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Article contents

Religion in schools in the united states.

• Suzanne Rosenblith Suzanne Rosenblith Clemson University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.46
• Published online: 28 June 2017

The relationship between religion and public education has been fraught with misunderstanding, confusion, tension, and hostility. Perhaps more so than other forms of identity, for many, religion evokes a strong sense of exclusivity. Unlike other forms of identity, for many, particularly the religiously orthodox, religious identity is based on a belief in absolute truth. And for some of the orthodox, adherence to this truth is central to their salvation. Further, unlike cultural identity, religion is oftentimes exclusive in its fundamental claims and assertions. In short, matters of religious faith are indeed high stakes. Yet its treatment in public schools is, for the most part, relatively scant. Some of this is because of uncertainty among educators as to what the law permits, and for others it is uncertainty of its rightful place in democratic pluralistic schools.

• public education
• first amendment

Introduction

This article seeks to provide an overview of the historical, legal, and curricular relationship between religion and public schooling in the United States. This relationship, often fraught with tension, attempts to reconcile often incommensurable public goals. The article begins with a review of the history of religion in the public domain. Since public schools are often thought of as microcosms of society, it is important to understand the relationship of religion within society. Following this overview, the article delves more deeply into seminal court cases that have more or less cemented the legal constraints of religion in public education. With legal parameters in mind, the next section explores the relationship of religion in public schools from curricular perspectives. Moving beyond a discussion of creationism in science class, this section aims to examine the benefits of broader inclusion of religious perspectives as a way to approximate pluralistic and democratic schools. The final section explores broader concerns for a liberal democracy—pluralism, autonomy, and respect—as it wrestles with the appropriateness of religion and religious identity in public schools.

History of Religion in the Public Sphere

To understand the contemporary relationship between religion and public schooling requires a review of the history of religion in the public sphere. Many schoolchildren in the United States have been taught that the first European settlers to the colonies fled Europe and the Church of England to seek freedom to exercise their religious beliefs. And while this is true, far from the feel-good narrative that some like to extend (Baritz, 1964 ), the first settlers, the Puritans, were an extremely rigid and dogmatic group of religious believers who settled in the colonies not for freedom of religion but to practice and entrench their religious beliefs (Kaveny, 2013 ). They did not believe in a secular state but rather believed their version of Christianity to be predominant, and as far as they could see, the only justifiable established religion (Fiske, 1889 ). The Puritans believed Satan lurked around every corner and that religion was the essential tool to ward off Satan’s trickery. This in fact was the basis for the 1647 Old Deluder Satan Act (Constitution Society, 1647 ).

Common School Movement

As time progressed after the American Revolution, leaders like Horace Mann and Benjamin Rush made calls for a more organized public school system (Rudolph, 1965 ). Horace Mann famously called for the creation of the Common School (Hinsdale, 1898 ). Though Mann grew up, like so many, in a deeply religious home, he did not think these new public schools needed to be centrally religious. That is, their focus was not to be on inculcating biblical views, but rather for Mann, the focus of the Common School was to cultivate a tolerant, what we might call today, pluralistic, citizenry (Mann & Massachusetts Board of Education, 1957 ). Morality, more so than literal scriptural reading, was what Mann called for. For Mann, the chief concern in creating this Common School was attending to the increasing social strife that came as a result of the development of industry (Mann, 1965 ). Further, Mann was concerned about racial/ethnic hostility as the newest waves of immigrants to the United States were from Southern and Eastern Europe. Not only did they look different than the Northern and Western European immigrants, but they came with different languages, customs, and cultures. Assimilating them into a decidedly American culture was a goal for Mann and his allies (Hayes, 2006 ). All in all, the most orthodox religious believers were supportive of Mann’s efforts because these common schools exuded what was considered a nondenominational Protestantism (Moore, 2000 ). On the one hand was the belief that if you wanted the kind of hard-working, morally upright, conscientious citizens, then religion necessarily needed to be a part of the Common School. On the other hand, the religion that was foundational to the school did not need to be sectarian so as to privilege one group to the exclusion of others.

And so the Common School and then the Public School very much functioned with a role for religion—in many/most states, the school day began with a biblical recitation. In many schools, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , McGuffey Readers were the main textbook (Westerhoff, 1978 ). The Readers , unlike their predecessor the New England Primer , mirrored this nondenominational Protestantism by inculcating morality through a veiled Christianity as opposed to a direct and overt use of the King James Bible in efforts to educate young citizens to become literate. For example, the New England Primer had a solemn prayer to be recited everyday, which states, “Oh Lord God, I beseech thee, of thy fatherly goodness and mercy to pardon all my offenses which in though, word, or deed, I have this day committed against thee and thy holy law” ( The New England Primer , 1805 ). The McGuffey Reader , in comparison, invoked a more nondenominational, less orthodox, religious tone. In one of its lessons it states, “I hope you have said your prayers and thanked your Father in Heaven for all his goodness … for your good health, and a blessing of home” (McGuffey, 1836 ).

Modernization and Industrialization

A significant, some might argue fatal, shift for those advocating the centrality of religion to public schools came in the early mid- 20th century . As has always been the case, public schools, serving as microcosms of society, reflect not just the dominant values and ethos of society, but also serve an important economic and intellectual purpose. That is, to the degree that the needs of society change, so must the public schools. Public schools were the central place to prepare the young for future citizenship. While an important part of that citizenship was moral and social, increasingly with industrialization, that role was also intellectual and economic (Fraser, 2001 ). The frame through which public schools cultivated curriculum changed substantially. For example, the type of citizen and future worker needed expanded from someone who was morally upright to someone who could contribute to the burgeoning Scientific and Industrial Revolutions. Shifting from the absolutism and fixidity of religion to the flexibility and tentativeness of science required a rethinking of pedagogy and curriculum (Greene, 2012 ). Further, with the country’s religious diversity increasing and the country itself maturing, religion seemed to be less central to the public schools. In contrast, understanding that ethical decision-making required an understanding of the context in which a person might find herself as opposed to the absolutes favored by religious belief, required a more open-ended, what today we might call, critical reasoning approach, to teaching and learning (Sears & Carper, 1998 ). The idea that the world was not absolute and fixed but ever changing, caused a real need for a different sort of education. As nondenominational Protestantism lost its stronghold over public schools in favor of a more science-focused secularism, Christian Orthodox—the Evangelical—become its harshest critics. They argue that the removal of God (religion) from the public sphere is a threat to their faith and a violation of their rights (Larson, 1997 ). Court cases related to religion and public education seem to lend some credence to their claims. The tension between the religiously orthodox, specifically evangelical Christians, and the secular public schools began in the mid- 20th century and has persisted to the present day (Deckman, 2004 ).

To survey popular media, particularly cable news, one might depict the current state of tension between those advocating for more religion in public schools and those advocating for its removal in the following way. On the one hand you have religious zealots making calls for prayer, creationism, released time, religious clubs, posting the Ten Commandments (Rogers, 2010 ; Shreve, 2010 ) and to the other extreme you have atheist zealots who refuse to consider any idea that has some association with religion as appropriate for public schools (Hedges, 2008 ). While these caricatures might fit some in each of these groups, contrary to the popular media depiction is, instead, a conflict built upon a reliance on different aspects of the first part of the First Amendment. That is, those advocating for more religion in public schools cite the “Free Exercise Clause” as the basis for their demands (Hodgson, 2004 ), while those arguing for a relatively “religious free public school” argue that anything less than this would be an instantiation of government support or “Establishment” of religion (Long, 2012 ). Given this, it is important to understand the legal context in which these tensions arise.

Religion and the Law

Perspectives on establishment.

The first part of the first amendment to the U.S. Constitution reads, “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof” (U.S. Const. amend. I). The establishment clause , as it is commonly called, is meant to protect individuals from the establishment of an official state religion. In contrast, the function of the free exercise clause is to protect individual religious freedom. In terms of legal impact, the establishment clause has historically garnered more attention because of the wide-sweeping impact a legal decision will have. In contrast, free exercise cases address issues that pertain largely to religious minorities, so the impact is smaller and more context dependent.

Typically, when justices decide Establishment Clause cases they are asked to determine whether an enactment effectively establishes, or supports, a state religion. There are generally three different judicial perspectives on establishment, strict separation, accommodation, and neutral separation. Strict separationists invoke the idea of a wall separating Church and State. For strict separationists there is no instance in which an enactment would be tolerated (Neuhaus, 2007 ). Accommodationists point to the Framers’ “original intent” and argue that the only thing the Framers were concerned about in terms of the role of religion in government was the establishment of an official State Church. Barring this, certain accommodations are permissible as long as government does not prefer one religion to another (Massaro, 2005 ). Finally, the neutral separation position examines enactments with a slightly different lens arguing that what is most important is official State neutrality between religion and non-religion and thus argue that to adhere to the establishment clause may mean at times accommodating religion if it is to maintain neutrality between religion and non-religion (Fox, 2011 ; Temperman, 2010 ). Generally speaking, when focusing on the major court cases that have impacted public education, the neutral separation position has carried the day when it comes to issues such as school prayer, religious instruction, and released time.

Immediately following the Civil War, Congress passed the 14th amendment that states, “No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States … ” What this means is one’s national citizenship is one’s highest source of rights. The degree to which state laws contradict federal/constitutional laws, state laws must give way. For our discussion this is important because it is the application of the 14th amendment to the 1st amendment that holds public schools and public school employees to the restrictions of the 1st amendment ( Everson v. Board of Education ). The 14th amendment application to the 1st amendment is also essential since it is the states, rather than the federal government, that hold substantive influence over public school curriculum and policy.

Several watershed cases have firmly established the preference for the neutral separation position. In McCollum v. Board of Education ( 1948 ), the court struck down an Illinois program that provided time during the school day on school premises for “released time” for religious instruction. Arguing that school personnel were involved with the administration and execution of this program was tantamount to supporting religion it was found unconstitutional. In contrast, the courts sided with the school district in Zorach v. Clauson ( 1952 ) where students were released from the school premises (with parental permission) during the school day for religious instruction arguing that it was the school’s job to maintain neutrality between religion and non-religion, and since it was the parents and students who voluntarily signed up for the released time program, the school did not violate the establishment clause by permitting such a program to continue.

Key Court Cases

In the middle of the 20th century it was commonplace for the school day to begin with a religious prayer or invocation. Beginning in 1962 , cases made their way through the courts, and in every instance the court found such prayers violated the establishment clause. Engel v. Vitale ( 1962 ) concerned a New York State Board of Regents Prayer that was to be read over the intercom system in every New York public school at the start of each school day, “Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers, and our country. Amen.” The court ruled that the prayer violated the establishment clause because although, nondenominational (in a sense), it still favored religion over non-religion. Further, because the prayer was broadcast at the start of the school day, students had no choice (captive audience) but to listen. The following year, the court in an 8-1 decision in Abington School District v. Schempp ( 1963 ) determined that a commonwealth of Pennsylvania law that read, “Ten verses from the Holy Bible shall be read without comment at the opening of each public school on each school day” was unconstitutional. Of greater importance in this case was the distinction made between the unconstitutionality of practicing religion in public school with the constitutionally permissible act of studying religion in public school. That is, if there is an educational purpose to studying religion, then presumably this would be permissible. The fact that the law included the clause “without comment” made it appear to the majority of justices that it served a devotional, rather than an educational, purpose. The second significance of this case is that it offered the first two of what later became a three-prong test used to adjudicate Establishment clause cases. The first prong asks what is the primary purpose of the enactment? Is it religious or secular? The second prong asks what is the primary effect of the enactment—religious or secular? In cases where the primary purpose and effect are secular the enactment is said to be permissible. This formula is particularly useful when determining whether curriculum, such as evolution or creationism, for example, is permitted. Epperson v. Arkansas ( 1968 ) addressed the matter of an Arkansas law prohibiting the teaching of evolution. The law was ruled unconstitutional on the grounds that the primary purpose of the law was to advance and protect a religious view. Following the Epperson decision was the famous case Lemon v. Kurtzman ( 1971 ). It was famous mainly because of the establishment of the third prong used to adjudicate establishment clause cases. At issue in this case was the question of whether public schools could reimburse private schools for the salaries of their teachers who taught secular subjects. Since the majority of the private schools were parochial, the matter fell under establishment. In deciding that it was unconstitutional for the public schools to pay the salaries of the parochial school teachers, the court determined that while primary purpose and primary effect were central to deciding constitutionality, a third prong, which says that the enactment must not foster an excessive entanglement between religion and government was needed. Paying the salaries of private school teachers who teach secular subjects may not serve a primarily religious purpose or have a primarily religious effect, but it certainly would foster an excessive entanglement between government and religion in that government would be very involved with accounting for their investments in a parochial school.

Contemporary Tensions

Other important Establishment Clause cases related to education include Wallace v. Jaffree ( 1985 ). This case dealt with the constitutionality of moments of silence. In this case, the state of Alabama allowed for a moment of silence for the purpose of meditation or private prayer. While moments of silence with no explicit purpose have been found constitutional, this law was found unconstitutional on the grounds that it had a clear religious purpose. Edwards v. Aguillard ( 1987 ) concerned a Louisiana “balanced treatment act,” a law that required creationism be taught alongside evolution to maintain neutrality. The court, in a 7-2 decision found the law unconstitutional according to all three prongs of the Lemon test. The courts have ruled similarly in more recent court cases such as Selman v. Cobb County School District ( 2006 ), which ruled that “warning labels” on evolution texts violated the Establishment Clause as well as Freiler v. Tangipahoa Parish Board of Education ( 1997 ) where the majority ruled that a “disclaimer” teachers were required to read before teaching evolution was unconstitutional.

In summary, since the 1940s when the 14th amendment was applied to the 1st amendment, public schools have been limited in what counts as permissible in relation to religion and public schooling. Summing up the legal parameters nicely is a document issued by the federal government entitled, “Federal Guidelines for Religious Expression in Schools ( 1997 ).” These guidelines, developed by a wide ranging panel first commissioned during the Clinton administration and then reauthorized under George W. Bush, emphasize that restrictions on religious expression are limited to school personnel while in their official capacity. Students, in contrast, have free range to express their religious beliefs in public schools, “short of harassment.” So although the religious orthodox have claimed that God has been removed from the public schools, the legal record tells us that free exercise has only been limited in the case of school officials and not students. For example, under the Equal Access Act ( 1984 ), student-initiated religious groups are permitted at schools. However, teachers cannot create or lead these groups, though they are allowed to monitor them.

Free Exercise

It is worth mentioning briefly the role of the free exercise clause in public schools. The chief function of the free exercise clause is to provide protection to religious minorities where laws created by the majority might serve unintentionally to restrict their free exercise. The most famous free exercise case related to public schools is, Wisconsin v. Yoder ( 1972 ). In this case, members of the Amish community requested an exemption from state compulsory attendance laws. Wisconsin law required all students to attend school until the age of 16. The Amish requested an exemption from the last two years of schooling (what essentially would have amounted to the first two years of high school). Their rationale was that the exposure Amish children would have could undermine their very way of life; indeed they claimed it threatened their survival. Ultimately, the court sided with the Amish for two very different reasons. First, acknowledging the importance of an education for participation in public life, the court reasoned that because the Amish live a self-sufficient life and by all outward expressions are a successful social unit, the exemption was warranted. Second, they reasoned that laws should not serve to threaten the very way of life of a religious minority group and the state ought to be respectful, not hostile, to minority religious views.

The law, then, sets clear parameters for what constitutes an establishment of religion and when individual free exercise should take precedent over generally applicable laws. One can conclude from this discussion that, contrary to the claim made by the religiously orthodox, public schools are not hostile to religion but rather are welcoming of religion in the public school in so far as it serves an educational purpose. This next section treats curriculum. Where, if at all should religion reside in the curriculum? What are the strengths and limitations of its inclusion? And finally, how does its inclusion contribute to cultivating a democratic ideal?

Curriculum serves as a battleground in education. Perhaps more than other dimensions of schooling, it tells us what is worth knowing and understanding. Curriculum, however, does not exist in a vacuum. Curriculum can be a deeply political issue, especially when dealing with the topics of science, history, and religion (Erekson, 2012 ). There is also significant discussion on who should set the curriculum priorities (the local school district, the states, or the federal government) as well as how much freedom teachers should have to move away from the set curriculum (Webb, 2002 ). How the curriculum treats religion has often created controversy. This is an even more complex issue in a society that is becoming both more non-religious as well as more religiously diverse (Pew Religious Center, 2015 ). Herbert Kliebard, the preeminent American curriculum historian, identifies four primary groups who have vied for supremacy in schools. These groups sought to define the U.S. educational curriculum in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . They were humanists, social meliorists, those focused on child development, and social efficiency educators (Kliebard, 2004 ; Labadee, 1987 ). Depending on which view enjoyed currency at a particular time in history, could determine whether religion, in some form, found its way into the formal narrative of schooling. Whereas the humanists were primarily concerned with fostering in students intellectual skills through the traditional disciplines, social meliorists thought curriculum should have a focus on activism—social improvement. Developmentalists thought that it was important to design curriculum around the development of the individual learner and social efficiency advocates thought curriculum should be limited to preparation for the workforce. As one examines different movements to include religion within the curriculum it is valuable to note which theoretical model is invoked. For these curricular approaches provide a lens into the view of religion with respect to larger society.

