustling with readers as the Martin Luther King Jr. branch of the Columbus Metropolitan Library, the structure has been turned into a hub of health and wellness, thanks to a $5.1 million investment from The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center , which will operate the community center.

Walker, who will turn 101 this year, had good reason to reminisce. As an award-winning TV journalist, she once interviewed Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.

“I was just thinking about how much things have changed,” Walker shares, her gaze lingering on an image of King Jr. installed in the building. “It’s great that it can now be used as a health center. There are people in the area who need services and don’t have access to them.”

The Healthy Community Center is more than just a building: it’s a hub for the neighborhood, focusing on promoting healthier lifestyles. With plans to host dietary and exercise workshops, health screenings  and educational health programming, it’s a gathering space that’s geared to meet the real needs of the community.

From books to health: A legacy reimagined

“The history of this place begins with a longing to learn,” says Joshua Joseph, MD , the center’s medical director, at the opening ceremony.

He shared the center’s journey from its origin as the city’s East Side library in the 1960s. He recalled the words of Martin Luther King Sr., who spoke at the library’s dedication in 1969:

“You have a beautiful space conducive to reading, but books are worth nothing unless you read them.”

Dr. Joseph says those words are reflected in the building’s new purpose: “It’s a beautiful building, but it means nothing if it’s not filled every day with programming and people improving health and wellness."

Read about the events and programming taking place at the Healthy Community Center

Programming geared for a healthy community

The transformation was a true community effort, says the center’s director, Javonte McDonald. It required a commitment to understanding and meeting community needs, which influenced every aspect of the center, from the state-of-the-art teaching kitchen for nutrition classes to the café that supports local entrepreneurs to an art gallery that spotlights area artists.

“It will help address pressing needs in creative and collaborative ways to improve the health of the communities that we serve,” says John J. Warner, MD, chief executive officer of the Ohio State Wexner Medical Center and executive vice president at Ohio State.

Local artists contribute artwork displayed in the Healthy Community Center.

The Healthy Community Center helps fill a gap in providing access to healthy foods to area residents.

A demonstration kitchen will be used to teach healthy cooking and nutrition skills to community members.

Members of the community and leaders from the Ohio State Wexner Medical Center cut the ribbon for the grand opening of the Healthy Community Center.

The Healthy Community Center honors the legacy of the building's former use as the Martin Luther King Jr. branch of the Columbus Metropolitan Library.

Community members at the grand opening of the Healthy Community Center.

Dr. Joseph says his team is working closely with community partners to match services with community needs. “Ohio State has a vested interest in supporting healthy lifestyle changes so everyone has the opportunity to lead longer, healthier lives,” he says.

The Healthy Community Center will have a café with indoor and outdoor seating. The space will serve as a business incubator for an independent restaurant owner. The center’s partners include the Mid-Ohio Food Collective, Partners Achieving Community Transformation and the Growing and Growth Collective.

Longtime resident Pamela Shields, who founded the Urban Aging Residents Coalition, emphasized the center’s role in bridging health disparities .

“Our focus is health, wealth and wellness. We aim to get African Americans, people of color and marginalized groups healthy, attending their medical appointments and involved in research studies,” she says.

A neighborhood cornerstone

As the community looks ahead, the Healthy Community Center is set to become a bedrock of the Near East Side.

“My greatest hope is that the entire community sees this center as a resource,” says Julialynne Walker, with the Bronzeville Growers Market. She’s also Ann B. Walker’s daughter. “If everyone welcomes, embraces and uses it fully, we will see a change in our community’s health over time.”

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Applications of Remote Sensing Over Plateau Mountainous Areas

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Plateau mountainous areas occupy about one fifth of the Earth’s surface, they are home to approximately one tenth of the global population, and provide goods and services to about half of humanity. Plateau mountain environments are essential to the survival of the global ecosystem. Many of them are experiencing degradation in terms of accelerated soil erosion, landslides, and rapid loss of habitat and genetic diversity. Compared with other landscapes, plateau mountainous areas are increasingly threatened by climate warming, posing a threat to future water security, biodiversity, and sustainable development. For example, climate warming poses an increased threat of natural hazards from the mountain cryosphere, such as glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), avalanches, slope failures, debris flows, or a combination of one or more hazards in a cascading chain. Other degradations also greatly threaten the plentiful ecosystem services provided by plateau mountainous areas. Given the significance of the mountain eco-environment, it is imperative to be able to track its rapid change, with the goal of being able to develop predictive capacity. Hence, proper management of mountain resources and socio-economic development of the people deserves immediate action. This Research Topic aims to collect the current development of remote sensing applications for the monitoring of plateau mountainous areas. Remote sensing has advanced rapidly in recent years, both in the physical hardware of the sensors and in the algorithms or methodologies used to subsequently process the data. However, the challenges associated with imaging areas of high relief are great, due to the strong topographic effect, frequent cloud over, terrain shadowing, and limited ground observation. Meanwhile, the highly dynamic environment of mountain area further brocks the application of remote sensing for mountain areas. Topics can include but are not limited to: • Mountain Hazards Remote Sensing Identification and Monitoring Techniques; • Quantitative Remote Sensing Retrieval and Modeling in Plateau Mountain Areas; • Remote Sensing Applications in Plateau Lakes; • Application of Remote Sensing in High-altitude Agriculture.

Keywords : Plateau Mountain Areas, Remote Sensing Applications, Mountain disaster and hazards monitoring, Plateau Lakes, High-altitude Agriculture

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