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All What You Should Know About Canada

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Published: Mar 3, 2020

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A comprehensive guide on canada, iconic canadian symbols, geography and demographics, climate and seasons, ideal times to visit, must-visit destinations, getting around canada, canadian cuisine, currency and expenses, travel tips and recommendations.

• Statistics Canada. (2020). Population and dwelling count highlight tables, 2016 Census. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table.cfm?Lang=Eng&T=101&SR=1&S=3&O=D&RPP=9999&PR=0
• Environment and Climate Change Canada. (n.d.). Canadian Climate Normals 1981-2010. https://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/
• Tourism Industry Association of Canada. (2020). The Impact of COVID-19 on Canada's Tourism Industry. https://www.tiac-aitc.ca/industry-info/impact-of-covid-19/
• Government of Canada. (n.d.). The National Flag of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/flag-canada.html
• CBC News. (2018). Canada's Most Iconic Foods: Poutine. https://www.cbc.ca/food/features/canadas-most-iconic-foods-poutine
• Via Rail Canada. (n.d.). About VIA Rail. https://www.viarail.ca/en/about-via-rail
• Greyhound Canada. (n.d.). Our Story. https://www.greyhound.ca/en/about-us/history-and-evolution/

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History of Canada

Canadian history does not begin with the arrival of European explorers over 500 years ago; people have been living in the country that we now call Canada for thousands of years.

Canada’s original inhabitants

Centuries before Europeans began to settle in North America, explorers who came here found thriving First Nations and Inuit societies with their own beliefs, way of life and rich history.

When the first European explorers came to Canada they found all regions occupied by native peoples they called “Indians,” thinking they had reached the East Indies. The native people lived off the land, some by hunting and gathering, others by raising crops.

The Huron-Wendat of the Great Lakes Region, like the Iroquois, were farmers and hunters. The Cree and Dene of the Northwest were hunter-gatherers. The Sioux were nomadic, following the bison (buffalo) herd. The Inuit lived off Arctic wildlife. West Coast natives preserved fish by drying and smoking. Warfare was common among Aboriginal groups as they competed for land, resources and prestige.

The arrival of European traders, missionaries, soldiers and colonists changed the native way of life forever. Large numbers of Aboriginals died of European diseases to which they lacked immunity. However, Aboriginals and Europeans formed strong economic, religious and military bonds in the first 200 years of coexistence which laid the foundations of Canada.

The new Dominion of Canada

Today, Canada is made up of 10 provinces and three territories.

However, when the British North America Act, 1867, (now the Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982) created the new Dominion of Canada, there were only four provinces – Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.

The Northwest Territories and Manitoba

The year 1870 – three years after Confederation – brought multiple historic changes to land ownership, including:

• Canada’s purchase of Rupert’s Land from the Hudson’s Bay Company, which had been granted a charter to the area by the British government exactly two centuries earlier. Rupert's Land spanned all land drained by rivers flowing into Hudson Bay – roughly 40 per cent of present-day Canada. The selling price was 300,000 pounds sterling.
• Britain’s transfer of the North-Western Territory to Canada. Previously, the Hudson’s Bay Company had an exclusive licence to trade in this area, which stretched west to the colony of British Columbia and north to the Arctic Circle. When it was discovered in the mid-1800s that the Prairies had enormous farming potential, the British government refused to renew the company’s licence. With the Hudson's Bay Company out of the area, Britain was free to turn it over to Canada.
• The combination of Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, followed by the creation of the Province of Manitoba from a small part of this area.

British Columbia, Prince Edward Island and Yukon

Subsequent years brought more changes to Canada’s territorial boundaries:

• In 1871, British Columbia joined the union with the promise of a railway to link it to the rest of the country.
• In 1873, Prince Edward Island, which had previously declined an offer to join Confederation, became Canada's seventh province.
• Yukon, which had been a district of the Northwest Territories since 1895, became a separate territory in 1898.

Saskatchewan and Alberta

Meanwhile, Canada was opening up its west, just as its neighbour to the south had done before. Migrants from eastern Canada and immigrants from Europe and the United States began to fill the Prairies, which were still part of the Northwest Territories. Then, in 1905, the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta were created, completing the map of Western Canada.

Newfoundland and Nunavut

After great debate and two referenda, the people of Newfoundland voted to join Confederation in 1949, creating Canada’s tenth province.

On April 1, 1999, Nunavut was created from the eastern part of the Northwest Territories, covering 1.9 million square kilometres of Canada’s Eastern Arctic.