Religious Ways of Knowing

Discussions about the place of religion in the public schools are generally limited to robust discussions of the relevance and place of creationism in science classes (Berkman & Plutzer, 2010 ). Limiting discussions to creationism and science misses far more consequential arguments for an important and relevant role for religion in the public schools. Warren Nord has made perhaps the most convincing and comprehensive arguments for the centrality of religious ways of knowing to all disciplines (Nord, 2010 ). Nord argues that we fail to adequately teach common disciplines such as history and economics if we do not also provide religious ways of examining these disciplines (Nord & Haynes, 1998 ). For Nord it is not so much that religious perspectives have a stronger purchase on the truth of things, but rather the religious lens or a religious lens asks different sorts of questions than non-religious lenses and thus enlarges the conversations about various historical perspectives, economic theories, etc. For example, religion can serve as a type of critique of our current market-driven society or it can enlarge conversations related to scientific development, environmental sustainability, etc. (Nord, 1995 ). Nord, however, is not alone in his calls for including religion (religious perspectives) in the public school curriculum. Stephen Prothero and others have made a strong call for religious literacy (Prothero, 2007 ). Particularly since the terrorist attacks of 2001 in the United States, there has been a collective realization that, generally speaking, Americans are largely ignorant when it comes to understanding much about religion (Moore, 2007 ). Politicians and media outlets have often exploited this ignorance to create fear about Muslims, refugees, and the religious other. The contention goes, the more illiterate we are, the more religious intolerance predominates. This illiteracy is not limited to Islam, but can be said to be a general religious illiteracy (Wood, 2011 ). Nel Noddings has also made a forceful case for providing students with opportunities to explore existential questions in the public school classroom (Noddings, 2008 ). She argues that students already come to school bogged down with these types of questions, so schools have an obligation to help students make sense of them (Noddings, 1993 ). The Bible Literacy Project, an ambitious project endorsed by a wide range of academics and theologians provides a well-sourced textbook that can be used in schools (Bible Literacy Project, 2015 ). Though, their intentions may be less educational and more religious, many states have passed legislation permitting the teaching of the Bible in public schools (Goodman, 2006 ). The Bible used for literary or historical reasons seems justifiable (and fully constitutional). Furthermore, a “policy of inclusion” toward religion is vital for the “demands of a liberal, pluralist state” (Rosenblith, 2010 ).

Multiculturalism

A recent text by philosopher Liz Jackson makes the case that Muslims, in particular, are done a disservice when schools do not attend substantively to the study of Islam in schools. Her argument is based on three essential claims. First, in the absence of a substantive treatment in schools, citizens are left with popular culture depictions of Muslims (Jackson, 2010 ). These characterizations typically misrepresent Muslims. Second, the ways in which Muslims are depicted in social studies textbooks also take a narrow view. That is Muslims and Islam are largely depicted beginning in 2001 through the lens of terrorism (Jackson, 2011 ). Finally, Jackson argues that preservice teacher preparation programs do not do sufficient work in preparing future social studies teachers to be knowledgeable about Muslims and Islam, and therefore they are ill-equipped to disrupt the narratives perpetuated in textbooks or through popular culture (Jackson, 2011 ). It was not until the 2007 edition of the Banks and Banks Handbook on Multicultural Education that religion was even included as a form of identity (Banks & McGee Banks, 2007 ). Perhaps, U.S. schools should set up a system to certify teachers in the area of religious studies as they will “need to have the knowledge, skills, and dispositions” that would be expected in other disciplines (Rosenblith & Bailey, 2008 ). Other nations with liberal and pluralistic traditions such as Great Britain have been able to integrate religion into the curriculum while still embracing diversity and civic values (Rosenblith & Bailey, 2008 ).

Curricular Opportunities

There are many ways in which religion can be addressed in public school curricula that are both constitutionally permissible and educationally justifiable. Schools could provide world religion survey courses so that students have at least a superficial understanding of the range of religions in the world. Schools could offer controversial issues classes where religion could serve as both a topic and a perspective. Schools can study religious perspectives on a variety of current issues. Discussing religion does not need to lead to conflict or violence but can rather create an environment for “healthy, robust dialogue” (Rosenblith, 2008a ). In an increasingly diverse society, the ability to understand the perspectives of those from other faiths is vital for social cohesion and peace. Ignoring differences does not make intolerance dissipate but often allows stereotypes and antagonism to flourish. A pluralism that merely engages in “eschewing matters of truth, is wholly inadequate. It is inadequate because it fosters ignorance” (Rosenblith, 2008a ).

Central to carving out a curriculum that is both constitutionally permissible and educationally justifiable is framing it within a theory that honors the pluralistic and democratic commitments of public schools. Religious curriculum should contribute “to the public good” by helping students “develop knowledge and dispositions to resist religious intolerance and bigotry” and to understand and respect the “religious other” (Rosenblith, 2008b ).

Democracy, Autonomy, Pluralism

A central question when considering the role of religion in public education is grounded in questions about the role of the school, the rights of individuals, and the rights of groups. Perhaps more than many other forms of identity, religion casts the inherent tensions in bold terms. To paraphrase John Rawls’s central question in Political Liberalism , how does a society deeply divided on doctrinal grounds learn to get along (Rawls, 2005 )? To complicate matters further, even if we were to determine a mutually agreeable way forward for groups who are deeply divided by religious and political beliefs, what role would even more diverse individuals within those groups have in articulating their vision for a good life? These questions figure centrally in an understanding of religion and public schools.

Political theorists take a variety of perspectives on these matters. For some, the purpose of the public school is to privilege the pluralism of the nation and thus must be accommodating to such a degree that all particular groups feel included and valued (Kymlicka, 2001 , 2015 ). For others, the chief purpose of public schools is fundamentally civic and to that end, while schools should try to accommodate differences, they must not do so to such a degree that it jeopardizes a sense of civic identity and the values of a liberal democracy (Macedo, 1995 , 2000 ). While there are still others who fall somewhere in the middle, arguing that schools ought to promote a shared civic identity, but not at the expense of citizens finding the public school inhospitable to their particular religious views. In these instances, schools ought to accommodate religious believers by using levers such as opt-outs for curricular materials they find religiously objectionable if these levers prevent the groups from exiting the public schools (Gutmann, 1995 ). Others stress the importance of individual autonomy for students as the most important goal when looking at the often conflicting values of multiculturalism and civic liberalism (Reich, 2002 ).

Others are concerned about minority voices within particular religious groups (Okin, 1998 ). As Susan Okin points out, out of a desire to accommodate the free exercise of religious minority groups, there can be a denial of the individual rights that are the cornerstone of a liberal society. She asks what societies should do with religious groups that promote forced marriages, remove students from formal education, or prevent any outside socialization (Okin, 2002 ). Even though defenders of religious minorities may say that individuals have exit rights, Okin is concerned if this is truly an option for most people, especially young women who are the most oppressed in these systems. As she states, “even if it were feasible or even possible in a practical sense, exit may not be an option at all desirable, or even thinkable, to those most in need of it” (Okin, 2002 ). She does not believe the state should make special exemptions for religious groups if it endangers individual liberty. To fail to enforce these individual rights is “to let toleration for diversity run amok” (Okin, 2002 ). The prototypical example of this tension can be found in the famous case, Wisconsin v Yoder ( 1972 ). The majority decision sided with the Amish who only wanted their children to study in public schools until the age of 14 out of religious concerns ( Wisconsin v. Yoder , 1972 ). While the case is a moot issue today in an age where the option to homeschool is relatively simple (Gaither, 2008 ), it still generates significant discussion in relation to discussions of individual rights. Certainly the parents have rights that are distinguishable from the state, but many will argue that children have rights distinct from their parents (Worthington & Fineman, 2009 ). While it might be the parents’ interest in securing protection from exposing their kids to ways of life contrary to their own, the question becomes whether children have rights as individual agents and do the parents’ decisions overly determine their children’s futures. This leads to some of the deeper philosophical questions in public education. What role does the state and family play in making sure children have an environment that is both secure and open to individual autonomy?

Exit Rights, Civic Education, and Religious Orthodoxy

This concern spills over into discussion of exit rights. Do children have a right to an education that might lead them to exit their religious group (Lester, 2004 )? Might a robust civic education provide new and different lenses through which children see the world that might make their home belief system less compelling? Should public schools in a pluralist state provide individuals with the kind of education that might lead to their exit from their home faith? Should public schools refrain from a robust civic education in order to protect and allow religious ideologies to flourish? To whom does the public school primarily answer? When is a religious ideology so extreme that to accommodate it seriously undermines the ideals of the American society? These are not easy questions to address and while they are difficult questions to wrestle with in terms of identity broadly understood, they are that much more vexing when it comes to religion. The reason being that religion, unlike culture, rests on epistemological foundations that for those who identify as religiously orthodox, are exclusive, inalienable, and unchanging. Educators are mistaken in simply “conflating” religion as another aspect of culture as it “strips religion” of its “essential qualities” (Rosenblith, 2008a ). This makes the project of civic education, for some, in many ways incommensurable with fostering religious identity. If the idea of a public school is, in part, to bring together people with very different visions of the good life and figure out ways forward, those who believe their very salvation hangs in the balance of one particular vision are understandably not going to be flexible in terms of tolerance and respect for a wide range of beliefs or for the very idea that public schools espouse—good citizenship hangs on an individual’s ability to respect and tolerate those with whom we disagree. In short, the problem becomes a non-starter for the most orthodox, making the civic project that much more difficult. This is of special difficulty for teachers as they seek to “navigate” the tensions between “the religiously orthodox and pluralist public schooling” (Bindewald & Rosenblith, 2015 ).

Religion, Schooling, and Indoctrination

One of the conflicts with integrating religion in schools is whether it is perceived as exposure or indoctrination. A suspicion of indoctrination can create angst in both the non-religious and the deeply orthodox. An extreme example of this fear occurred this past year when a father threatened a teacher because she was teaching about Islam in the class. It led to the closure of a whole school district (Robertson, 2015 ). If we are to have classrooms, which are filled with vibrant students who are open to critical thought, we have to move beyond the anxiety that any discussion on religion is the same as indoctrination. This is why the “trump card” of parental rights in preventing students from being exposed to materials that may conflict with private teachings is problematic (Rosenblith & Bindewald, 2014 ).

If educators approach religion appropriately in the classroom, it should not lead to a concern of indoctrination. Rather, it can be a tool that helps students become more religiously literate and “resist religious intolerance and bigotry and instead learn about the religious other” (Rosenblith, 2008b ). Are we limiting the possibilities for educational vibrancy and civic and multicultural understanding due to an exaggerated fear of religion in the classroom? What if the reasons for teaching religion in the classroom were not an attempt of “relativizing truth” or wanting to “coax students away from the religion of their parents” but rather helping to garner “fair depictions of the other” (Rosenblith & Bindewald, 2014 ). Perhaps, this is the approach to religion in the classroom that the majority of society could agree to.

Within the literature, far less attention has been given to treating the problem than has been given to identifying the problem. Diana Hess and Rob Kunzman have addressed ways forward. Suzanne Rosenblith and Benjamin Bindewald have as well. Hess argues for encouraging a discussion of controversial issues in the classroom as controversy is not an “unfortunate byproduct” of democracy but rather one of its “core and vital elements” (Hess, 2004 ). Hess argues that these controversial conversations should be the “students’ forum” where the teachers’ views do not directly impact the discussion but are integral for the discussions chosen (Hess, 2002 ).

Kunzman argues for “loosening liberal boundaries” in allowing for alternative and more orthodox perspectives in classroom discussion. After all, there is no consensus on what is “reasonable” when it comes to the discussion of religion and controversial issues. A truly civic education can work against the “disenfranchisement” of religious perspectives in the public sphere (Kunzman, 2005 ). He also argues that there will inherently be conflict in a religiously diverse society. Instead of ignoring this, educators should teach students how to navigate these conflicts and help create a greater understanding of religious diversity (Kunzman, 2006 ). He suggests using activities such as role play and field experience to create a more “empathetic understanding” of the other and move students “beyond knowledge to appreciation” (Kunzman, 2006 ). He also suggests letting students be the “source of insider perspective” when it comes to their own religious traditions (Kunzman, 2006 ).

Rosenblith and Bindewald look at this issue from a slightly different angle. They explore how teachers should handle exclusive comments made by the religiously orthodox that may be offensive to other students. They use the example of a student using the Bible to justify statements against homosexuality. They suggest for teachers to not simply ignore or downplay these types of comments, but rather make the distinction regarding arguments based on reason versus those based purely on religious belief. While giving the students the freedom to discuss the issues, teachers can and often should deal with these issues “directly” and with a level of “certitude” (Bindewald & Rosenblith, 2015 ). In another text, they argue for “mutuality,” which is a type of middle ground between “mere tolerance” and “robust respect” (Rosenblith & Bindewald, 2014 ). They see this mutuality as a willingness to engage in a relationship with the religious other (Rosenblith & Bindewald, 2014 ). It means that differences are not necessary “resolved” or “trivialized” but rather students engage in “a process of mutual reciprocity and understanding” (Rosenblith & Bindewald, 2014 ). The ultimate hope is that this will lead to “to a greater realization of justice and tolerance in the larger public sphere” (Rosenblith & Bindewald, 2014 ).

In our increasingly diverse, global, and interdependent society, confronting, understanding, and respecting the religious other is of paramount importance. In the United States, this places a particular obligation on the public schools to rethink its role in helping young citizens understand the history, complexity, and contributions of religion historically as well as in contemporary contexts. The relationship between religion and public education is one that has been inexorably tied to politics—religious and secular politics. This has led to a relatively ineffective exploration of religion in public schools. Recognizing the direct connection between religious illiteracy and religious intolerance, one can hope that a reconceptualization of the role of religion and public schools, one that takes religion, education, democracy, and pluralism seriously is near. In treating religion, education, democracy and pluralism seriously, the public schools can come closer to fulfilling their obligations to attend at once to individual and collective goals.

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The impact of institutional context on research in religious education: results from an international comparative study

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• Published: 30 August 2023
• Volume 71 , pages 155–166, ( 2023 )

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• Ulrich Riegel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9423-9092 1 &
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On the one hand, research on religious education is done according to a transnational scientific paradigm, on the other hand, it is performed within particular institutional contexts which vary from nation to nation.This raises the question of how institutional context affect research on religious education. The paper addresses this question on the basis of an international study. N = 49 colleagues across Europe as well as Israel, South Africa, South Korea, and Turkey filled in an online-questionnaire regarding their own research. Despite the international character of the sample, research on religious education seems to be practiced quite coherently in regard of the objects of inquiry, the applied methods, and the disciplines the colleagues refer to. The few significant differences indicate that theology and educational studies are slightly more important in contexts of denominational religious education as well as analysing both pupils and processes of teaching and learning. In the context of non-denominational RE, instead, religious studies is slightly more important. These results will be discussed.

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1 Introduction

The goal and character of religious education are currently the subject of controversial debate. In Europe, for example, some are calling for religious education to be replaced by worldview education (Halafoff et al., 2016 ; van der Kooij et al., 2017 ), while others argue for a more spiritual layout of this subject (Roebben, 2021 ). In Latin America and Africa, in turn, the trending topic seems to be the decolonialization of religious education with the goal of overcoming a dominant Christian bias (Blank de Oliveira & Riske-Koch, 2021 ; Drange, 2015 ; Matemba, 2021 ; Mokotso, 2020 ). And there are still the pending questions of what teachers of religious education have to know to competently teach that subject (Whitworth, 2020 ), which type of knowledge this could be (Moore, 2007 ), and which competencies are required to offer an effective religious education (Helbling & Riegel, 2021 ).

These academic debates take place within diverse institutional contexts regarding the practice of religious education at schools. It reveals a multifaceted picture ranging from various denominational forms to non-denominational ones (Jackson, 2007 ; Kuyk et al., 2007 ; Rosenblith, 2017 ; Rothgangel, et al., 2014a , 2014b , 2020a , 2020b , 2020c ). Of course, this basic distinction between denominational and non-denominational religious education does not capture the manifold forms in which religion is taught at schools in the various national contexts. Going into detail, denominational religious education varies between confessional layouts like in Italy (Giorda, 2015 ), Chile (Guzman et al., 2021 ), or South Korea (Kim, 2018 ) to ones realizing a “learning from religion” approach like in Germany (Kropač, 2021 ). Non-denominational religious education, instead, follows a pure religious studies approach to some extent (Alberts, 2007 ; Kenngott, 2017 ), partly happening within a formative frame of reference which allows for identification with religions and worldviews (Bietenhard et al., 2015 ; Bleisch, 2017 ). Furthermore, there are cross-sectional types of religious education like in Finland, which is in legal perspective denominational and in pedagogical perspective multi-religious (Lipiäinen et al., 2020 ). Finally, in some cases, the character of religious education varies even within one national context. In Germany, for example, denominational education is the default type of religious education, but in the federal states of Bremen and Brandenburg, religion is taught in a non-denominational manner (Kropač, 2021 ).

Despite these pluriform institutional contexts of teaching religion at schools, within the national academic discourses on religious education there seem to exist quite coherent frames of reference. In Italy, for example, the discussion on how to do justice to religious diversity in the classroom takes place within the framework of denominational education. Non-denominational forms are mentioned, but always as alternatives to the default denominational model (Giorda, 2015 ). The same is true for Chile (Guzman et al., 2021 ), South Korea (Kim, 2018 ), and Germany (Kropač, 2021 ). In contrast, in England and Wales, the discussion of whether replacing religious education by worldview education is happening within a non-denominational frame of reference (CoRE. Commission on Religious Education, 2018 ). It seems to be common sense in that particular discourse that religion must be taught at schools beyond specific denominational accounts. The same also applies to the situation in Finland (Ubani et al., 2019 ), Belgium, and the Netherlands (Miedema, 2014 ), as well as the recent discourse in Switzerland (Bleisch, 2017 ).

These academic discourses on religious education are embedded in a transnational understanding of science. Scientific discourse works according to both rational standards and research agendas that do not vary much across national contexts (e.g., Godfrey-Smith, 2003 ; Gutting, 2005 ). Scientific disciplines are characterized by a particular epistemological paradigm, a distinct set of objects to be analyzed, well-defined methods, and a specific set of theories that these analyses refer to. National and regional particularities may be relevant on the level of single projects and discussions, but hardly play a role on the general level. In the postcolonial discourse in religious education, for example, the country’s particular national history is part of the discussion on the national level. Nonetheless, all these national discussions share the same goal of overcoming colonial structures and apply the same epistemology, refer to the same categories, and use similar methods to realize this goal. And if the field of didactic Footnote 1 research is regarded, a recent Delphi study in Germany found that the various didactic disciplines share a common understanding of the objects they analyze, the methods they use in this analysis, and the academic disciplines they refer to (Riegel & Rothgangel, 2023 ).

If one relates these different observations to each other, a complex picture emerges. On the one hand, on an international level, there is a controversial debate on both the goal and character of religious education in schools, and there are different institutional contexts in which this subject is taught at school. On the other hand, the academic discussion about religious education takes place within the framework of coherent frames of reference and the self-identification of this academic discourse as a science follows transnational standards. Given this complex picture, the question of how the institutional context on a national level characterizes research in religious education across various countries is raised. From the perspective of systems theory (Runkel & Burkart, 2005 ), one could argue that religious education on the one hand and the academic discourse on religious education on the other hand are two separate systems, each following a particular ratio. According to Luhmann, the basic goal of the educational system is to transmit knowledge and competencies to qualify its users for their future tasks (Luhmann, 2002 ). The scientific system is instead oriented towards corroborating the truth of its hypotheses (Luhmann, 1992 ). Since both goals are basically incompatible, one could assume that the dominant institutional context of religious education on a national level does not coin the academic discourse on religious education.