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Canada essay 4 models

Canada essay  contains many important information about the State of Canada, which is the second largest in the world in terms of space. Here you will find information about the location of Canada as well as its economy, climate and everything related to it. All that information you will find here in Canada essay in English.

Canada essay

Canada is one of the most advanced countries in the world and here we will upgrade its economy and constitution and all the important information about Canada. All of this information will be found here in Canada essay.

The State of Canada is located in the northern part of the North American continent.It is a federal state with a representative democratic and constitutional monarchy, Where Queen Elizabeth II heads the state.

Canada is the second largest country in the world in terms of area, with a total area of ​​about 9984670 km 2, While the population according to the statistics in 2006 about 31612897 people. Canada extends from the Atlantic Ocean eastward to the Pacific Ocean, and on the north side is the Arctic Ocean.

English and French are the official languages ​​of the country.Canada is one of the most advanced countries in the world,  Canada is a member in the Group of Seven Industrial Countries , the Group of 20,  The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the Organization of American States and APEC.

The State of Canada is a large part of the North American continent, sharing the southern border with the United States and also sharing the Northwest Frontier with the State of Alaska. The State of Canada is located between latitudes 41 ° C and 84 ° N and longitudes 52 ° W.

Canada consists of eight large forests, the most famous of which are the vast northern forests. It contains a large number of lakes and a large stock of fresh water in the world.

 Canada is also a geologically active country, with active earthquakes and volcanoes , most notably the volcano in the Tesikas cone in 1775 that killed 2,000 people.

Temperatures vary in Canada from one location to another, with coastal and inland provinces dominating a continental climate,  The land-locked areas are covered by snow for nearly six months..

Essay on Canada

Canada is one of the most exotic and surprising countries, as it combines a lot of different and diverse life on its land, and has many dangerous and deadly animals throughout.

Despite that, its people can coexist peacefully and adapt to any dangers or life around them. Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a length of 200,000 km. In addition, it is surrounded by three oceans: the Atlantic on the east, the Arctic on the north, and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

The capital of Canada is called Ottawa, and it is the fourth largest Canadian city after Toronto – Calgary – Montreal. Surprisingly, Canada has six time zones due to the geographical range.

We can see in the Canadian flag the maple leaf, which is the most familiar and most famous emblem. Among the famous animals in Canada is the beaver and the Canadian horse as well.

Canada is characterized by many dangerous animals such as bears, which abound in the summer season, and is famous for catching salmon fish in the migration and breeding season.

It is also famous for its green spaces and forests. It is characterized by famous areas such as Niagara Falls, which is very famous in many shots in international films.

Essay about canada

Canada was discovered by the French, and the indigenous peoples of the Amerindians, and the Inuit tribes, lived there. Canada was discovered in the fifteenth century, in 1608.

Events developed in Canada from 1608 to 1663, as the country moved from French control to British hands and from English domination to independence.

There were many wars between the French and the British, called the Seven Years’ War, until France ceded all of Canada to Britain.

After that, Canada witnessed significant growth in agriculture and industry, until it signed a trade agreement with the United States in 1988.

To witness a great and complete change in trade and industry, and to become a source of great attraction for tourism and workers, to form Canada and become ancient and great as we see it today.

Essay on canada country

The local people of Canada are the Indians, and this name was given to them by the Europeans, when they first discovered the country, thinking that it extended to the East Indies, and they are the same people.

The indigenous people lived on fishing in various ways, using what allows them to hunt and live. Some of them worked in agriculture, others were fishermen. This is due to the area in which they live, and the extent of the availability of life in it, whether from water or fertile soil and other things.

The Siew Bedouin tribe is famous for other indigenous tribes that lived on Canadian lands. And that is because of her hunting for the bison buffalo, as they were tracking him and preparing ambushes for it to hunt.

This is the opposite of what the people of the west coast of Canada were doing, where they used to catch fish, dry it by smoking, and live on it. This method is still ongoing and present to this day.

The arrival of the Europeans to the local population in a large way, led to a great change in the way they lived and the tools they used, missionaries and colonial soldiers arrived in the country, which led to the dissemination of different cultures and customs of the indigenous peoples.

Among the things that affected the indigenous people are the diseases that came with the Europeans, which they lacked immunity against, which led to the death of many of them.

After that, many wars followed on Canadian soil from the Vikings and other countries until governments were formed and the constitution was formed, which helped change the entire region and earned it wealth and earned many kings great reputation and wealth.

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3 Essays on Canada that Carve Out a Deeper Understanding of the Country!

Canada, a mosaic of landscapes, cultures, and histories, is a captivating subject of exploration. In this collection, we delve into three distinct aspects of this diverse nation.

From its breathtaking wilderness to its multicultural society and rich history, these essays provide a glimpse into the multifaceted tapestry that defines Canada.

Table of Contents

Essay 1: Why is Canada a Good Place to Live and Work

Canada, with its picturesque landscapes, vibrant cities, and diverse culture, stands as an attractive destination for individuals seeking a better quality of life and ample opportunities for personal and professional growth.

Its reputation as a welcoming and progressive nation is not unfounded, as it is supported by a multitude of factors that contribute to making Canada a prime choice for living and working.

One of the foremost reasons that make Canada a great place to live and work is its commitment to inclusivity and diversity. The country is often celebrated as a cultural mosaic, where people from various ethnic backgrounds coexist harmoniously.

This commitment to diversity is beautifully epitomized in cities like Toronto, where one can experience a tapestry of cultures, languages, and traditions. Justin Trudeau, the Prime Minister of Canada, succinctly captures this ethos, stating, “Canada is strong not in spite of our differences, but because of them.”

This emphasis on celebrating differences has resulted in an open and accepting society that welcomes immigrants and fosters a sense of belonging.

Furthermore, Canada’s robust healthcare and education systems add to its allure. The country offers universal healthcare, ensuring that every citizen and permanent resident has access to essential medical services.

This safety net provides peace of mind to residents, knowing that their health concerns will be addressed without facing crippling financial burdens. In the realm of education, Canada boasts world-class institutions that consistently rank among the top globally.

The quality of education, coupled with the multicultural environment, attracts students from around the world, creating a dynamic and intellectually stimulating atmosphere.

Canada’s natural beauty is another undeniable draw. From the breathtaking Rocky Mountains to the serene shores of its many lakes, the country offers a plethora of outdoor activities and a chance to reconnect with nature.

The preservation of its environment is a testament to Canada’s commitment to sustainable practices and high quality of life. The words of renowned environmentalist David Suzuki ring true in this context: “Canada is a country whose main exports are hockey players and cold fronts.

Our main imports are baseball players and acid rain.” The emphasis on protecting the environment for future generations underscores the nation’s dedication to both its citizens and the world at large.

Economically, Canada stands as a stable and prosperous nation. Its thriving industries, such as technology, natural resources, and finance, provide ample employment opportunities.

The country’s sound economic policies and prudent financial regulations have shielded it from the worst impacts of global economic downturns. This stability ensures job security and a promising future for those who choose to build their careers within its borders.

In addition, Canada’s commitment to social welfare is admirable. The Canadian social safety net includes unemployment benefits, affordable housing programs, and support for families and seniors.

This safety net promotes social cohesion and alleviates financial stress during challenging times. Former Canadian Prime Minister, Lester B. Pearson, encapsulated this sentiment: “We are not here to boast; we are here to do a job.” This dedication to serving the needs of its citizens speaks volumes about the nation’s values and priorities.

In conclusion, Canada’s well-deserved reputation for quality living and work is supported by diversity, healthcare, education, nature, stability, and welfare. A prime choice for a fulfilling life, Canada’s allegiance to citizens shines as a global opportunity beacon.

Essay 2: Refugees in Canada: A Path to Hope and Opportunity

Canada, renowned for its breathtaking landscapes and diverse culture, has also gained international recognition for its compassionate approach toward refugees.

The topic of refugees in Canada is one that has sparked both admiration and intrigue. In this essay, we will explore the country’s exceptional stance on refugee resettlement, the impact of refugees on Canadian society, and the role of global leaders in promoting this humanitarian cause.

Canada’s commitment to providing a safe haven for refugees is emblematic of its values and principles. Over the years, the Canadian government has consistently demonstrated its dedication to welcoming those fleeing conflict and persecution. The Canadian refugee resettlement program, which has been praised worldwide, is a testament to the nation’s belief in offering a second chance to those in need.

As former Prime Minister Justin Trudeau aptly stated, “Canada is a country built on immigration, and that diversity only makes us stronger.” These words encapsulate the essence of Canada’s approach to refugees, portraying them not as a burden, but as valuable contributors to the nation’s fabric.

In recent years, Canada has witnessed the profound impact of refugees on its society and economy. Far from being a mere humanitarian gesture, the integration of refugees has enriched Canada culturally, socially, and economically.