From an ecosystemic perspective, however, institutional contexts frame the actions of the persons within that context. Bronfenbrenner, for example, distinguishes between mesosystems and microsystems (Lüscher & Bronfenbrenner, 1981 ). While the microsystem represents the individuals’ zones of interactions, the mesosystems reflect the institutional or organizational context of the individuals’ actions. The idea of Bronfenbrenner’s approach is that every microsystem depends on the options and restrictions of the mesosystems in which it is embedded. In our case, religious education researchers are members of faculties and departments at universities and teacher colleges. These faculties and departments more or less mirror the basic structure of the dominant model of religious education in the relevant national context: In countries with a dominant denominational model of religious education, the faculties and departments are, in most cases, of theological character, while in nations with a non-denominational model of religious education, the nature of relevant faculties and departments is usually that of religious studies. From an ecosystemic perspective, such particular institutional characteristics should frame the researchers’ activity and therefore the relevant academic discourse on a national level.

On theoretical grounds, one cannot estimate how much of the character of the academic discourse on religious education on an international level can be explained by systems theory or ecosystemic theory respectively. Therefore, this paper addresses the following research questions:

What are the basic features of research in religious education on an international level?

Does the institutional context of religious education on a national level cause characteristic differences in these features?

2 Sample, method, measures and analysis

To answer these questions, this paper uses data from an international survey. The sample of the international study was collected via academic networks like ISREV and NCRE as well as via contacts within the project "Religious Education in Schools in Europe". Through these channels, the participants were informed about the scope of the study and invited to fill out a questionnaire with both open-ended and closed-ended questions. Finally, 49 religious education teachers across Europe as well as Israel, South Africa, South Korea, and Turkey responded to this invitation. On a national level, the answers are distributed as follows: Norway: 5 answers; Turkey and Greece: 4 answers each; Germany, England and Wales, Hungary, Slovakia, and the Netherlands: 3 answers each; Poland: 2 answers; Czechia, Finland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, South Africa, and South Korea: 1 answer each. 12 participants did not disclose their national background. In terms of religious belonging, 15 participants are protestant, 12 are roman-catholic, 6 Muslim, 1 Jewish, and 6 express another religious tradition. Nine participants did not respond to this question. All respondents work at an institution offering training for future religion teachers and hold a PhD.

2.2 Measures

As indicator of academic discourse, the respondents’ research practice was chosen. From this perspective, the academic discourse is what scholars fundamentally do. This practice was conceptualized according to the three dimensions of (i) objects of inquiry, (ii) methods applied in research, and (iii) the disciplines the respondents refer to in their research. The objects of inquiry reveal the topics that are addressed in research, the methods in use indicate how these topics are addressed, and the reference disciplines offer information on which basic theoretical ground this research takes place. Since these dimensions represent basic patterns of research within the philosophy of science (e.g. Godfrey-Smith, 2003 ; Gutting, 2005 ), this conceptualization of research seems to be appropriate.

In the questionnaire, each dimension was operationalized by a closed-ended question offering a possible operationalization of each dimension, and the participants were asked to estimate how relevant they consider each category of this operationalization in their own research. Respondents were able to answer on a six-point Likert scale (1 = “not important at all”; 6 = “very important”). In order to be able to trace residual options, the option "I cannot assess" was additionally offered.

To assess the relevance of institutional context, the variable of nationality was recoded. The criteria were the dominant frame of reference according to which religious education is discussed in the relevant country. The countries with a denominational frame of reference form one category (Czechia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, South Korea, Turkey) and those with a non-denominational frame form another (England and Wales, Finland, Norway, South Africa, the Netherlands). With this recoded variable, it is possible to test the previously mentioned assumption of the effect of institutional context on academic discourse.

2.3 Analysis

Data analysis follows a two-step procedure. First, to reconstruct the basic features within the field of research in religious education, descriptive statistics of the single categories on the three basic dimensions of methodologies, objects of inquiry, and reference dimensions will be calculated. Because of the ordinal nature of the quantitative data, data analysis refers to median ( Mdn ) and interquartile range ( IQR ) and presents its results as a boxplot graph.

Second, the effect of the institutional context is tested by a Whitney–Mann U -Test. The effect size is calculated by Pearson’s r according to Cohen’s benchmarks (Cohen, 1988). All statistical calculations are done with the software package SPSS 27.

The results will be described according to the two research questions. First, the basic features of research in religious education will be reconstructed, after which the impact of institutional context on this research will be tested.

3.1 The basic features of research in religious education

Regarding methodologies, six categories were offered to the participants: historical, systematic-hermeneutical, comparative, empirical, and practice-oriented research. There are two methodical approaches to the field of religious education that show a median of Mdn  = 6, namely the empirical and the practice-oriented ones (Fig.  1 ). This indicates that both methodologies are very important in the respondents’ research. The other three methodical approaches have a median of Mdn  = 5, indicating that these methodologies are important, but less so. The range of the answers is rather small, with only the comparative approach having an IQR  = 2. Further on, there are only three extreme values. All in all, this indicates a rather coherent evaluation of the five methodical approaches within the international sample, with all five offered categories regarded as no less than important as features of methodology in research in religious education.

Boxplots of methods in own research

Regarding the objects of inquiry, the respondents were asked, “how important [they] consider the following characteristic topics in [their] own research activities in religious didactics”. The offered categories were contents of learning, the teaching and learning process, teachers, pupils, religious education as a school subject and its contexts, and theories about religious education. All but one topic were regarded as very important with Mdn  = 6; only theories about religious education were considered to be important ( Mdn  = 5) (Fig.  2 ). Again, the respondents from various countries were quite coherent in their evaluation, with IQR  = 1 on all topics and no extreme values.

Boxplots of objects of inquiry in own research

The relevance of the various reference disciplines in religious education research was assessed by the following question: “How important do you consider the following reference disciplines for your own research activities in religious didactics?” The options were theology, religious studies, educational studies, psychology, sociology, cultural studies, and philosophy. Educational studies were the only ones that were very important to most of the respondents ( Mdn  = 6), while all other means of reference disciplines were evaluated as important ( Mdn  = 5) (Fig.  3 ). This time, there was some variance in the answers, particularly regarding religious studies, psychology, and philosophy. All these disciplines show an IQR  = 2, with the whiskers covering the entire spectrum of possible answers in the case of religious studies and the entire spectrum but one answer category in the cases of psychology and philosophy respectively. This is a remarkable finding given the quite coherent responses so far.

Boxplots of reference disciplines in own research

3.2 The impact of institutional context

Assessing the effect of the institutional context on the importance of methodologies, the Mann–Whitney-U-Test brings about one significant difference. The participants within the context of denominational religious education ( Mdn  = 6) regard systematic-hermeneutical methodologies as more important than the scholars researching within a context of non-denominational religious education ( Mdn  = 5), U (N den  = 22; N non-den  = 13) = 83.500; z  =  − 2.318; p  = .02). The effect of this difference is medium-sized according to Cohen (1992) ( r  = .39). The importance of the other methodologies is not affected significantly by the respondents’ institutional context.

If objects of inquiry are taken into account, two significant differences occur. In both cases, the participants within a denominational context regard the relevant object of inquiry as very important in one’s own research ( Mdn  = 6), while the researchers within a non-denominational context regard them as important ( Mdn  = 5). These topics are the process of teaching and learning ( U (N den  = 24; N non-den  = 13) = 73.000; z  =  − 3.083; p  = .002) and the pupils ( U (N den  = 24; N non-den  = 13) = 82.500; z  =  − 2.603; p  = .009) respectively. The effect of institutional context on the evaluation of processes of teaching and learning is strong ( r  = .51), which in the evaluation of the importance of researching pupils is medium-sized ( r  = .43).

Finally, institutional context explains the variance in three cases of reference theories to some extent. Theology is a more important reference discipline to respondents from a denominational context ( Mdn  = 6) than to those from a non-denominational context ( Mdn  = 4) ( U (N den  = 24; N non-den  = 12) = 75.500; z  =  − 2.471; p  = .013), having a medium-sized effect ( r  = .41). Religious studies, in turn, is more important to scholars within a non-denominational context ( Mdn  = 6) than to those from a denominational context ( Mdn  = 5) ( U (N den  = 24; N non-den  = 12) = 92.500; z  =  − 2.121; p  = .034). Again, the effect size is medium ( r  = .35). Finally, the respondents within a denominational context regard educational studies ( Mdn  = 6) as more import than those within a non-denominational context ( Mdn  = 5) ( U (N den  = 24; N non-den  = 13) = 96.500; z  =  − 2.007; p  = .045). The effect of institutional context is medium ( r  = .33).

4 Discussion

This article aims to map the field of research in religious education on an international level and to assess the effect of the institutional context on the features of this field. The mapping happened according to the three dimensions of methodologies, objects of inquiry, and reference disciplines. All in all, there are two noteworthy results.

Firstly, across the various countries of this sample, the respondents from religious education predominantly apply empirical and practice-oriented methods, refer theoretically most often to educational studies and theology or religious studies, respectively, and turn out to be generalists in terms of the topics they analyze. Beyond this common ground of research on religious education on international level, there are some categories of lesser importance. If methods are regarded, historical and comparative ones seem to be least important. In view of the recent call for an international knowledge transfer (Schweitzer & Schreiner, 2020 ), the relative importance of comparative methods in particular raises the question of how to promote this transfer. Then, within the reference disciplines, it is religious studies, psychology and philosophy that show a remarkable variance in their importance for the respondents’ research. Some of the participants regard these disciplines as very important, others as unimportant (psychology and philosophy) or even very unimportant (religious studies) for their academic projects. In sum, there is much coherence in the academic discourse on religious education on an international level with some remarkable differences.

Secondly, this paper analyzes the assumption that such differences are caused by the institutional context on a national level. It hypothesizes that the dominant idea of how to teach religion in schools frames the academic discourse on this education. According to the findings, this assumption is true to some extent, but not in the way it was expected. First, four of the five categories with a bigger variance in the answers were not affected by institutional context. Neither the importance of historical and comparative methods nor the importance of psychology and philosophy as disciplines referred to in one’s projects is explained by the fact that religious education in one’s country is taught predominantly according to a denominational or a non-denominational model respectively. Only the importance of religious studies as a reference discipline is explained by this context to some extent. This result points to a rather remote effect of institutional context on the academic discourse in religious education.

Nonetheless, there are six categories with significant differences caused by institutional context. Besides religious studies, which is more important to scholars within a non-denominational context, theology and educational studies are more important reference theories to researchers from a denominational context. The same is true for the use of systematic-hermeneutical methods and the analysis of processes of teaching and learning and pupils respectively. Since the effect of these differences is at least medium-sized, one cannot speak of differences of minor importance. Furthermore, the effect turns out to be significant, although the variance in the answers of five categories (systematic-hermeneutical methods, teaching and learning processes, pupils, theology, educational studies) is rather small. This indicates that institutional context on a national level indeed coins research on religious education. In more detail, it is not the national context itself, but the dominant model of religious education at schools in the country.

From an ecosystemic perspective, these findings are quite plausible (Lüscher & Bronfenbrenner, 1981 ). For example, the denominational context refers to theology as a basic academic discipline which is very skilled in systematic-hermeneutical methods itself (Ford, 2013 ; Jung, 2004 ). At the same time, the higher importance of religious studies in a non-denominational context can be explained by the constitutive role of this academic subject for the relevant type of religious education. The findings further support the often criticized distinction between denominational and non-denominational religious education. Of course, this distinction is rather bold and is not able to map the subtle differences within these basic accounts of how religion is taught at schools (Jackson, 2007 ). Nevertheless, it is able to reconstruct fundamental differences in the study of religious education. Particularly in fields that are not analyzed intensely yet, like the basic features of the academic discourse on international level, it is useful for tracing fundamental patterns and therefore offers a solid basis for more detailed analysis.

Beyond these basic differences, from a systems theoretical perspective, the coherence within most of the respondents’ answers is plausible, too (Runkel & Burkart, 2005 ). As researchers, the participants are part of a system with its own authentic norms and practices. Since scientific rationality, at least in its modern condition, is predominantly designed to not be context-sensitive (Weinberg, 2016 ), institutional context should not affect the participants’ research practice very much. Therefore, the international field of research on religious education appears to be quite coherent. The few significant differences in regard to institutional context, however, reveal that the modern perception of science is an ideal type in the Weberian sense. Beyond the great coherence within the academic discourse on religious education on an international level, there are important differences, many of which are affected by the dominant model of religious education in one’s country. Therefore, it would be beneficial to further analyze the context sensitivity of religious education research in a more detailed manner. Perhaps such studies will shed light onto more significant path dependencies of such research—for instance also in regard to intersectional categories like gender (Sprague, 2016 ) or continent (Boisselle, 2016 ). Such research would contribute to the international knowledge transfer within religious education (Schweitzer & Schreiner, 2020 ).

There are, of course, also some limitations to this study. Firstly, it is a convenience sample and therefore not suited to offer representative findings. For example, the sample was recruited via established academic networks, which systematically sorts out all potential participants that are not present in these networks. This might lead to some imbalance in the answers. However, since this article aims to reconstruct basic structures and not representative findings, this limitation does not fundamentally limit the significance of the findings. Secondly, despite all efforts to collect an international sample, the sample has a strong European bias. Perhaps the great coherence in the evaluation of objects of inquiry would crack if there had been more participants from Latin America, Asia, or Africa. Differences according to one’s perspective on post-colonial claims, for example, might not be seen in a predominantly European sample. Again, although this limitation restricts the scope of the findings somewhat, it does not conflict with their validity. These limitations indicate that more religious education research on an international level is needed.

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Riegel, U., Rothgangel, M. The impact of institutional context on research in religious education: results from an international comparative study. j. relig. educ. 71 , 155–166 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40839-023-00202-3

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The use of story to teach religious education in the early years of primary school: a systematic review of the literature

Kerrin huth.

1 Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD Australia

Raymond Brown

2 School of Education and Professional Studies, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD Australia

Wayne Usher

This systematic quantitative literature review explores the use of story in early childhood religious education to inform the research question “What are the pedagogical benefits of using story in religious education in the early years of primary school?” Searches were conducted across multiple databases and individual journals for publications dated from 1970 to 2019. Literature on the key areas of (1) early childhood, (2) story and (3) religious education were analysed to understand their unique perspectives and ways they overlap and connect, with an emphasis on seeking literature which connected all three areas. The study revealed the areas of religious education, the use of story and the field of early childhood as three distinct areas of research with connection points, and gaps in the literature connecting the pedagogical use of story for religious education in early primary education. The literature identifies the use of story as effectively engaging and connecting children to religious education in a pedagogically appropriate way for the early childhood age group. Further to this, benefits were found not only in faith development and biblical literacy, but also in learning, literacy development, empathy, and engagement with differing worldviews. The Australian context was a focus of the literature review providing insight for religious education in Christian schools which may be applied to other contexts in public schools, or internationally.

Introduction

This Systematic Quantitative Literature Review [SQLR] explores the literature on the use of story in religious education and focused on the educational method or pedagogy drawn on to connect the differing fields of early childhood, story and religious education. The literature within each field is considerable, revealing that these three distinct areas are specialties in their own right, and therefore requiring separate investigation to gain an understanding of each. Following this, the identification of the significant areas of overlap inform the research question, “What are the pedagogical benefits of using story in religious education in the early years of primary school?” Clarification of the terminology was necessary to establish an understanding of early childhood, story and religious education. Subsequent filtering of search results was also necessary to define their relevance to the research question.

This paper identifies elements of influence (curriculum and pedagogy) as the driving factors in establishing good practice in early childhood settings and highlights the benefits of the use of story as a pedagogical support in early childhood, in both literacy development, and engagement with inquiry learning. Further benefits are found in religious education with differing uses of story contributing to faith practices (or expressions of the Christian faith), biblical literacy, and engaging with different worldviews (Mitchell, 2004 ). In order to define the parameters of the research, the literature review includes a focus on one school system’s Religious Education curriculum within the Australian context.

Systematic quantitative literature review methodology

Systematic Quantitative Literature Review [SQLR] is a method that filters research through a systematic process which involves quantitatively selecting and assessing literature to produce a database which identifies trends and gaps in the literature (Pickering & Byrne, 2014 ). It uses explicit methods to systematically provide a reliable view of the topic while reducing bias (Social Science Research Unit, 2019 ). For this review, published research articles, books and literature reviews were identified through searches of electronic databases including Pro Quest, ERIC, EBSCO, and Education. Further papers were identified through searching specific reference lists and citation records or by searching national and international religious education journals.

Three general areas (refer Fig.  1 : Areas of research) provided a starting point for the search, each with a specific set of key words to ensure a broad range of relevant papers were captured.

Areas of research

Specific key words for each area included:

• Religious Education: religious education, Catholic education, faith based, religion, religious
• Early Childhood: early childhood, early years, teacher(s), primary school, teaching
• Story: story, storytelling, story telling

The following flow chart provides the sequence of literature analysis and selection of papers for the literature review (refer Fig.  2 : Research flow chart).

Research flow chart

The searches revealed a broad spectrum of works with topics ranging from religion, teaching religion, personal story, literature, pedagogy and storytelling. Each search produced a varying number of papers, with the vast number not dealing specifically with all three elements. For example, many titles using ‘story’ would infer relation to either early childhood or religion but seldom both. A strict adherence to all three fields yielded few results and in some searches none at all. Searching only the abstracts again proved ineffective. As these refinements did not lead to targeting the specific topic of the use of story in religious education in early childhood classrooms, each topic needed refinement to narrow the results. This proved to be a more effective method of locating relevant documents. With each field being so diverse, papers were sought to refine the definitions and connections between the areas. Finally, further refinement was necessary to establish the list of papers which would fit the aims of the literature review, and so more specific topics were used as criteria for inclusion:

• Early childhood pedagogy and characteristics: effective pedagogy, policy documents, primary school vs early childhood settings,
• Religious education in early childhood: varied settings, focus on school, change in delivery methods, Australian perspective
• Story in education: across curriculum areas, definitions, literature, benefits, literacy, use in religious education including specific use of methods, Godly Play, spirituality, spiritual development

Identifying where and how the categories overlapped, provided a guide for the selection of the most relevant papers to be included in the literature review (refer Fig.  3 : Refinement of search topics).