According to a study conducted by the Conference Board of Canada, immigrants, including refugees, play a crucial role in fostering innovation and driving economic growth. Their unique experiences and perspectives contribute to a vibrant tapestry of ideas, propelling Canada forward in an increasingly interconnected world.

This sentiment is echoed by entrepreneur and philanthropist, Elon Musk, who remarked, “The value of immigrants to the U.S. economy and to innovation is pretty much unassailable.” This sentiment holds true for Canada as well, as refugees continue to invigorate various sectors and communities across the country.

Furthermore, Canada’s support for refugees extends beyond its borders, signaling its commitment to global solidarity. The nation’s participation in international efforts to address the refugee crisis exemplifies its role as a responsible global citizen.

Former United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, António Guterres, praised Canada for being a “model for other countries,” highlighting its dedication to finding sustainable solutions for displaced populations.

Canada’s engagement in diplomatic initiatives and financial contributions underscores its belief in collective action and the importance of shouldering the responsibility of refugee protection on a global scale.

In conclusion, Canada shines as a beacon of compassion, offering hope and setting a global example with its welcoming approach to refugees. Through sanctuary, positive societal impact, and international engagement, Canada’s inclusivity and humanity stand out. Nobel Laureate Malala Yousafzai’s words remind us of the world-changing power of education. Canada’s embrace of refugees parallels this, providing a new book, a fresh start, and the chance to rewrite life stories. In doing so, Canada not only transforms refugees’ lives but also reshapes its own narrative, rooted in empathy, understanding, and the limitless potential of human resilience.

Essay 3: Multiculturalism In Canada

Multiculturalism, a concept that celebrates diversity and fosters inclusivity, has become a defining feature of modern societies. Canada, often cited as a paragon of multiculturalism, stands as a shining example of how a nation can embrace various cultures while maintaining social cohesion. This essay delves into the significance of multiculturalism in Canada, exploring its historical roots, societal implications, and the lessons it offers to the world.

Canada’s embrace of multiculturalism can be traced back to its history of immigration and settlement. Waves of immigrants from diverse corners of the globe have shaped the nation’s cultural fabric.

The policy of multiculturalism was officially recognized in 1971 when the Canadian government adopted the Multiculturalism Policy of Canada. This policy not only acknowledges the importance of cultural diversity but also promotes equality and social harmony among all citizens, irrespective of their backgrounds.

One of the remarkable aspects of Canada’s multiculturalism is its positive impact on society. Rather than creating isolated enclaves, multiculturalism has encouraged communities to interact, share, and learn from one another.

The result is a rich tapestry of traditions, languages, and perspectives that contribute to the nation’s dynamism. For instance, in cities like Toronto and Vancouver, one can find neighborhoods where Chinese markets coexist with Indian restaurants, creating a fusion of flavors and experiences that reflect the global village we live in.

In the words of former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau, “A society that emphasizes uniformity is one which creates intolerance and hate.” This sentiment underscores the wisdom of embracing multiculturalism.

When individuals are encouraged to express their unique identities, they are more likely to feel valued and respected, reducing the potential for social tensions. The Canadian approach of recognizing and celebrating diverse cultures has led to a society where citizens proudly identify with their heritage while also considering themselves Canadian.

However, multiculturalism is not without its challenges. Striking a balance between preserving cultural traditions and fostering a unified national identity can be intricate. Some critics argue that multicultural policies may inadvertently lead to cultural silos, hindering the assimilation of immigrants into the broader society.

To address this concern, it is crucial to promote activities that facilitate cross-cultural interactions, such as cultural festivals, language exchange programs, and collaborative community initiatives.

Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan once remarked, “Tolerance, inter-cultural dialogue, and respect for diversity are more essential than ever in a world where peoples are becoming more and more closely interconnected.”

Canada’s commitment to multiculturalism aligns with this sentiment, offering a model for nations grappling with issues of identity and diversity. As countries face the challenges of globalization and increasing cultural intermingling, the Canadian experience underscores the importance of nurturing an environment where individuals from various backgrounds can coexist harmoniously.

In conclusion, Canada’s multiculturalism shines as a beacon of unity in our divided world. Its history, policies, and societal harmony showcase the power of embracing diversity. Canada celebrates differences, inspiring an inclusive global community. Let’s learn from this model and build a world that thrives on understanding and diversity. endeavor to create a global community that thrives on diversity and understanding.