Refinement of search topics

Although this topic has relevance internationally within the context of primary school religious education, Australian research provides a unique insight into local practices, and therefore was considered important for inclusion due to its relevance to the research, for which the review was conducted. Of the papers found in the broad areas of searching, 248 papers were filtered for full assessment of relevance to the research topic under the following categories (refer Table ​ Table1: 1 : Relevance of topic).

Relevance of topic

Of these 248 texts assessed, 160 were filtered as either not relevant or not sufficiently related to the research question. Finally, 85 papers were selected for this literature review. Further analysis of these documents revealed their relevance to the specific topic and highlighted key authors or publications and identified which papers would be most relevant as indicated in the centre of the Venn diagram (refer Fig.  3 : Refinement of search topics). Documents were initially evaluated on their relevance to each general field according to the main emphasis of the article. They were then evaluated for their focus on specific topics. A score out of six (one point for each category) was given to each document to evaluate its significance and relevance to each of the following categories:

Main emphasis of article:

• Early childhood pedagogy

Religious education

Specific relevance:

• Story in early childhood

Story in religious education

• Religious education in early childhood

Documents were allocated one point for each category if it was deemed a significant contribution (refer Table ​ Table3: 3 : Score of relevance). Additional records for further assessment were identified through general searches and following citation and referencing lists of significantly relevant authors.

Score of relevance

The literature search yielded varying results with a wealth of resources supporting each main focus area. The depth of research provided a great understanding of the nature of early childhood, story and religious education and therefore it was necessary to narrow the search to find the connections between them. Frequently the searches revealed a connection between two of the areas, rather than a connection between all three. Author studies proved valuable as their reference and citations lists were followed to reveal more sources. The selected papers indicate research in these fields as significant in Australia, USA and UK as featured in Table ​ Table2: 2 : Distribution of papers.

Distribution of papers

Of the 85 papers included in this literature review, only seven had significant relevance to the research topic, highlighting a gap in the current research connecting story as pedagogically beneficial for teaching religious education in early childhood classrooms (refer Table ​ Table3: 3 : Score of relevance).

Of the seven most significant papers, five came from the same author, who also featured in the second group of relevant papers. Of the seventeen papers of greatest significance, twelve were written by Australian authors (two were Australian curriculum or departmental documents), four were from the USA and one from the UK. Key Australian authors working in the field of religious education in the early childhood sector include Jan Grajczonek and Brendan Hyde, both with significant research contributions over several years and this was reflected in the filtering process. Their papers, citations and references provided a useful source for connecting the key elements of the literature review.

The literature search revealed publications in a range of disciplines with journals ranging from religious education, early childhood, social sciences, psychology, theology and teaching journals. Several authors published works in editorial books on a specific theme such as religious education, literacy or pedagogical practice. The majority of the selected papers were theoretical with some empirical studies on various topics related to the overall research, and policy or departmental documents included for reference (refer Table ​ Table4: 4 : Types of papers). In this review, empirical refers to research based on observation or direct experience (Punch, 2000 ).

Types of papers

This literature search highlights the strength of theoretical research in all three areas with different aspects explored in depth. Similarly the empirical research, although not as prevalent, has a focus on a variety of areas within early childhood and religious education. It also highlights the gaps in research which connect early childhood pedagogy, story and religious education. The following section outlines key insights from the literature review relevant to the use of story as a pedagogically beneficial tool for teaching religious education in the early years of primary school.

The selected literature revealed insights on the unique nature of early childhood and suggested implications for pedagogy and curriculum when developing age-appropriate learning. It also revealed a wide range of terminology associated with story and therefore a definition of terms was necessary to define the parameters for the research. The investigation into religious education covered the broad range of purposes and approaches used in a variety of settings. Narrowing the focus specifically to the use of story within religious education revealed its contribution to faith practices or expression of faith, development of literacy and varied use of stories and story-telling methods. The following sections outline the insights from the review of the selected literature on (1) learning in early childhood, (2) story and (3) religious education.

Learning in early childhood

The literature on early childhood provides a broad insight into the unique nature of this age group and the way they learn. Three crucial elements regarding learning in early childhood have emerged from the research over time: learner centred pedagogy, scaffolding of learning, and learners actively engaged in their learning, with all three needing to be incorporated into the pedagogical framework of the early childhood setting (Department of Education & Training, 2015 ). For the purposes of this research, pedagogy refers to both the thinking behind the learning experiences, and the teaching strategies (Moyles et al., 2002 ).

Learner-centred pedagogy

Learning in the early years is considered complex today, with the child taking an active role in their learning and construction of knowledge, rather than being seen as a blank slate (Council of Australian Governments, 2010 ; Grajczonek & Hanifin, 2007 ). Recent attention on today’s learners indicates they are greater risk takers, will learn early on from failures, and take meaning from different areas to build their understanding (Casson, 2011 ; McCrindle, 2018a , 2018b ). Studies show a well-defined curriculum and successful implementation incorporates a wide range of experiences which provide learners with greater opportunities to explore multiple perspectives and develop social problem-solving abilities (Child Australia, 2017 ; Council of Australian Governments, 2017 ; Department of Education & Training, 2015 ; Kim, 2016 ; Lillard, 1998 ). Further to this, a learner centred curriculum responds to the unique developmental needs and interests of individual children (Catholic Education Council, 2001 ). Grajczonek ( 2017 ) emphasises that the image of the contemporary child both underpins and determines religious education curriculum development and that the philosophy which underpins that curriculum must be defined. Curriculum, informed by sociocultural theory, transforms children from within, where learning is socially constructed with meaningful content that enables children to transform their own world (Grajczonek, 2017 ). The socio-cultural dimension of children’s learning has implications for pedagogy in the religious education classroom (Grajczonek, 2013 ). Children’s diverse backgrounds need to be taken into account with a balance of pedagogical interaction (responding to children’s learning) and pedagogical framing (planning and resourcing) to provide an effective setting for children’s learning (Grajczonek, 2013 ; Siraj-Blatchford & Sylva, 2004 ). Although these ideas of religious education curriculum lie within the Australian Catholic context, the underlying ideals are important for consideration in other religious education contexts. Overall, a well-designed curriculum for early childhood is underpinned by theory and practice to meet the diverse needs of learners (Grajczonek, 2017 ).

Scaffolding learning

Pedagogy influences learning outcomes, and educators are thoughtful and intentional when making decisions about curriculum and strategies which support children’s learning (Boyd & Cutcher, 2015 ; Kilderry, 2015 ). Systemic documents, such as policy and curriculum frameworks, provide rich guidelines on decision making, planning, implementing and evaluating learning. Such documents provide a reflection point for pedagogical practices and being intentional about what is included and excluded (Council of Australian Governments, 2010 , 2017 ). When teachers reflect on daily practice to ensure consistency with early childhood practice, and make improvements in teaching and learning, it has a positive impact on students (Carroll-Lind et al., 2016 ; Jones et al., 2017 ).

Pedagogical decisions impact the learning environment including both physical and social spaces. The use of agile (moveable, flexible and adaptable) learning spaces supports the changing nature of curriculum delivery, as reflected in the move from an industrial model of teaching to one which will meet the needs of current learners. The learning environment needs to further reflect this style of learning. It should allow learners to make connections within the classroom and beyond through problem solving, peer to peer learning, collaboration, online connection and visual, and hands on learning using multiple digital platforms to scaffold and support the learning (Department of Education & Training, 2015 ).

Engagement of learners

As children engage in opportunities for play, exploration and experimentation they begin to make sense of themselves and the world around them, develop confidence and engagement with learning, and through the social environment engage with multiple perspectives (Cohrssen et al., 2016 ; Department of Education & Training, 2015 ; Kilderry, 2015 ; Lillard, 1998 ; Meehan, 2007 ). Studies on play (including role play and story retell), indicate that play provides opportunities to develop creative thinking, and that teachers can support children to enhance thinking and develop their skills (Grajczonek, 2007 ; Leggett & Newman, 2017 ). Children create knowledge as they play, interacting with their environment, other children, objects and their teachers; playing a pivotal role in their own learning (Leggett & Newman, 2017 ; Pollock et al., 2017 ). These studies effectively gathered information from a combination of document analysis, interviews with educators and children, and collections of artefacts, providing a rich diversity of data from which to draw their conclusions. While these studies focused more generally on play, further research into the use of story through play would provide additional insight. Similarly, research shows that effective literature-based activities allow all children to engage with the curriculum including students with special needs (Zeece et al., 2004 ).

Together, these studies on learning in early childhood raise awareness about the decisions teachers make regarding pedagogy, and how the choices they make about how to teach the curriculum, has a significant influence on children’s learning.

The literature revealed a variety of definitions and uses of the term story, along with a range of associated terminology. Story incorporates a variety of genres including picture books, traditional literature, modern fantasy, contemporary realistic fiction, digital stories or games and information books. These terms provide a useful context for this research which refers to the use of story as encompassing these genres and strategies, including children’s literature, personal story, biblical text and methods of storytelling including role play and other strategies and techniques such as Godly Play (which will be outlined in a later section).

Children make sense of their world and feed their imagination through stories (Laminack, 2016 ; Simpson, 2016 ). There is also a distinction between reading a story, being read to and telling your own story. Retelling can help children try out their ideas in a safe space (Crain, 2007 ; Ewing & Saunders, 2016 ; Grajczonek, 2013 ). Stories are important in the early childhood setting. “Stories matter because our wisdom and intuitive understanding is woven into the stories we know, tell and live through (Pawson, 2014 , p. 52)”. Shaw ( 1999 ) echoes this sentiment, emphasising that stories are powerful and a primary human activity.

Storytelling methods

The telling of a story itself must be captivating, engaging listeners emotionally and building empathy. Familiarity with the story can enable this, rather than a simple reading of the story (Leary, 1986 ). For story to be effective it must entertain, enrich, inspire curiosity and imagination, and be told frequently (Leary, 1986 ; Pawson, 2014 ; Richards, 2007 ). It is important to consider the selection of a story, preparing the learners to listen and participate, as well as considering the timing of the story (Shaw, 1999 ). Further to this, effective story-telling, requires hard work, discipline and practice (Berryman, 1991 ; Grajczonek & Ryan, 2009 ; Shaw, 1999 ). The relationship between the storyteller and the listener is also important. A gifted storyteller or one who develops a personal relationship with the listener, adds power to the story (Hoopes, 2013 ).

Dramatic play is a significant element of early years learning and provides a natural point of access to story in religious education (Catholic Education Council, 2001 ; Council of Australian Governments, 2010 , 2017 ). Dramatic storytelling allows learners to connect deeply with the characters, empathising with them and understanding their behaviours more fully. Grajczonek ( 2007 ) found that teachers can use dramatic storytelling as a tool for assessing student understanding. Puppetry can support dramatic storytelling, providing visual and kinaesthetic experiences, engaging learners in maintaining their attention as well as providing them with the opportunity for retelling stories (Richards, 2007 ). Enacting a story through movement, art, singing and music allow the senses to be engaged and enhance the learning experience (Shaw, 1999 ).

Benefits of story

The literature included a range of storytelling modes from dramatic storytelling, to books and electronic media, with each generating a different experience for learners. “A story can insert an image into the heart of the listener, where it can take shape and grow”; engaging learners in critical thinking, curiosity and exploration (Jacobs-Sife, 2011 , p. 29). Learners build literacy and social skills through engagement in a variety of texts in a literacy-rich environment. As Hynes-Berry ( 2012 ) indicates, making personal connections to the story is important for learners’ understanding and these connections could be text to text, text to self, text to graphics and text to world. The benefits increase when story is paired with student-centred inquiry where children are naturally curious and their questions allow for more ownership and collaboration (Ewing & Saunders, 2016 ; Hynes-Berry, 2012 ). Open ended questions elicit more elaborate responses and recall is further enhanced when used during dramatic play (Siegel-Hawley, 2012 ). Similarly, research conducted by Ness ( 2016 ) in the early years of primary school revealed inquiry based reading allowed the development of student generated questions. This in turn provided cognitive and motivational benefits for students.

Reading to children is most effective when combined with high-quality discussion, focusing on the interests and needs of the learners. Being immersed in a literacy rich environment helps to develop the skills and understandings needed for independent reading and comprehension with shared book reading also prominent in language and literacy development (Anderson, 2015 ; Anderson et al., 2012 ). The reading of literature becomes collaborative in the classroom setting as children respond to the text together (Trousdale, 2009 ). Initially, a broad definition of children’s literature is helpful for understanding the scope of what might be referred to as story.

Children's literature is the complete large body of literature that children have embraced. It becomes their own personal literature because it belongs to children rather than parents, teachers, preachers, or even the authors. (Saracho, 2012 )

According to Saracho ( 2012 ), children’s literature allows opportunities for play through interpretation, storytelling, improvisation and collaboration and those which engage in education, fantasy and moralistic combinations provide the children with profound and long remembered experiences. Play is an important context for developing literacy skills and these increased where the play was enriched by literacy resources (Department of Education & Training, 2015 ). Similarly, research on dramatic storytelling focussed on the benefits for literacy development as expanding vocabulary, listening and speaking skills. The development of literacy in the early years was considered vital for future school achievement success (O'Neill et al., 2016 ). Further research on picture books revealed children rely on words and pictures for a full understanding of the meaning. While wordless picture books may be effective, teachers are more likely to use picture books with words. The interplay of these elements makes them a rich resource (Hateley, 2014 ). Innovations in technology and ease of access in classrooms, enable electronic books to feature more prominently (Cruz & Snider, 2009 ; Hateley, 2014 ; McCrindle, 2014 ). Technology brings a change to the use of traditional literary texts with interaction encouraged through touch and voice recording (Hateley, 2014 ). The verbal text however, is still highly valued with children listening to others’ stories and creating their own (Cruz & Snider, 2009 ; Hateley, 2014 ).

As the previous research reveals, the benefits of story flow from children making a personal connection through experiencing story, enabling them to further develop literacy skills, collaborate and engage in critical thinking and inquiry.

The third area of exploration in the systematic literature review is that of the use of story in religious education. In this context, religious education refers to the formal curricular program used in primary schools to engage learners in the teachings, culture and history of the Christian church and to explore how the Christian faith relates to all aspects of people’s lives. Although a faith response is not an expectation of the formal curriculum, the religious education program is set within the context of the whole Christian education experience of the school where the Christian faith may be actively nurtured and expressed (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ). Religious education is an area in which faith-based schools invest time into research to understand the needs of the learner in the light of faith development (Goldburg, 2008 ; Grajczonek, 2013 , 2017 ; Grajczonek & Hanifin, 2007 ; Hyde, 2005 , 2010 ; Meehan, 2007 ; Ryan, 2007 ; Rymarz & Engebretson, 2005 ). The literature in this area revealed the contribution story makes to faith practice (or expressions of the Christian faith) and the variety of methods and stories used in religious education classes. Core policy and curriculum documents from schooling systems in Australia, and research on religious education reveal the aims of developing literacy (including biblical literacy), engaging with biblical story in various ways, valuing and respecting diversity and contributing to faith development (Blevins, 2007 ; Christian, 2008 ; Gooderham, 1994 ; Grajczonek, 2013 , 2017 ; Hyde, 2005 ; Hynes-Berry, 2012 ; Lutheran Education Australia, 2013 , 2015 ). Research also shows that religious education will differ in the early years, reflecting age-appropriate pedagogy through the inclusion of real-life activities and hands-on experiences, allowing for discovery and exploration through the senses (Meehan, 2007 ; Ryan & Stower, 1998 ). It is therefore important that methods and strategies take into account the learner’s existing knowledge, experiences, questions, community and real life experiences and that scaffolding is provided (Grajczonek & Hanifin, 2007 ; Meehan, 2007 ). Further research revealed the connections between various systemic policy documents and pedagogy, with the role of the teacher as key in promoting children’s learning (Grajczonek, 2013 ).

Christian Studies is the formal religious education program of Lutheran Education Australia. Systemic Lutheran Education documents reflect beliefs about the purpose and pedagogy of Christian Studies, where the pedagogy provides a connection between the learner’s world and the curriculum framework. This enables learners to engage in their own journey of discovery to make sense of the world around them (Lutheran Education Australia, 2013 , 2015 ). The curriculum framework encourages teachers to consider the diverse range of learners and the importance of providing learning opportunities which cater to this diversity. Experiences must be intellectually rigorous, engaging, learner-centred, invite challenge and growth, and promote the sharing of stories and ideas while being grounded in theological understanding (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ). Pedagogical approaches encourage access to a range of ways to make meaning, while encouraging deep thinking, through the processes of inquiry, reflection and action. The learning environment is supportive, inclusive and encourages collaboration, allowing learners to explore their own spirituality and broaden their worldview (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ).

Much of the research on story in the field of religious education focuses on the connection of story to children’s spirituality rather than on the benefits of story when used as a pedagogical support for teaching religious education (Grajczonek, 2007 ; Grajczonek & Ryan, 2009 ; Grajczonek & Truasheim, 2017 ; Hyde, 2005 , 2010 ; Meehan, 2007 ; Ryan, 2007 ). The literature also highlights the unique nature of both early childhood and religious education, with age-appropriate pedagogy considered important (Department of Education & Training, 2015 ; Grajczonek, 2013 ; Grajczonek & Hanifin, 2007 ; Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ; Meehan, 2007 ; Ryan, 2007 ). The use of story can effectively speak into both spaces, addressing their unique needs and characteristics (Grajczonek & Ryan, 2009 ).

Ryan’s ( 2007 ) research into the theorists who inform early years religious education, reveals an intense interest in stories and how these shape moral imagination. As children encounter their own stories and stories of others, they listen and reflect, developing their sense of wonder about biblical stories (Jacobs-Sife, 2011 ). Students do not need to know stories by heart, but rather engage with them and ask questions to develop religious literacy (Goldburg, 2004 ; Hansell, 2015 ). The work of Arthur ( 1988 ) suggests that stories in religious education have great value with previous recognition of their worth in various journals and in practice, yet he also suggests they are still seen as trivial diversions. To further elaborate, Arthur recognises three significant benefits of story as: empathy, cognitive potential, and an effective way of dealing with abstract or difficult to describe concepts. Stories provide the opportunity to engage in empathy and see things from a unique perspective with which the reader may not be familiar. The cognitive potential of story to unlock a new dimension to knowledge may not engage the reader in new facts, however it opens a depth of understanding to the situation. Finally, Arthur states there is value in the use of story to provide a subtle and effective approach to things which can be difficult to describe. It can be thought provoking and is used extensively in almost every religious tradition in this way. When balancing empathy and reasoned investigation; utilising story’s cognitive potential with other ways of knowing; and engaging in thought provoking exploration of religious issues, then “there is no reason why story should not be seen and used as one of the most important vehicles of communication open to the religious educator.” (Arthur, 1988 , p. 126) This work is further supported by the research which found story was used to help explore life’s big and often most difficult questions (Freitas, 2005 ; Jacobs-Sife, 2011 ). Stories open provocative questions and emotion with which children can investigate possible inquiries, struggle with issues and engage in religious imagination. As the evidence reveals, story can be used effectively in religious education to connect students personally, while building empathy, contributing to faith practice (or expressions of the Christian faith) and developing religious literacy.

Developing literacy

Story in early childhood assists with the development of language and literacy and this is also the case when used in religious education. Biblical literacy involves interpreting and discussing the meaning and significance of the biblical text, similar to how other forms of literary text are approached and explored (Stack-Nelson, 2014 ; Welbourne, 2003 ). Understanding key terms, symbols and metaphors, as well as connecting with the text, are vital when studying biblical text to understand the original and contemporary meaning, and how it applies in the current context (Christenson, 2004 ; Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ; Stack-Nelson, 2014 ; Welbourne, 2003 ). Grajczonek and Hanifin’s ( 2007 ) research identified that stories in religious education develop language skills, which in turn builds literacy skills, as well as developing religious vocabulary and literacy. Biblical stories can provide a stimulus for dramatic play and the rich language which develops can provide the basis for the child’s own retell. Similarly, research into Godly Play reveals the value of this method of storytelling for developing biblical and religious literacy (Hyde, 2010 ). The social nature of the educational setting in which language features heavily provides the ideal space in which literacy development can flourish (Grajczonek, 2013 ; Liddy, 2009 ; Ryan, 2007 ; Vygotsky, 1978 ).

Biblical story

The aim of Christian Studies is to give students a clear understanding and appreciation of the Christian story through an exploration of the biblical text and Christian literature (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ). The Bible is the primary source of text for Christian Studies. Biblical stories are used extensively as teachers aim to develop biblical literacy, taking learners from basic recall of facts to an in-depth study of biblical text (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ). The interpretation of scripture and how we are to understand it in the current context, moves beyond an academic interpretation to allow learners to engage personally with the text (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ; Shaw, 1999 ). Through this exploration learners use language, symbols and imagery to read and interpret the texts and critical reflection on the text helps learners to understand their experiences through insights into Christian history (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ). A key element of biblical literacy is the selection of the text. Teachers must be discerning when choosing an appropriate text to suit the age of the learners and allow them to engage, explore and connect with the text. Teachers in the early years may select a children’s version of the biblical story to provide ease of access for the learners. Teachers need to assess which version provides sufficient information and accuracy, being careful to avoid versions which may lead to misconceptions or omission of key elements or reducing them to mere moral lessons (Dalton, 2007 ; Pawson, 2014 ; Schachter, 1985 ). Teachers should always read the full version of text for themselves to provide them with the relevant background information (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ). Learners need to be engaged in exploration of biblical story which allows for wondering, critical thinking, making meaning and reveals the human story (Christenson, 2004 ).

Liddy’s research ( 2009 ) found that teaching with biblical story must be innovative and creative; allowing for learners to personally interact and yet be sensitive to the age-specific needs of the learners. The text can be unpacked exploring the world behind the text (context, background, culture and geography), the world of the text (genre, content, language, imagery) and the world in front of the text (reader experiences and reflections). These elements are vital for engaging learners in religious literacy and achieving the aims of the religious education program (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ).

Children’s literature and contemporary story

Gooderham’s research ( 1994 ) contends the importance of using contemporary children’s literature in the religious education classroom, inviting a Christian reading, and providing insight into the context of the Christian faith. Similarly, he speaks of fantasy texts, myths and legends of both Christian and traditional origin providing stimulation for learners to make their own meanings. He also notes that contemporary texts are increasingly structured to encourage questioning and invite discussion. Similarly, Robson ( 1982 ) promotes the use of contemporary literature in the religious education classroom to open discussion on matters of the Christian faith. Trousdale ( 2009 ) further advocates the use of children’s literature as valuable for providing an opportunity for children to enter a different world and engage with characters to stimulate their emotions, imagination, cognitive development and moral reasoning. These stories can also allow children to connect with spiritual experiences beyond their own (Grajczonek & Ryan, 2009 ; Shaw, 1999 ; Trousdale, 2009 ). Children’s literature and contemporary story lend themselves to both the religious education and early childhood setting, and therefore it is important to identify connections teachers have made between children’s literature and a religious education curriculum.

Cultural and traditional story

The diverse cultural and religious perspectives in our communities are also reflected in religious education classes. Children may bring their personal story to their reading experiences through their histories, languages and generational perspectives of the world and of the text (Grajczonek, 2017 ; Green & Oldendorf, 2005 ; Shaw, 1999 ). It is this diversity which brings a rich range of perspectives to the classroom and therefore, a range of opinions and ideas to consider when using story (Davila, 2015 ; Jacobs-Sife, 2011 ; Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ; Mallan, 2014 ). Research also shows that sharing high quality picture books enables the expansion of knowledge and understanding of different faiths, through the communication of accurate information, in an interesting and engaging way, which allows the development of respect for diversity (Green & Oldendorf, 2005 ; Renck-Peyton & Renck-Jalongo, 2008 ). Investigating biblical text from their own perspective allows learners to explore why a story took place and how the world worked within the story, leading to discussions on how this may be similar or different to their own experiences, and the experiences of their peers (Madden et al., 2019 ; Shaw, 1999 ). Further research reveals that children’s religious sense is nourished by a variety of stories and images from their Christian and cultural heritage and that this is important for their development of bicultural/ multicultural identity (Greer Anne Wenh-In Ng, 2004 ; Trousdale, 2009 ). According to Watson and Thompson ( 2007 ) religious myth and story allow the listener to use their imagination to recreate religious truths. They further emphasise the importance of developing imagination in religious education as essential for understanding religious language and developing religious concepts (Watson & Thompson, 2007 ). Similarly, faith expressed through stories, can help children comprehend deep truths and explore abstract ideas (Cleary & Moffat, 2017 ; Fisher, 2010 ). The Christian story, as it is lived out in the faith community is shaped by, and continues to shape, the identity of that community through its stories (Shaw, 1999 ). Together these studies reveal the importance of story for connection to culture and tradition, echoing the significance of sociocultural theory which underpins religious education, connecting a diverse range of perspectives with the Christian worldview, and the contribution it makes to building respect and appreciation of other’s views.

Contribution to faith practice

Stories in religious education can allow learners to engage with theology, investigating key Christian beliefs and worldviews (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ; Shaw, 1999 ). Focusing on both the cognitive and affective domains, Lutheran Education Australia’s Christian Studies curriculum engages students in an opportunity to explore their own faith. The stories used in Christian Studies, whether biblical or non-biblical text, can provide a means by which children can be introduced to the world of religion and spirituality. Opportunities need to be provided to enable learners to engage deeply with the language, symbols and imagery, beyond superficial familiarity with biblical stories (Blevins, 2007 ). Teachers must be mindful of more than just telling a story well; these stories must contribute to the lives of those who hear and participate. Similarly, as Hansell ( 2015 ) observed, story is closely related to faith and an understanding of story is central to religious education, to take learners beyond lower order thinking, to a deep understanding.

Major religions have their own collections of stories which pass on their heritage and reveal deeper aspects of their beliefs (Leary, 1986 ). Further to this, Goldburg ( 2008 ) expounds the value of connecting the Christian story with the children’s own stories, bringing meaning to their experiences and reflections. Stories are used to shape morals, make personal connections, build empathy and help learners to understand their own experiences to make sense of their world (Crain, 2007 ; Mudiyanselage, 2014 ; Rue, 2000 ; Ryan, 2007 ). Larson’s research ( 2018 ) with preschool children which explored how they made meaning of their life and faith experiences through story, play and discovery, is echoed in the Early Years Learning Framework (Council of Australian Governments, 2017 ). Stories provided a narrative framework in which children could explore biblical story, providing a rich sense of self and experiences. This is also supported by Seymour ( 2007 ) who believes stories help us make (and remake) meaning in our lives and when used in religious education can help us to teach and build community. This is especially important in early childhood where people’s images of God are formed early in life (Bartkowski et al., 2008 ). As children themselves become storytellers, they learn about themselves and their own lived religious experiences, developing strategies for living out their faith (Shaw, 1999 ). According to Shaw ( 1999 ), this is what makes story so important in religious education, and feedback and time for critical reflection are essential for learning to happen.

Brendan Hyde’s ( 2010 ) exploration into Godly Play in the Catholic school context also revealed the insights this story telling technique provided on children’s spirituality. Godly Play was developed by Jerome Berryman based on the Montessori method of teaching. The process involves engagement with biblical storytelling through play, wonder and response in a specific, organised way, modelling the Christian community. It goes beyond mere storytelling and recall, and invites learners to engage with story in a creative and experiential way. Berryman developed and refined his work based on his observations and studies, noting the powerful influence it had on children’s spirituality (Berryman, 1991 ). The process invites children to engage with the story and consider questions about the story and how they relate to it (Trousdale, 2009 ). Through case study interviews, Hyde explored children’s perceptions of spirituality revealing four characteristics which are encouraged through Godly Play: the felt sense, integrating awareness, weaving the threads of meaning and spiritual questing. The felt sense involves the way in which a child uses their body as a way of knowing, aware through tactile and sensory activities. Integrating awareness refers to connecting knowing or emerging understanding with a previous level of awareness. Hyde’s third concept of weaving the threads of meaning, refers to the child’s use of their sense of wonder, to make sense of the world around them. Finally, his concept of spiritual questing refers to children actively seeking a sense of the meaning and purpose of life.

Similarly, using the same context as Hyde’s research, Grajczonek and Truasheim’s ( 2017 ) study on Godly Play revealed it provided worthwhile strategies and resources for story telling however, they advised caution in using Godly Play due to the differences in theological underpinning and the protestant emphasis. The focus of these studies was on the faith and spiritual development and the role of story in these areas. As Grajczonek and Truasheim reveal, the use of Godly Play is not a curriculum structure for teaching religious education, and so must be used in an appropriate context as it was intended. As these studies show, story contributes to faith practice through engagement and connection to life and faith experiences, bringing meaning to learners’ experiences and reflections.

This systematic literature review scopes the research which connected three key areas: early childhood and story and religious education. While a vast amount of research is available in each specific key area, the research with a strong connection to all three was very limited, with few examples linked to a primary school curriculum. Benefits of the use of story are seen across curriculum areas in the early childhood sector with particular focus on spiritual development and biblical literacy in religious education. Stories can be told in a variety of ways and therefore the literature upon which educators draw must include a range of storytelling methods including reading a story aloud, digital/ audio-visual stories or games, dramatic storytelling including role play and puppetry, and Godly Play, and explore how teachers use different story telling methods in religious education. Similarly, as the Bible is a primary source for religious education and biblical story used extensively, the literature must also explore how teachers use biblical story within their lessons and investigate choices they make regarding pedagogy. This systematic review highlighted gaps in the research and further links can be made on the use of story in religious education through the exploration of teacher perceptions concerning integration of story, to highlight pedagogical choices and practices. Similarly further exploration and research could be conducted on how story embedded in a curriculum contributes to faith practice (or expression of the Christian faith) and how story influences the learner’s understanding of the theology which underpins the curriculum.

Limitations of the literature review

There are limitations to this systematic quantitative literature search as a review of the available literature on the broad topics of early childhood, story and religious education, given the specific research question to which the search relates, and therefore the initial parameters of the search. A further literature search will follow this review with a particular focus on research from the last two years to capture the use of more recent technological advances and reflect the movement of schools worldwide to online learning as a response to social distancing and isolation regulations to mitigate the impact of pandemics such as COVID-19. The move to online learning consequently affected classroom delivery of lessons and the impact of this change is yet to be fully realised. A consideration must be made therefore on the use of digital storytelling as a feature of classroom practice. As Cruz and Snider ( 2009 ) note, it is important to connect with technology in multiple contexts including the use of story and this is worthy of further investigation. This is an area which will prove to be an interesting point of reflection to identify teachers’ perceptions, and if, or how the move to online remote learning has impacted their practice. A search of the same databases will be conducted to reveal if further papers should be considered as possibly relevant to the research reflecting the global modification to schooling as a response to a pandemic such as COVID-19.

This paper provided a Systematic Quantitative Literature Review [SQLR] of the use of story in early childhood religious education to address the research question “What are the pedagogical benefits of using story in religious education in the early years of primary school?” Literature on the key areas of religious education, story and early childhood were reviewed for relevance and connection to the topic. The selected literature revealed story as an effective and pedagogically appropriate way of engaging children in religious education in early childhood. The use of story supports learner-centred pedagogy; encouraging active, engaged learners who make connections through story to build literacy, enhance social skills and collaboration, and engage in critical thinking and inquiry.

Story can be used in religious education in a pedagogically appropriate way, developing religious literacy and encouraging children to connect to the curriculum to meet learning outcomes. The research on story in religious education focuses on the benefits of story such as fostering faith and spiritual development, providing connection to culture and tradition, and building empathy through experiencing story. Further research could focus on the use of story as a pedagogical support to connect known benefits of story with the curriculum to develop literacy (including biblical literacy), effectively engage with diverse perspectives and contribute deeper understanding. This will provide a point for further teacher reflection on their current practice, drawing on theory of early childhood and religious education and their potential impact in Religious Education.

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Interesting Religion Research Paper Topics To Write About

Updated 16 Apr 2024

Religion has been a part of our societies since the beginning of time. From primitive animalistic beliefs to complex polytheistic pantheons, it has changed and evolved to suit our civilizations. This is what makes religion research paper topics so fascinating.

You can go from several approaches when choosing a topic. You can focus on the history of a certain religion, its specifics in terms of beliefs and rituals, how it has impacted the society, its potential future, or focus on the religion systems in general, analyze the differences between them and what might’ve caused them.

While the list of potential religion essay topics is endless, choosing the right one is important. Religion is often an extremely personal matter, so a careless approach might lead to conflict and hurt. Moreover, it is hard to avoid personal bias while talking about religious experiences.

That’s why we offer you this list of relevant topics that are interesting to explore. Choose the one that suits you the most and explore the nature and history of human beliefs.

Choose the Best Religion Topics For a Research Paper

Selecting the right item from the list of religious essay topics can be challenging, so here are some tips that might help you:

• Select a topic you’re at least somewhat interested in – this way it will be easier for you to concentrate on the research and ensure the quality of your work;
• Make sure there are scientific sources related to the topic, and they are not limited to opinion pieces – facts have more weight in the research than opinions;
• Avoid topics that are based on a biased view of a certain religion;
• Avoid attacks and critique of religious leaders and personalities;
• If there are several views on a topic – make sure to cover all of them, or avoid it.

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List of Religion Research Paper Topics

The societal impact of organized religion and religious beliefs as a whole is immense. Researching it gives us a glimpse into how human civilization has changed and how our value system has evolved. However, a lot of religious research topics are too complex. So, here are some of the most relevant religion research paper topics you can have fun completing.

Historical and Comparative Studies

• The evolution of monotheism in ancient civilizations.
• Comparative analysis of creation myths across different cultures.
• The role of women in Hinduism versus Christianity.
• The impact of the Reformation on European society.
• Religious syncretism in the Caribbean: A study of Vodou and Santería.
• The Crusades: Religious fervor, politics, and impact on East-West relations.
• Ancient Egyptian religion and its influence on later Abrahamic religions.
• The spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road.
• The role of prophecy in Abrahamic religions: A comparative study.
• Shamanism in indigenous cultures: Practices and worldviews.

Religion and Society

• The influence of religion on modern legal systems.
• Secularism and its effects on contemporary religious practices.
• Religion and its role in the integration of immigrants.
• The impact of social media on religious organization and practice.
• Religious extremism: Causes, consequences, and responses.
• Interfaith dialogue: Challenges, successes, and impacts on global peace.
• The role of religion in public education: A comparative analysis.
• Religion and LGBTQ+ rights: A global perspective.
• The economics of religion: How faith contributes to wealth and poverty.
• Religion and environmental ethics: Spiritual responses to climate change.

Theology and Philosophy

• The concept of evil in different religious traditions.
• Free will and predestination in Islamic theology.
• Theological responses to the problem of suffering.
• Mysticism in Christianity and Islam: A comparative study.
• The influence of Greek philosophy on early Christian thought.
• Religious pluralism: Theological and philosophical perspectives.
• The concept of the soul in world religions.
• Faith and reason in the Age of Enlightenment.
• The role of meditation in Eastern and Western spiritual practices.
• Death and the afterlife: How religions interpret the end of life.

Contemporary Issues in Religion

• The role of women in contemporary religious leadership.
• Religious responses to the COVID-19 pandemic.
• The impact of globalization on indigenous spiritual practices.
• Atheism and secular humanism: Philosophical foundations and societal impact.
• The intersection of religion and technology: Ethical considerations.
• Religious symbolism in popular culture.
• The politics of religious freedom in the 21st century.
• Conversion and religious identity in the modern world.
• The role of pilgrimage in contemporary religious practice.
• Religious dietary laws and their significance in a globalized world.

Specific Religious Studies

• The development of Zen Buddhism in Japan.
• Sufism and its contribution to Islamic art and culture.
• The significance of the Dead Sea Scrolls for understanding early Christianity.
• Hindu festivals and their socio-cultural significance in India.
• The evolution of Jewish thought from the Torah to modern Zionism.
• Indigenous African religions and their resistance to colonialism.
• Sikhism: History, practices, and global diaspora.
• The Bahá'í Faith: Principles, persecution, and global community.
• Neo-Paganism and the revival of ancient European religions.
• Scientology: Origins, beliefs, and controversies.