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Canada is a vast and rugged land. From north to south it spans more than half the Northern Hemisphere.

Canada is a vast and rugged land. From north to south it spans more than half the Northern Hemisphere. From east to west it stretches almost 4,700 miles (7,560 kilometers) across six time zones. It is the second largest country in the world, but it has only one-half of one percent of the world's population.

Canada features black-blue lakes, numerous rivers, majestic western mountains, rolling central plains, and forested eastern valleys. The Canadian Shield, a hilly region of lakes and swamps, stretches across northern Canada and has some of the oldest rocks on Earth.

Canada's far north lies in the frozen grip of the Arctic, where ice, snow, and glaciers dominate the landscape. Few trees grow here, and farming is not practical. Native Canadians, called First Nations people, live in this region by hunting and fishing.

Map created by National Geographic Maps

PEOPLE & CULTURE

In some ways Canada is many nations in one. Descendents of British and French immigrants make up about half the population. They were followed by other European and Asian immigrants. First Nations peoples make up about four percent of the population.

Inuit people live mostly in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut. Many Native Canadians live on their traditional lands, but many others have moved to cities across Canada. First Nations artwork is widely recognized and is seen as a symbol of Canadian culture.

Canada's remote north and extensive forests are home to wildlife, from bears , wolves , beavers , deer, mountain lions , and bighorn sheep to smaller animals like raccoons, otters , and rabbits. The country's lakes and rivers, which contain about 20 percent of all fresh water on Earth, are full of fish such as trout and salmon.

Canada's prairies in the south are home to bison and pronghorn antelope. Farther north are Canada's sprawling evergreen forests, which have lots of wildlife, including moose and black bears. Even farther north is the cold, bare tundra, where herds of caribou and musk ox live.

Canadians work hard to protect the native wildlife. Canada has 41 national parks and three marine conservation areas. Nevertheless, species like wolves , lynx, and Atlantic fish have been overhunted and overfished.

GOVERNMENT & ECONOMY

The British monarch is the head of state of Canada. The monarch is represented by a governor-general, who has very limited powers. Laws are made by Canada's elected federal government, which includes a parliament and a prime minister.

Britain's Quebec Act of 1774 granted Quebec its own legal and religious rights. Despite this concession, many Quebec citizens have long sought independence. In votes held in 1980 and 1995, Quebec decided to stay in Canada. But the second vote was very close, and the debate is still alive.

Canada has provided fish, furs, and other natural resources to the world since the 1500s. Today, it is a world leader in agricultural production, telecommunications, and energy technologies. The vast majority of Canada's exports go to the United States.

The first people to come to Canada arrived between 15,000 and 30,000 years ago across a land bridge that joined Asia and North America. Around A.D. 1000, the Viking explorer Leif Eriksson reached Newfoundland, Canada. He tried to establish a settlement, but it didn't last.

In the 16th century, French and British settlers arrived. Land disputes between farmers and fur traders led to four wars between 1689 and 1763. The final war, called the French and Indian War, left the British in control of Canada, but French influence remains strong even today.

In 1867, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick combined to form a dominion with its own government, parliament, and prime minister. Manitoba joined soon after. In 1931, Canada became an independent nation.

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Colonialism in Canada

Article by Karl S. Hele

Published Online December 19, 2023

Last Edited December 19, 2023

Colonialism is the process through which a foreign people establish control over a territory and, if applicable, its Indigenous peoples . Control is established through various means, including political or economic legislation directed at Indigenous peoples or their lands, foreign settlement, and assimilation of Indigenous peoples into the colonizer’s culture. While colonialism in different forms is a defining mark of the history of many countries, colonialism in Canada began in earnest with French settlement at Quebec in 1608. The history of the second colonial power to influence Canada, the British, began in 1670 when the Crown issued a Royal Charter to the Hudson’s Bay Company .

French Colonialism in Canada

French colonial activity in Canada began as early as the 16th century. Jacques Cartier planted a cross at Gaspé , Quebec in 1534, claiming the land in the name of the king of France. However, it was not until 1608, when Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec , that France established a long-term permanent presence. An early attempt at settlement at Port Royal in 1605 failed by 1607 ( see Port-Royal National Historic Site ). In the years that followed, the French established a colonial environment in various ways. These included immigration , surveying seigneuries for French settlement, implementing French civil law, establishing the Catholic Church, and implementing policies and practices directed at Indigenous peoples . The founding of New France was based on the Doctrine of Discovery and the notion of terra nullius.