Christianity Research Paper Topics

Christianity is one of the biggest religions around the world, with billions of followers. Its impact on the history of the world cannot be overestimated. So, here are some of the most interesting aspects you can learn more about:

• The Development of the Early Christian Church
• The Influence of Martin Luther and the Reformation
• Christian Mysticism and Spiritual Practices
• The Role of Christianity in the Abolition of Slavery
• Comparative Study of Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy
• Christianity and Science: Historical Perspectives
• The Impact of Vatican II on the Catholic Church
• Christianity and Contemporary Ethical Issues
• The Growth of Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa
• Christian Symbols and Their Meanings

Buddhism Essay Topics

Buddhism is another major ideology that should not be overlooked. Its Eastern roots make it distinctly different from a lot of other religions around the world. So, there is a lot to learn about it, especially if you’re not closely familiar with it:

• The concept of emptiness (Śūnyatā) in Mahayana Buddhism.
• The role of meditation in achieving enlightenment in Theravada Buddhism.
• The influence of Buddhism on contemporary Western culture.
• A comparison of Zen Buddhism in Japan and Chan Buddhism in China.
• The Four Noble Truths and their relevance to modern life.
• The spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road: Historical impacts and cultural exchanges.
• The ethical implications of the Buddhist Five Precepts in the context of global issues.
• The evolution of Buddhist art and architecture across Asia.
• The Dalai Lama's role in modern Tibetan Buddhism and global peace efforts.
• The intersection of Buddhism and science in understanding the mind and consciousness.

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Theology Research Paper Topics

Theology applies a scientific approach to religious practices. So, while talking about religion research topics, it’s important to mention the research of theological methods and the history of this branch of science. Here are some of the themes you can consider:

• The concept of God in Christian and Islamic theology: A comparative study.
• Liberation theology and its impact on social justice movements.
• Theological responses to the problem of evil in different religious traditions.
• The role of women in the theology of the early church.
• Process theology and its implications for understanding divine action.
• The influence of Augustine's theology on Western Christian thought.
• Eco-theology: Exploring religious perspectives on environmental conservation.
• The development of Trinitarian doctrine in the early Christian church.
• Theological perspectives on human suffering and divine providence.
• The intersection of theology and technology: Ethical considerations in the digital age.

Islam Research Topics

Islam is another major religion that deserves thorough research and careful consideration. The image of it is often demonized in the West, but there is a lot more to it. Here’s what you can write about it:

• The evolution of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) through history.
• Sufism and its role in shaping Islamic spirituality and practice.
• The impact of Islam on the development of science and philosophy in the Golden Age.
• Gender roles and rights in Islamic law: A contemporary analysis.
• The concept of Jihad in Islam: Historical and modern interpretations.
• Islamic finance and banking: Principles and global impact.
• The significance of the Hajj pilgrimage in Muslim life and society.
• The role of the Prophet Muhammad in Islam compared to prophets in other religions.
• Modern Islamic political movements: Origins and objectives.
• Interfaith dialogue between Islam and other world religions: Challenges and opportunities.

Siddhartha Essay Topics

Siddhartha is the birth name of the founder of Buddhism, and it is the name of the novel about the spiritual journey of his contemporary. Both deserve research in the religious and philosophical context:

• The journey of self-discovery in Hermann Hesse's "Siddhartha."
• The role of the river as a symbol in "Siddhartha."
• Comparing and contrasting Siddhartha's relationships with Kamala and Govinda.
• The theme of enlightenment in "Siddhartha" versus traditional Buddhist teachings.
• The significance of names and identity in "Siddhartha."
• The influence of Indian philosophy on Hesse's "Siddhartha."
• The concept of time in "Siddhartha" and its impact on the protagonist's spiritual journey.
• The role of nature in Siddhartha's quest for enlightenment.
• Siddhartha's changing views on wealth and materialism throughout the novel.
• The portrayal of teacher-student relationships in "Siddhartha" and their importance in Siddhartha's spiritual development.

Religion Systems Topics

• The role of ritual in establishing and maintaining religious systems.
• Comparative analysis of monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
• The impact of colonialism on indigenous religious systems.
• The evolution of religious systems in response to modernity and secularism.
• Syncretism: How different religious systems merge and influence each other.
• The function of myth in religious systems across cultures.
• Religious systems and their influence on gender roles and norms.
• The relationship between religious systems and political power structures.
• The role of pilgrimage in various religious systems.
• The future of religious systems in a globalized world: Trends and predictions.

Advice on How to Write a Religion Essay

Writing an essay about religion has a lot of pitfalls. If you want to get a good grade on your task, you need to do it right. Here are some tips that might help you write an excellent essay on a religious topic:

• Avoid including personal biases and opinions – criticizing any religion is a slippery slope, but doing it from an emotional or experienced-based standpoint is even worse. Remember that the views and values of one person do not define the views of the whole group;
• Structure your paper – a well-structured paper is easy to read and understand. It will better illustrate your point and will show your organized and systematic approach to research;
• Check your sources for credibility – unfortunately, there are a lot of pseudoscientific opinions and works around religious topics. Even if some of them have certain merit, it is better not to include them in your work;
• Explore your religion research topics from different perspectives – the best way to avoid bias in your research is to present the opinions from opposite sides. This will result in a well-rounded paper that will not claim to know a “single truth”, but rather apply scientific methods to religious research;
• Try to provide the context – religious texts are often complex and filled with symbolism. You can easily find contradicting statements in them, but, in order to present them fairly, you need to provide the context for them. This does not require a retelling of the whole text, but the general situation needs to be mentioned.

If these tips still do not help, we’re ready to assist you. Visit our platform, choose a professional author that suits you, and get help with your religion research paper right now!

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215 Religion Research Paper Topics for College Students

Studying religion at a college or a university may be a challenging course for any student. This isn’t because religion is always a sensitive issue in society, it is because the study of religion is broad, and crafting religious topics for research papers around them may be further complex for students. This is why sociology of religion research topics and many others are here, all for your use.

As students of a university or a college, it is essential to prepare religious topics for research papers in advance. There are many research paper topics on religion, and this is why the scope of religion remains consistently broad. They extend to the sociology of religion, research paper topics on society, argumentative essay topics, and lots more. All these will be examined in this article. Rather than comb through your books in search of inspiration for your next essay or research paper, you can easily choose a topic for your religious essay or paper from the following recommendations:

World Religion Research Paper Topics

If you want to broaden your scope as a university student to topics across religions of the world, there are religion discussion topics to consider. These topics are not just for discussion in classes, you can craft research around them. Consider:

• The role of myths in shaping the world: Greek myths and their influence on the evolution of European religions
• Modern History: The attitude of modern Europe on the history of their religion
• The connection between religion and science in the medieval and modern world
• The mystery in the books of Dan Brown is nothing but fiction: discuss how mystery shapes religious beliefs
• Theocracy: an examination of theocratic states in contemporary society
• The role of Christianity in the modern world
• The myth surrounding the writing of the Bible
• The concept of religion and patriarchy: examine two religions and how it oppresses women
• People and religion in everyday life: how lifestyle and culture is influenced by religion
• The modern society and the changes in the religious view from the medieval period
• The interdependence of laws and religion is a contemporary thing: what is the role of law in religion and what is the role of religion in law?
• What marked the shift from religion to humanism?
• What do totemism and animalism denote?
• Pre Colonial religion in Africa is savagery and barbaric: discuss
• Cite three religions and express their views on the human soul
• Hinduism influenced Indian culture in ways no religion has: discuss
• Africans are more religious than Europeans who introduced Christian religion to them: discuss
• Account for the evolution of Confucianism and how it shaped Chinese culture to date
• Account for the concept of the history of evolution according to Science and according to a religion and how it influences the ideas of the religious soul
• What is religious education and how can it promote diversity or unity?7
• Workplace and religion: how religion is extended to all facets of life
• The concept of fear in maintaining religious authorities: how authorities in religious places inspire fear for absolute devotion
• Afro-American religion: a study of African religion in America
• The Bible and its role in religions
• Religion is more of emotions than logic
• Choose five religions of the world and study the similarities in their ideas
• The role of religious leaders in combating global terrorism
• Terrorism: the place of religion in promoting violence in the Middle East
• The influence of religion in modern-day politics
• What will the world be like without religion or religious extremists?
• Religion in the growth of communist Russia: how cultural revolution is synonymous with religion
• Religion in the growth of communist China: how cultural revolution is synonymous with religion
• The study of religions and ethnic rivalries in India
• Terrorism in Islam is a comeback to the crusades
• The role of the Thirty Years of War in shaping world diplomacy
• The role of the Thirty Years of War in shaping plurality in Christianity
• The religion and the promotion of economics
• The place of world religions on homosexuality
• Why does a country, the Vatican City, belong to the Catholic Church?
• God and the concept of the supernatural: examine the idea that God is a supernatural being
• The influence of religion in contemporary Japan
• Religion and populism in the modern world
• The difference between mythical creatures and gods
• Polytheism and the possibility of world peace
• Religion and violence in secular societies?
• Warfare and subjugation in the spread of religion
• The policies against migrant in Poland is targeted against Islam
• The role of international organizations in maintaining religious peace
• International terrorist organizations and the decline of order

Research Paper Topics Religion and Society

As a student in a university or MBA student, you may be requested to write an informed paper on sociology and religion. There are many sociology religion research paper topics for these segments although they may be hard to develop. You can choose out of the following topics or rephrase them to suit your research interest:

• The influence of religion on the understanding of morality
• The role of religion in marginalizing the LGBTQ community
• The role of women in religion
• Faith crisis in Christianity and Islamic religions
• The role of colonialism in the spreading of religion: the spread of Christianity and Islam is a mortal sin
• How does religion shape our sexual lifestyle?
• The concept of childhood innocence in religion
• Religion as the object of hope for the poor: how religion is used as a tool for servitude by the elite
• The impact of traditional beliefs in today’s secular societies
• How religion promotes society and how it can destroy it
• The knowledge of religion from the eyes of a sociologist
• Religious pluralism in America: how diverse religions struggle to strive
• Social stratification and its role in shaping religious groups in America
• The concept of organized religion: why the belief in God is not enough to join a religious group
• The family has the biggest influence on religious choices: examine how childhood influences the adult’s religious interests
• Islamophobia in European societies and anti-Semitism in America
• The views of Christianity on interfaith marriage
• The views of Islam on interfaith marriage
• The difference between spirituality and religion
• The role of discipline in maintaining strict religious edicts
• How do people tell others about their religion?
• The features of religion in sociology
• What are the views of Karl Marx on religion?
• What are the views of Frederic Engels on religion?
• Modern Islam: the conflict of pluralism and secularism
• Choose two religions and explore their concepts of divorce
• Governance and religion: how religion is also a tool of control
• The changes in religious ideas with technological evolution
• Theology is the study of God for God, not humans
• The most feared religion: how Islamic extremists became identified as terrorist organizations
• The role of cults in the society: why religious people still have cults affiliations
• The concept of religious inequality in the US
• What does religion say about sexual violence?

Religion Essay Topics

As a college student, you may be required to write an essay on religion or morality. You may need to access a lot of religious essay topics to find inspiration for a topic of your choice. Rather than go through the stress of compiling, you can get more information for better performance from religion topics for research paper like:

• The origin of Jihad in Islam and how it has evolved
• Compare the similarities and differences between Christian and Judaism religions
• The Thirty Years War and the Catholic church
• The Holocaust: historic aggression or a religious war
• Religion is a tool of oppression from the political and economic perspectives
• The concept of patriarchy in religion
• Baptism and synonym to ritual sacrifice
• The life of Jesus Christ and the themes of theology
• The life of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.) and the themes of theology
• How can religion be used to promote world peace?
• Analyze how Jesus died and the reason for his death
• Analyze the event of the birth of Christ
• The betrayal of Jesus is merely to fulfill a prophecy
• Does “prophecy” exist anywhere in religion?
• The role of war in promoting religion: how crusades and terrorist attacks shape the modern world
• The concept of Karma: is Karma real?
• Who are the major theorists in religion and what do they say?
• The connection of sociology with religion
• Why must everyone be born again according to Christians?
• What does religious tolerance mean?
• What is the benefit of religion in society?
• What do you understand about free speech and religious tolerance?
• Why did the Church separate from the state?
• The concept of guardian angels in religion
• What do Islam and Christianity say about the end of the world?
• Religion and the purpose of God for man
• The concept of conscience in morality is overrated
• Are there different sects in Christianity?
• What does Islam or Christianity say about suicide?
• What are the reasons for the Protestant Reformation?
• The role of missionaries in propagating Christianity in Africa
• The role of the Catholic church in shaping Christianity
• Do we need an international religious organization to maintain international religious peace?
• Why do people believe in miracles?

Argumentative Essay Topics on Religion

Creating argumentative essay topics on religion may be a daunting exercise regardless of your level. It is more difficult when you don’t know how to start. Your professor could be interested in your critical opinions about international issues bordering on religion, which is why you need to develop sensible topics. You can consider the following research paper topics religion and society for inspiration:

• Religion will dominate humanity: discuss
• All religions of the world dehumanize the woman
• All men are slaves to religion
• Karl Marx was right when he said religion is the return of the repressed, “the sigh of the oppressed creature”: discuss
• Christianity declined in Europe with the Thirty Years War and it separated brothers and sisters of the Christian faith?
• Islamic terrorism is a targeted attack on western culture
• The danger of teen marriage in Islam is more than its benefits
• The church should consider teen marriages for every interested teenager
• Is faith fiction or reality?
• The agape love is restricted to God and God’s love alone
• God: does he exist or is he a fiction dominating the world?
• Prayer works better without medicine: why some churches preach against the use of medicine
• People change religion because they are confused about God: discuss
• The church and the state should be together
• Polygamous marriage is evil and it should be condemned by every religion
• Cloning is abuse against God’s will
• Religious leaders should also be political leaders
• Abortion: a sin against God or control over your body
• Liberty of religious association affects you negatively: discuss
• Religious leaders only care about themselves, not the people
• Everyone should consider agnosticism
• Natural laws are the enemy of religion
• It is good to have more than two faiths in a family
• It is hard for the state to exist without religion
• Religion as a cause of the World War One
• Religion as a tool for capitalists
• Religion doesn’t promote morality, only extremisms
• Marriage: should the people or their religious leaders set the rules?
• Why the modern church should acknowledge the LGBTQ: the fight for true liberalism
• Mere coexistence is not religious tolerance
• The use of candles, incense, etc. in Catholic worship is idolatrous and the same as pagan worship: discuss
• The Christian religion is the same as Islam

Christianity Research Paper Topics on Religion

It doesn’t matter if you’re a Christian or not as you need to develop a range of topics for your essay or project. To create narrow yet all-inclusive research about Christianity in the world today, you can consider research topics online. Rather than rack your head or go through different pages on the internet, consider these:

• Compare and contrast Christian and Islam religions
• Trace the origin of Christianity and the similarity of the beliefs in the contemporary world
• Account for the violent spread of Christianity during the crusades
• Account for the state of Christianity in secular societies
• The analysis of the knowledge of rapture in Christianity
• Choose three contemporary issues and write the response of Christianity on them
• The Catholic church and its role towards the continuance of sexual violence
• The Catholic church and the issues of sexual abuse and scandals
• The history of Christianity in America
• The history of Christianity in Europe
• The impact of Christianity on American slaves
• The belief of Christianity on death, dying, and rapture
• The study of Christianity in the medieval period
• How Christianity influenced the western world
• Christianity: the symbols and their meaning
• Why catholic priests practice celibacy
• Christianity in the Reformation Era
• Discuss the Gnostic Gospels and their distinct historic influence on Christianity
• The catholic church in the Third Reich of Germany
• The difference between the Old Testament and the New Testament
• What the ten commandments say from a theological perspective
• The unpredictable story of Moses
• The revival of Saul to Paul: miracle or what?
• Are there Christian cults in the contemporary world?
• Gender differences in the Christian church: why some churches don’t allow women pastors
• The politics of the Catholic church before the separation of the church and the state
• The controversies around Christian religion and atheism: why many people are leaving the church
• What is the Holy Trinity and what is its role in the church?
• The miracles of the New Testament and its difference from the Old Testament’s
• Why do people question the existence of God?
• God is a spirit: discuss

Islam Research Paper Topics

As a student of the Islamic religion or a Muslim, you may be interested in research on the religion. Numerous Islam research paper topics could be critical in shaping your research paper or essay. These are easy yet profound research paper topics on religion Islam for your essays or papers:

• Islam in the Middle East
• Trace the origin of Islam
• Who are the most important prophets in Islam?
• Discuss the Sunni and other groups of Muslims
• The Five Pillars of Islam are said to be important in Islam, why?
• Discuss the significance of the Holy Month
• Discuss the significance of the Holy Pilgrimage
• The distinctions of the Five Pillars of Islam and the Ten Commandments?
• The controversies around the hijab and the veil
• Western states are denying Muslims: why?
• The role of religious leaders in their advocacy of sexual abuse and violence
• What the Quran says about rape and what does Hadiths say, too?
• Rape: men, not the women roaming the street should be blamed
• What is radicalism in Islam?
• The focus of Islam is to oppress women: discuss
• The political, social, and economic influence of modernity on Islam
• The notable wives of prophet Muhammad and their role in Islam: discuss
• Trace the evolution of Islam in China and the efforts of the government against them
• Religious conflict in Palestine and Israel: how a territorial conflict slowly became a religious war
• The study of social class and the Islamic religion
• Suicide bombers and their belief of honor in death: the beliefs of Islamic jihadists
• Account for the issues of marginalization of women in Muslim marriages
• The role of literature in promoting the fundamentals of Islam: how poetry was used to appeal to a wider audience
• The concept of feminism in Islam and why patriarchy seems to be on a steady rise
• The importance of Hadiths in the comprehension of the Islamic religion
• Does Islam approve of democracy?
• Islamic terrorism and the role of religious leaders
• The relationship of faith in Islam and Christianity: are there differences in the perspectives of faith?
• How the Quran can be used as a tool for religious tolerance and religious intolerance
• The study of Muslims in France: why is there religious isolation and abuse in such a society?
• Islam and western education: what are the issues that have become relevant in recent years?
• Is there a relationship between Islam and Science?
• Western culture: why there are stereotypes against Muslims abroad
• Mythology in Islam: what role does it play in shaping the religion?
• Islam and the belief in the afterlife: are there differences between its beliefs with other religions’?
• Why women are not allowed to take sermons in Islam

Can’t Figure Out Your Religion Paper?

With these religious research paper topics, you’re open to change the words or choose a topic of your choice for your research paper or essay. Writing an essay after finding a topic is relatively easy. Since you have helpful world religion research paper topics, research paper topics on religion and society, religion essay topics, argumentative essay topics on religion, Christianity research paper topics, and Islam research paper topics, you can go online to research different books that discuss the topic of your choice.

However, if you require the assistance of professional academic experts who offer custom academic help, you’ll find them online. There are a few writing help online groups that assist in writing your essays or research paper as fast as possible. You can opt for their service if you’re too busy or unmotivated to write your research paper or essay.

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The Best 50 Religion Research Topics to Use for Students

In our multi-religious and multicultural society, crafting a great research paper on religion is a challenging task. Indeed, this challenge starts from the first stage of preparing your paper: identifying a good religious research paper topic. Further, it is almost impossible to write a paper without offending one or more religious feelings, especially when working on the history of religion. To make writing your paper easy, you must start by picking good religious paper topics.

In this paper, we list 50 religion research paper topics and a guide for selecting the best. If you want to get good grades, start with the right step- the best topic.

Why You Need the Best Religion Research Paper Topics

When working on any research paper, the most important step is identifying the topic. Indeed, the topic determines the direction you will take with the paper. Here are other benefits of selecting the best topics for a religious research paper.

• It allows you to work on the preferred area of interest.
• With a good topic, you do not get bored midway.
• A great topic offers you the opportunity to fill knowledge gaps in the field of religious studies.
• It is your opportunity to make your contribution felt.
• Picking the best topics is the first step to better grades.

How to Pick the Best Topics for a Religious Research Paper

Now that you know the benefits of selecting the best topics for your religious papers, you might be wondering, “How do I pick it?” Here are some useful tips to help you identify the best:

• Brainstorm your religious study subject. This will help you to get the best ideas to work on.
• Comprehensively research your area of interest. For example, you might be interested in the history of religion, church and social action, creationism, or modernism and religion.
• Look at the latest happenings. Things such as religious involvement in economics and education might inspire your paper ideas.
• Follow your teacher’s recommendation. Often, professors give guidelines to students on the areas they should work on. For example, if you were covering a certain area in your religious education studies class; your teacher might ask you to pick topics from that section only. But in most cases, teachers leave the topics open for students to select on their own.
• Read other research on religious studies. Most researchers point at gaps that exist in the niche so that later students can work on them. This is a great place to commence your research paper.

The Best Religious Topics for a Research Paper

Whether you prefer working on religious controversial topics or philosophy of religion essay topics, we have listed the best 50 ideas to get you started. Check them and pick them as they are or tweak them to fit your preferred format.

• Christian and economics.
• Religion and homosexuality.
• Black churches.
• Christianity history.
• Comparing and contrasting Christian and Islam history.
• A closer look at world religions without gods.
• The concept of religion and soul.
• The impact of religious laws on morality.
• The phenomenon of trickster gods.
• The impact of Greek religion on European culture.
• Impact of religion on American culture.
• Impact of religion on Chinese culture.
• Comparing the similarities of images of gods in different religions.
• How does gender affect religion?
• Islam in modern India.
• What is the future of religion?
• Afterlife: What are the differences in diverse religions?
• What are the main causes of the faith crisis?
• Analyzing the influence of female clergy on religion.
• Relooking at the reincarnation concept.
• What role do men have in religion?
• The impacts of yoga on religion.
• Can faith remove the harshness of adolescence?
• Why is Ramadhan referred to as the holy month?
• Comparing religious counselors to classical psychologists.
• A closer look at the main differences between the bible and Koran.
• What is the importance of Christmas for Christians?
• Creationism.
• Religion and science.
• How do people implement different religious practices today?
• Should atheism be considered another form of religion?
• Judaism: A closer look at its history.
• Analyzing attitudes towards sex in the Christian religion.
• Children: Are they considered innocent in all religions?
• A closer look at the history of Hinduism.
• A closer look at the existence of God as a supernatural being.
• Comparing and contrasting monotheistic cultures.
• Female goddesses.
• Chaplain-ship: How does it trigger peace and harmony?
• Impact of women in the history of Christianity.
• What are the implications of forced religion on people?
• Religion and terrorism.
• Religion in the workplace.
• Religion and evolution.
• Nordic mythology.
• A world without religion: Is it possible?
• Applying religion to address global problems.
• The primal religions.
• Do you think religion should play a role in modern politics?
• Do you think religion influences societal virtues?

Got the Best Religion Topics to Write About – What Next?

Now that you have a list of the best world religion research paper topics, it is important to appreciate that the journey of writing your assignment has just started. The next step is to write down your paper in line with your teacher’s guidelines. This is where your writing skills come into play. Well, it is never easy for many students. Often, some lack good writing skills, have other engagements, or acquire the right resources is a challenge. For others, the deadline is too tight and almost impossible to beat. The best idea is to seek affordable college assignment writing help.

After selecting the best topics, be they sociology or religion research topics or religious debate topics, writing help is provided by experts with years of experience in academic writing. They have handled such papers before and are willing to help you craft the best paper for top grades. Well, do not let that religious research paper stress you anymore, let a professional help you!

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Formation fit for purpose: empowering religious educators working in catholic schools, 1. introduction.

• To what extent do religious educators understand how to successfully implement the Religious Education curriculum?
• How successful are they at eliciting the appropriate understandings and interpretations of the Church’s mission?
• And, most importantly, to what degree do religious educators actually value the Church’s identity and mission?

2. The Catholic Religious Educator

3. a local perspective.

• “We know that it [RE] is [a learning area] but often it is not, as more focus is on literacy and numeracy.”
• “Absolutely not. It [RE] is generally poorly timetabled and used as a filler for people’s timetables. REC’s and those who teach RE full time understand its value as the first learning area.”
• “No, it [RE] is not. RE is not treated as an equal with other core areas. Nor is it a priority for staff. RE is generally a ‘fill in subject’ for teachers who are down a line in their timetable. Untrained staff also being put into 11 and 12 classes…”

4. Addressing the Research Problem

4.1. considerations, 4.1.1. the re-assessment of perceived identity and mission, 4.1.2. the re-assessment of faith formation, 4.1.3. the re-assessment of family and parish engagements, 4.1.4. the re-assessment of planning documents, 4.2. the application of the approach, 4.2.1. the approach is research-led.

• How can religious educators be supported to engage with the identity and mission of the Catholic Church?
• How can religious educators be supported to develop a deeper understanding of the Catholic Church?
• How can religious educators be supported to engage with the beliefs of the Catholic Church?
• How can religious educators be supported to live and give witness to the beliefs and devotional practices of the Catholic Church?
• How can religious educators be supported to implement the Religious Education Curriculum and engage students with the identity and mission of the Catholic Church?
• How can engagement with the identity and mission of the Catholic Church be validly and reliably measured?

4.2.2. The Approach Adopts Educational Principles

4.2.3. the approach is relational and community-minded, 4.2.4. the approach is guided by three overarching questions, 4.2.5. the approach builds religious literacy, 4.2.6. the approach aims to continue the legacy, 5. conclusions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Poncini, A. Formation Fit for Purpose: Empowering Religious Educators Working in Catholic Schools. Religions 2024 , 15 , 665. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15060665

Poncini A. Formation Fit for Purpose: Empowering Religious Educators Working in Catholic Schools. Religions . 2024; 15(6):665. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15060665

Poncini, Antonella. 2024. "Formation Fit for Purpose: Empowering Religious Educators Working in Catholic Schools" Religions 15, no. 6: 665. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15060665

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Calling faith critical to higher education, educators launch new Commission on Faith-based Universities

Presidents of faith-based universities say they hope to knock down the perception that faith is receding among young people.

By Tad Walch

WASHINGTON — Faith is more critical than ever to higher education for the same reason that values rooted in religious tradition are more critical than ever for the United States, leaders said Tuesday at the launch of a new group of religious schools.

One block from the White House at the National Press Club, the American Council on Education’s Commission on Faith-based Universities convened its inaugural conference with presidents from 35 religious affiliated institutions — Catholic, Jewish, Baptist, Latter-day Saint and more.

One particularly heavy-hitting and religiously diverse panel included the presidents of Baylor, Brigham Young, Georgetown, Pepperdine and Yeshiva University.

The presidents said they hope to knock down the perception that faith is receding among young people. Over 1.8 million students are enrolled at American religious colleges and universities, according to the Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics.

“Religious schools are growing,” said one of the new commission’s inaugural co-chairs, Elder Clark G. Gilbert, a General Authority Seventy of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and its commissioner of education. “This is counter to the narrative a lot of people have. From 1980 through today ... the national average in university enrollments grew at 57% and religious schools have grown at 82%.”

The presidents also want people to understand why American youth are responding to religious education. It is because they are searching for meaning, leaders said throughout the day.

“Students are hungry for purpose, and they are more hungry than you know,” Harvard law professor Ruth Okediji said in the conference’s opening keynote address. “They are so hungry they will crawl through the desert to find it.”

Okediji said more than 80% of college students face significant mental health challenges. The root of that, counselors tell her, is both the blessing of having plenty and the curse of having plenty without purpose. In an age of search engines and social media and AI, young people have the answers to every question but the most important one, she said. That question is “why? What does it matter? Why do I matter?”

BYU president Shane Reese said today’s generation of college students walk in the door lonelier than any previous generation, but with “a heartfelt hunger to make a difference in the world.”

Religious universities offer to explore the deepest questions or purpose, making them unique in American higher education and highlighting an area where they can lean in, leaders said.

Okediji, who spoke at a BYU forum in January, said secular universities today offer limited views, limited humility and limited curiosity for things about which there is not already an answer.

“Outside of the oasis of faith-based universities, most American college students do not encounter prayer, the Bible, the Torah or any sort of faith tradition as part of their learning, further reinforcing the idea that the only way to be a good citizen, the only way to be a highly evolved intellectual, is in fact to have a life outside and apart from and independent of faith,” she said.

She called that a crisis of citizenship and education and a crisis for the nation and culture. She said it affected her growing up, when she wondered if she really “could be a deep intellectual and be passionately in love with the gospel of Jesus Christ” when higher education declares it is anti-intellectual and anti-reason to be religious.”

“The beauty of faith-based institutions,” she added, “is the freedom to digress from the current cultural dominant view and encourage students to pierce it and ask the hard questions, not the ones for which they already have the answers but the ones for which the answers are not already decided.”

Okediji said America’s elite schools all have drifted from their religious roots and warned the presidents to stay true to their missions — for the good of the school, their students, their religious communities and the nation.

“Holding fast to the charge of the mission of your institution is vital if you are going to produce authentic leaders whose intellectual rigor and whose calmness of spirit can lead a nation that is so close to the precipice today,” she said.

The presidents of Christian schools said they don’t have a problem finding enough Christian scholars to hire as faculty, but Baylor President Linda Livingstone described a challenge that does arise during hiring because many of those prospective faculty members now are trained at non-sectarian schools.

“We want them to speak to us about how their faith does or might animate their research and their teaching, and how might they think about how it would inform what they do in the laboratory or particularly in the classroom,” she said. “Now, more senior faculty, even if they come from secular institutions, are better able to do that because they’ve thought a lot about it. New faculty out of mostly secular Ph.D. programs struggle more with that. We do want to at least hear how they would like to think about and how they would be open to learning how to think about their scholarship as it relates to their faith and the work that they do at Baylor.”

Okediji offered five invitations to faith-based institutions. She said they should:

• Help students have a sense of curiosity about who they are and why they exist.
• Not lose their commitment to steward the mind.
• Avoid drifting from their religious mission.
• Help students learn to translate the living truth of their faith tradition into action.
• Pursue the restoration of the contemplative life.

The origin of the commission was rooted in conversations about how faith-based institutions are perceived in higher education and U.S. government between two Christians, Shirley Hoogstra, president of the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities, and Ted Mitchell, president of the American Council on Education and a former U.S. Undersecretary of Education.

“We started to talk with Elder Gilbert about, what if we were to flip the script and ask the question differently — what are faith-based institutions doing to advance what we all believe in higher education, whether it’s narrow stuff like access and equity or broad stuff like values, morals, etc.,” Mitchell said.

In January 2023, Mitchell, Hoogstra and Elder Gilbert helped convene a summit on faith-based education . Mitchell said it was productive enough that it led to the decision for ACE to form the new commission. He said he can envision future gatherings of, say, physicists from faith-based universities.

Hoogstra, who is the commission’s other inaugural co-chair, used a musical metaphor to describe Tuesday’s event.

“What I loved about today’s experience is we pulled wide the accordion and we made new music together,” she said.

Hoogstra said she was impressed to hear Okediji make the case that education needs a moral compass and to hear panelists make a case that faith values need research and scholarship.

“This is so true, because you’ve got AI, you’ve got euthanasia, you’ve got end-of-life questions,” she said. “You have so many really significant spiritual, moral questions that need to be thought through, researched.”

The day’s two panels discussed religion as a source of innovation.

The first considered how religious foundations can help schools improve student access to higher education and help students complete degrees. The panel included the presidents of BYU-Pathway Worldwide, Brian Ashton; the historically Black, Seventh-Day Adventist Oakwood University, Leslie Pollard; and The Catholic University of America, Peter Kilpatrick.

The second was on innovation in scholarship and research. It included Baylor’s Linda Livingstone, BYU’s Shane Reese, Georgetown’s John DeGioia, Pepperdine’s Jim Gash and Yeshiva’s Ari Berman.

The closing keynote speaker was Freeman Hrabowski, the president emeritus of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, who spoke at a BYU forum in February .

“I thought that Freeman was a wonderful, surprising example of a Christian who has made an enormous contribution to secular higher education, because of his faith, not in spite of his faith,” Hoogstra said. “He didn’t have the freedom to really allow his personal faith to lead his institutional life, but there’s no question that the extraordinary leadership tenure he had at Maryland was definitely shaped by his whole life of faith.”

Hoogstra said that a number of commissions convene various collegiate groups, but “a commission with a platform like the American Council on Education gives this conversation credibility and an imprimatur of necessity, because ACE serves about 1,700 schools, 200 of which identify as faith-based, and there’s never been a commission for them.”

Elder Gilbert said the commission is the outgrowth of a generation of conversations between leaders of different faiths and faith-based schools.

“This is a precarious time where schools of diverse faith backgrounds need to work across boundaries to strengthen areas of shared emphasis, from religious freedom to accreditation protections,” he told the Deseret News.

“What we’re hoping,” Elder Gilbert told the commission on Tuesday, “is that with the American Council on Education initiative for faith-based schools, we will add to this momentum around the distinctive identity, authentic identity of religiously affiliated institutions.”

He called the day historic, because it formalized years of organic relationships.

He added, “The second thing that is significant is, at a time of polarization where so many people refuse to work across differences, these different universities with different faith backgrounds are working together in a wonderful spirit of unity. We have different doctrines and different beliefs, but people genuinely are working together in the spirit of friendship.”

Texas education leaders unveil Bible-infused elementary school curriculum

The proposed curriculum overhaul was released a week after the Texas GOP proposed requiring the Bible to be taught in public schools. School districts that opt to use them will get more funding.

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Elementary school curriculum proposed this week would infuse new state reading and language arts lessons with teachings on the Bible, marking the latest push by Texas Republicans to put more Christianity in public schools.

The Texas Education Agency released the thousands of pages of educational materials this week. They have been made available for public viewing and feedback and, if approved by the State Board of Education in November, will be available for public schools to roll out in August of 2025. Districts will have the option of whether to use the materials, but will be incentivized to do so with up to $60 per student in additional funding.

TEA Commissioner Mike Morath said the materials are based on extensive cognitive science research and will help improve students’ reading and math scores. In 2019, less than half of students met grade-level standards for reading, and that percentage has declined since the pandemic , based on state standardized test scores.

The new materials have prompted criticism, though. The education news site The 74 first reported the redesign on Wednesday and included excerpts of lesson plans with biblical references. They also reported that a New York-based curriculum vendor, Amplify, opted out of bidding on a contract after the state sought to insert biblical materials, but not other religious texts, into the curriculum. The state education agency rejected those claims, saying multiple religions are included throughout the curriculum. Because of Texas' size, textbooks that are developed for its schools are often used in other states.

Morath told The Texas Tribune on Thursday that religious materials are a “small piece of the content pie.” His office could not quantify what percentage of each grade’s textbook would be devoted to biblical references. The Tribune has not reviewed all materials, which include the state-designed textbooks as well as proposals from 25 different vendors.

But an initial review of the proposed state textbooks show that religious materials feature prominently, with texts sourced from the Bible as the most heavily used.

“It’s a tiny fraction of the overall fraction — it’s just where it makes sense to do that,” Morath said. “It’s a very small but appropriate fraction.”

The textbooks mark a shift toward a “classical, broad-based liberal arts education,” from a more skills-based curriculum, Morath said.

“You’re trying to build vocabulary, build background knowledge so that when kids are reading Steinbeck in high school, they get the references,” Morath said.

The instructional materials were unveiled amid a broader movement by Republicans to further infuse conservative Christianity into public life. At last week’s Texas GOP convention — which was replete with calls for “ spiritual warfare ” against their political opponents — delegates voted on a new platform that calls on lawmakers and the SBOE to “require instruction on the Bible, servant leadership and Christian self-governance.”

Throughout the three-day convention, Republican leaders and attendees frequently claimed that Democrats sought to indoctrinate schoolchildren as part of a war on Christianity . SBOE Chair Aaron Kinsey, of Midland, echoed those claims in a speech to delegates, promising to use his position to advance Republican beliefs and oppose Critical Race Theory, “diversity, equity and inclusion” initiatives or “whatever acronym the left comes up with next.”

“You have a chairman,” Kinsey said, “who will fight for these three-letter words: G-O-D, G-O-P and U-S-A.”

Mark Chancey, a Southern Methodist University religious studies professor who focuses on movements to put the Bible in public schools, said there is “nothing inherently inappropriate” with teaching the Bible or other religious texts, so long as it’s done neutrally. But he’s concerned by some of the proposed curriculum, including lessons that he said seem to treat biblical stories as “straightforward historical accounts.”

“It serves a civic good for students to be taught about religion,” he said. “But that's different from giving students religious instruction. The question is going to be whether these materials teach about religion, or whether they cross the line into giving religious instruction.”

For example: The curriculum promotes lessons on Leonardo Da Vinci’s “The Last Supper” alongside the Gospel of Matthew, which centers on Jesus’ crucifixion and its atonement for human sin. “These are very strong, central claims of Christian theology,” Chancey said. “And students will have questions about that. How are teachers supposed to respond to those questions?”

It’s not unforeseeable, he said, for those conversations to lead to even thornier areas that are still divisive even among Christians.

If the state education board approves the materials in November, schools will not be required to use them. But a measure approved by lawmakers last year will offer more money to public school districts that do choose to adopt any of the materials.

Some of that content includes a first grade lesson stating the Liberty Bell “reminded [the Founding Fathers] of how God helped free the Hebrew people in the Bible” as well as a fifth grade poetry lesson on “A Psalm of David,” described as “one of the most popular poems ever written.”

Other religions are also included. A second grade lesson highlights the Jewish celebration of Purim. A fourth grade poetry unit includes Kshemendra, a poet from India who “studied Buddhism and Hinduism.”

Some State Board of Education members told the Tribune they had not yet read through the materials and would decide whether or not to approve the content based on standards they’ve already established.

Keven Ellis , a Republican state school board member who lives in Lufkin, said the role of the board is to make sure the materials are appropriate for each grade-level and that they align with the state’s curriculum standards, known as the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills.

“My focus will remain on approving instructional materials that improve outcomes in phonics, language arts and math,” Ellis said.

State curriculum guidelines spell out that “the instructional material should recognize and not contradict that parents have the right to 'direct the moral and religious training' of their children and the duty to support their children’s education.’” Ellis did not respond to inquiries about the religious material.

Staci Childs , a Houston Democrat who sits on the SBOE, said she believes it’s okay to include Biblical references as long as other religions are also introduced to students.

"As a Christian, I think it is okay [to teach the Bible] as long as you’re normalizing the introduction of all religions and all types of mythologies so students have a varied and robust and true depiction of the materials in the text of our past,” Childs said. “To only infuse Bible verses and teachings of the Bible is completely insensitive to all the different types of students we have in Texas and a disrespect to the faiths they may acknowledge.”

Last year, the state directed the TEA to create its own textbooks when the Legislature passed House Bill 1605 . Lawmakers said the purpose of the policy was to give teachers access to high-quality instructional materials.

A teacher vacancy task force that had convened in 2022 found that teachers spend significant time creating and looking for lesson plans. Lawmakers said the new state textbooks will save teachers time.

In an op-ed published in the Dallas Morning News this week, state Rep. Brad Buckley , R-Killeen, and state Sen. Brandon Creighton , R-Conroe, said the new materials “will provide much needed relief to teachers by eliminating the need to spend dozens of hours outside of the classroom developing curriculum.”

Morath said the materials are designed for Texas students, with references to the state’s geography and industries, as well as Texas-based historical figures like Clara Driscoll, known for her historic preservation work rescuing the Alamo from destruction, decades after the pivotal battle at the former Catholic mission in San Antonio.

“We’ve tried to make it as tightly based on the needs of Texas students as possible,” Morath said.

Soon after the materials were released on Wednesday morning, Gov. Greg Abbott released a statement saying he supported the curriculum.

“The materials will also allow our students to better understand the connection of history, art, community, literature, and religion on pivotal events like the signing of the U.S. Constitution, the Civil Rights Movement, and the American Revolution,” Abbott said in a statement.

When asked directly if Abbott had any role in developing the new content, Morath answered: “I’m not sure any. This was entirely a project of TEA.” Morath added that the governor is keenly attentive to the subject of public education.

“The governor has been very interested in getting back to fundamentals of education for a long time,” Morath said, “and so this is some of the lens that we think about, but he’s not alone in that perspective.”

Before HB 1605’s passage, the Texas Education Agency was creating new instructional materials in order to help improve students’ reading and math scores. Those materials were piloted in about 400 districts, a TEA spokesperson said. Some had full-scale, district-wide implementation while others tested the materials in a few grade levels.

Morath cited pilot studies in districts like Temple and Lubbock, where students’ reading scores increased by as much as 16 points after adopting the newer reading and language arts program.

About 300 people, most of whom are educators, are reviewing all of the instructional materials and will present their feedback to the State Board of Education. TEA did not provide a list of the reviewers but said they were selected by the SBOE.

Members of the public can also weigh in and offer feedback on the materials until August 16 and from there, the materials will go before the state board in November for final approval. If approved, the materials will immediately be available for download.

Chancey, the Southern Methodist University religion professor, said teaching the Bible in any public setting immediately prompts a variety of complicated questions. First among them: Which of the many Bible translations should be used? “The choice of translation brought into the public school has at times proven controversial,” he said.

Meanwhile, Chancey said, the proposed instructions on religious liberty in the original colonies seem to be a “tremendous oversimplification,” failing to note the persecution faced by other religious groups, namely Quakers and early Baptists. Omitting that, he said, misses the real lesson to be learned from studying America’s early settlers: “The dangers of religious favoritism.”

The proposed state textbook calls for excerpts of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “Letter From a Birmingham Jail” to be paired with the Biblical story of Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego, whose defiance of the Babylonian leader Nebuchadnezzar is cited by King as an example of civil disobedience. And yet, the proposed curriculum does not appear to include any excerpts on the intended audience or a core theme of King’s letter: White moderates and clergy, whom King chastised for critiquing his civil disobedience while remaining “silent behind the anesthetizing security of stained glass windows.”

Morath said the excerpt chosen is the one that would be appropriate for a fifth grader, based on their vocabulary and knowledge-level.

“We would expect students to return to it in deeper and deeper ways,” Morath said. “You have to give him bits of knowledge that build on prior bits of knowledge, and you're steadily giving them more and more and more exposure.”

This instructional redesign for public schools comes amid an ongoing embrace on the right of Christian nationalism, which claims that the United States founding was ordained by God, and that its laws and institutions should thus favor their conservative, Christian views. Recent polling from the Public Religion Research Institute found that more than half of Republicans adhere to or sympathize with pillars of Christian nationalism, including beliefs that the U.S. should be a strictly Christian nation. Of those respondents, PRRI found, roughly half supported having an authoritarian leader who maintains Christian dominance in society.

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12:30 - 1:50 PM :  The Meaning and Measurement of Place

with presentations from: 

Matt Randolph (PhD Candidate in History):  "Bringing AI to Archibald Grimké's Archive: A Case Study of Artificial Intelligence for Histories of Race and Slavery"

This digital project builds upon two years of research collaborations connecting Stanford's History Department with historians and archivists at Howard University in Washington, D.C. We have reviewed, digitized, and transcribed a corpus of letters from Howard's archives relating to African American intellectual and diplomat Archibald Grimké and his family in Washington, D.C. (particularly his then teenage daughter Angelina) as well as Grimké’s correspondence with Dominican leaders and U.S. State Department officials. Through Google's AI software, Gemini, our team has produced transcriptions of handwritten documents that were photographed in the archives. I will present the opportunities and challenges we navigated in leveraging artificial intelligence tools for archival work and historical research methods. 

Ellis Schriefer (PhD Candidate in Iberian and Latin American Cultures):  "Narratives and Neighborhoods: Unpacking Media Representations of El Raval and Lavapiés with NLP"

In my talk, I will be discussing how I used NLP (specifically topic modeling and word frequency) to better understand how the mainstream Spanish media outlet, El País, has depicted two working-class, immigrant neighborhoods (El Raval in Barcelona and Lavapiés in Madrid) in articles from 1996-2024.  

Kelly Boles (PhD Candidate in Education):  "The Spatiality of Teacher Professional Learning Ecologies"

Geospatial variability is a crucial, yet often omitted, contextual aspect of teaching and learning. In this talk, I illustrate how spatial data science methods reveal important locale- and region-based inequities in STEM teachers' professional learning opportunities. Specifically, I present selected findings that show how teachers' learning opportunities vary in nature and quality across geographic space. I argue that both students and teachers are learners, whose learning opportunities are shaped by the shared communities and contexts in which they work, live, and attend school. Honoring these shared experiences suggests a new approach to the study of teacher quality and evaluation, particularly as applied to practitioners in underserved communities.

2:10 - 3:30 PM:  Categories and Connections in Knowledge Systems  with presentations from: 

Anuj Amin (PhD Candidate in Religious Studies):  "Divine Prisons and Sacred Bindings: Late Ancient Aramaic Incantation Bowls"

During my presentation, which will be recorded over Zoom, I will discuss a general background of my corpus, previous scholarship on the material, how my methodology is unique, the creation of my database, the analytics performed, and future directions. 

Junyi Tao (MS Student in Symbolic Systems):  "Three Layers of the Knowledge Landscape: A Case Study of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"

This project takes a deeper look into the widely influential Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP) and reveals three layers of the philosophy landscape it presents. The first layer is the content of entries, each offering an overview of a philosophical topic or thinker. Beneath this lies a layer of citations that manifest the dialogues among scholars within the community. From this, we start to see more clearly how social power is intertwined with the narrative of intellectual history—for example, whose voices count? The last one is the layer of meta-content assigned by the SEP’s authors and editors, such as links between related entries, which shapes the architecture of this “knowledge system”. At the end of this talk, I would also like to share some methodological reflections.

Elaine Lai (PhD Candidate in Religious Studies): " Intertextual Heatmap of the  Secret Tantra of the Sun: Blazing Luminous Matrix of Samantabhadrī "

The  Tantra of the Sun  was the first Buddhist scripture in the tradition of the Great Perfection to feature an all-female cast. Traditional histories claim that this tantra is a major source text for a textual cycle/tradition that emerged in the 14th century called the  Heart Essence of the Ḍākinī , where the feminine is likewise elevated. In this talk, I share how I built an intertextual heatmap from scratch to visualize how and where the  Tantra of the Sun  is quoted and referenced throughout the  Heart Essence of the Ḍākin ī and its largest commentarial cycle. I share a tutorial of the final heatmap product where the user can toggle between citational matches and see for themselves how they move through either corpus of literature. I end with broader issues of methodology, including how I chose to handle problematic OCR renderings, and the inevitability of having to engage in close readings of textual materials alongside the use of different technologies.

4-6 pm  -- Faculty Research Presentations

with presentations from:

Patricia Alessandrini (Music Department); Bridget Algee-Hewitt (Center for Comparative Studies in Race and Ethnicity); Mark Algee-Hewitt (English Department); Nora Barakat (History Department); Patricia Blessing (Department of Art and Art History); Joel Cabrita (History Department); Giovanna Ceserani (Classics Department); Robin Chapdelaine (Center for African Studies); Nicole Coleman (Stanford Libraries); Zephyr Frank (History Department); Sarah Levine (School of Education); Lerone Martin (Departments of African and African American Studies, and Religious Studies); Helena Miton (School of Business); Grant Parker (Departments of Classics, and African and African American Studies); Felicia Smith (Stanford Libraries); Richard Roberts (History Department); Alice Staveley (English Department); Elaine Treharne (English Department); Ali Yaycioglu (History Department)

6-7 pm  -- Undergraduate Researchers' Poster Fair and Reception

with 16 Undergraduate Researchers who worked on CESTA projects during 2024 Winter and Spring quarters!

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Online professional education works for complex topics

Friday, Jun 07, 2024 • Katherine Egan Bennett : contact

Online education is effective for teaching complicated topics like quantum information science (QIS) to high school science educators, according  to a new paper by University of Texas at Arlington researchers published in The Physics Teacher .

“COVID-19 forced educators to adjust their educational best practices to an unfamiliar virtual classroom, and professional development was no different,” said Karen Jo Matsler, assistant professor in practice for UTeach at UTA and lead author on the study.

Ramon Lopez, professor of physics, was coprincipal investigator on the project. Chandralekha Singh from the University of Pittsburgh was a co-author.

QIS is a new field of science and technology that combines physical science, math, computer science and engineering, and it is key to everyday items like cellphones and solar technology. However, most high schools don’t teach the subject , preventing students from acquiring the skills they need to pursue lucrative jobs.

As part of a $1 million grant from the National Science Foundation in 2021, Matsler and her colleagues aimed to teach QIS to high school science teachers, who could then bring this newly acquired knowledge to their classrooms.

“However, the pandemic made us scrap our original plans for in-person training to an online environment,” Matsler said. “We knew that teaching QIS online would be challenging, but we were pleasantly surprised how well it worked.”

Matsler, Lopez and the team found that what worked best for teaching QIS online was sending participants some of the material in advance to allow them to become familiar with the topics. Then during the sessions, the educators used Zoom—with features such as chat, polling and breakout rooms—to keep the individuals engaged in learning. They also led activities where the learners had a chance to practice teaching the material, another technique that helped individuals stay engaged.

To avoid cognitive overload, the team found main discussions needed to be kept at 15 to 30 minutes, each with breakout sessions lasting five to seven minutes, with a total session time of about 90 to 120 minutes.

“This gave participants ample opportunities to discuss the quantum concepts in small groups varying from two to six participants,” Matsler said. “During these small discussions, leaders rotated in and out of the rooms to check on the participants, clarify instructions and answer questions.”

The instructors also recommend “icebreaker” activities to increase community engagement in virtual learning.

“These icebreaker activities can easily be used to engage students, take attendance and gauge how much the individuals know about the upcoming subject lesson,” Matsler said. “A key element to all of this online learning is making sure the learners feel they are in a safe community to learn and exchange ideas.”

The team also found that short, relevant videos helped teach complicated topics. They recommend keeping the chat function operational during videos to allow participants to ask questions and stay engaged.

“Ideally, QIS is taught in a classroom with hands-on activities to allow learners to see and touch how things like maglev trains and quantum levitation work ,” Matsler said. “However, our experiences show that embedding appropriate pedagogy and content with online learning can be effective at teaching these topics. Understanding there is an effective virtual option is important as the country ramps up its efforts to accelerate quantum research and development to stay competitive with other countries in this field.”

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• Cultural Issues and the 2024 Election

7. Crime, policing and the 2024 election

Table of contents.

• Voters’ views about race and society, the impact of the legacy of slavery
• Most voters, but not all, view the nation’s diversity as a strength
• How should the country handle undocumented immigrants currently in the U.S.?
• Attitudes toward hearing other languages in public places
• Biden and Trump supporters’ views about discussing America’s historical successes, failures
• How does the U.S. compare with other countries?
• Views of women’s progress
• How much of a priority should marriage and children be?
• Abortion, IVF access and birth control
• Views of gender identity
• Voters’ attitudes toward use of gender-neutral pronouns
• Societal impact of more social acceptance of lesbian, gay, bisexual people
• Religion and government policy
• How much influence should the Bible have on the nation’s laws, if any?
• Views on the federal government’s role in promoting Christian values
• Most voters say it is not necessary to believe in God to be moral
• Is the justice system too tough on criminals, or not tough enough?
• Policing and law enforcement
• How Trump, Biden supporters view gun rights and ownership
• Views on the increasing number of guns in the U.S.
• Acknowledgments
• The American Trends Panel survey methodology

Republicans and Democrats have long diverged on the topics of how much of a problem crime is in the country and how to approach policing and the criminal justice system.

Those differences are reflected in the current survey in how supporters of the two major party candidates for president view the treatment of criminals by the American justice system and in law enforcement priorities.

Even as there have long been substantial partisan differences in evaluations of how police around the country perform aspects of their job , there is some common ground between Biden and Trump supporters when it comes to what people think law enforcement priorities are.

A majority of registered voters (61%) say that the criminal justice system in the United States is not tough enough on criminals, while 25% say the system treats criminals about right and 13% say it is too tough.

Trump supporters overwhelmingly say the system is not tough enough (81%).

Biden supporters are more divided: 40% say the criminal justice system is not tough enough on criminals, while about as many – 36% – say it’s about right in its treatment of criminals. And 21% say this system is too tough on criminals.

Perceptions of the fairness of the criminal justice system differ by age, race and ethnicity

Across demographic groups, Biden supporters are less likely than Trump supporters to say that the justice system is not tough enough on criminals. But within both coalitions of support, there are demographic differences in these views.

Race and ethnicity

While majorities of both White and Hispanic Trump supporters say the justice system is not tough enough on criminals, White Trump supporters are especially likely to say this: 85% hold this view, compared with 63% of Hispanic Trump supporters.

About half of Hispanic and Asian Biden backers say the criminal justice system is not tough enough. Somewhat smaller shares – around four-in-ten (38%) – of White and Black Biden supporters say this.

Overall, older voters are more likely than younger voters to say the criminal justice system isn’t tough enough on criminals. And that pattern is seen in both coalitions:

• 87% of Trump supporters ages 50 and older say this, compared with 72% of those under 50.
• 48% of Biden supporters 50 and older say this, compared with 30% of those under 50.

Among Biden voters, there are differences on this question across educational groups: Biden supporters with more formal education are less likely than others to see the criminal justice system as not tough enough.

• About a third of Biden voters with bachelor’s degrees or more education (32%) say this. Among those without bachelor’s degrees, nearly half (47%) hold this view.

Among Trump voters, roughly eight-in-ten of those with (84%) and without (80%) college degrees say the system is not tough enough on criminals.

Over nine-in-ten voters view “keeping communities safe” and “treating people of all racial and ethnic groups equally” as extremely or very important to the job for policing and law enforcement in the country.

Smaller, though still wide, majorities say maintaining public respect for police officers (78%) and protecting the rights of people suspected of crimes (65%) are at least very important.

Far smaller shares view any of these as of less importance. Still, a quarter of voters (25%) say that protecting the right of suspected criminals is somewhat important. And about one-in-ten voters (9%) say that protecting the rights of suspects is not too or not at all important.

Biden and Trump supporters aligned on some areas of importance for law enforcement, diverge somewhat on others

Both Biden and Trump supporters overwhelmingly say keeping communities safe is extremely or very important for law enforcement, as is treating all racial and ethnic groups equally.

Majorities in both groups also place importance on maintaining public respect for police officers, and on protecting the rights of people accused of crimes.

But there are also substantial differences in the extent to which supporters of each of the candidates prioritize these law enforcement concerns.

• Trump supporters place greater importance than Biden supporters on maintaining public respect for the police: 88% of Trump supporters say this is at least very important, including 63% who say it is extremely important. By comparison, 69% of Biden supporters see this as at least very important (38% say it’s extremely important).
• In contrast, Biden supporters are more likely than Trump supporters to place importance on protecting the rights of people suspected of crimes: 72% of Biden backers say this is extremely or very important. A narrower majority of Trump supporters (58%) say this.

Even on the two domains where about nine-in-ten or more in both groups place a great deal of importance – public safety and treating racial and ethnic groups equally – there are gaps between the two coalitions:

• 80% of Trump supporters say keeping communities safe is extremely important, as do 68% of Biden supporters.
• 77% of Biden backers say treating people of all racial and ethnic groups equally is extremely important, as do 60% of Trump backers.

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