Trade companies from across France undertook early colonial administration in New France. These companies aimed to populate territory claimed by France for economic purposes. During this time, Catholic orders established missions to convert Indigenous peoples, such as the Sainte-Marie Among the Huron mission.

Following the failure of the trade companies in maintaining the colony, the king of France established New France as a province of France. The French government took over administrative control in 1663. One aspect of the French government’s increased control was the deployment of the Carignan-Salières Regiment . This regiment enforced the will of the king of France in the territory. These efforts included the migration of approximately 800 young women from France to increase the colony’s French population and support its self-perpetuation ( see Filles du roi ).

French officials sought to create a homogenous population. In the words of one French official, “we would like to see only one people in all the land.” France also hoped Indigenous peoples would seek a closer relationship with them. They believed Indigenous peoples would become “civilized” if they were converted to Catholicism. French policies in the 17th century aimed for assimilation — the incorporation of Indigenous people into the colony through conversion, education and intermarriage. This led Récollets , a French religious order, to open a boarding school for Indigenous children in 1620. Other Catholic orders followed. School administrators hoped that Indigenous children, upon leaving these institutions, would act as colonial agents in their communities. The seminaries and boarding schools of 17th century New France were a prelude to the British-Canadian establishment of the Indian residential school system. New France also created reserves or mission settlements for Indigenous people ( see also Missions and Missionaries ). For example, settlements at Sillery , Odanak, Bécancour , Akwesasne , Kanesatake and Kahnawake were meant to teach Christian values and French culture to Indigenous people. Overall, French administrators believed that assimilation would strengthen the colony.

British Colonialism in Canada

British colonialism in Canada began in 1670. At this time, the Crown issued a Royal Charter to the Hudson’s Bay Company , granting it legal and trading rights to all the lands that drained into Hudson Bay . This vast area became known as Rupert’s Land , which included portions of current Quebec , Ontario , Manitoba , Saskatchewan , Alberta and Nunavut .

Britain, with the capture of Quebec and Montreal in 1760, began occupying French forts in the interior. Following the Seven Years’ War , Britain gained control of French claims to North America through the 1763 Treaty of Paris . That same year, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 . The Proclamation established the basis for governing the North American territories. In addition, it acknowledged Indigenous peoples ’ right to hunt on land not ceded to the Crown, and reserved land outside the boundaries of the British colonies for Indigenous peoples. As sovereign of this territory, however, the king claimed ultimate “dominion” over the entire region. The Proclamation also protected Indigenous land from settler purchase, requiring that it first be sold or ceded to the Crown.

After 1783, with the influx of thousands of Loyalist refugees, British Canada continued to create colonial policies through the creation of New Brunswick in 1784 and Upper Canada in 1791. In Nova Scotia , for example, a high ranking British official claimed that First Nations were a “helpless race.” This sentiment played a role in the creation of the Act to Provide for the Instruction and Permanent Settlement of the Indians in 1842. The Act dealt with Indigenous education, poor relief, agriculture, permanent settlement and surveying for both the protection and sale of Indian lands. Legislation passed by the colonies also served to restrict and reduce First Nations people. For example, New Brunswick passed the Act to regulate the Management and Disposal of the Indian Reserves in this Province in 1844. This legislation led to massive land loss in 1844. Other colonies also sought control of what lands remained in Indigenous hands.

In Upper Canada, policies involved signing treaties to access land for settlement or resource exploitation while creating reserves . The first treaties to stipulate the creation of reserves in Upper Canada were signed in the 1850s ( see Reserves in Ontario ). In 1850, Lower Canada created an Act for the better protection of the Lands and Property of the Indians in Lower Canada. This Act was passed as Lower Canada created Indian reserves in the Ottawa Valley, such as Kitigan Zibi ( see also Reserves in Quebec ). This process removed First Nations from the land, settled them in a permanent community and opened the “free” land for French Canadian loggers. The Act also created the first definition of an Indian in legislation in the Canadas. Soon after this, Upper Canada passed the Gradual Civilization Act in 1857, which also contributed to the definition of Indian. The Gradual Civilization Act aimed to assimilate Indigenous peoples by promoting enfranchisement , Christianization and acceptance of European ideals of private land ownership and accumulation of wealth. Indigenous people who had no debt, were considered educated, and who the colonial government considered of “good moral character,” were able to apply for a land grant from the government. The Act shows the underlying approach of colonial policies that aimed to discourage Indigenous peoples from presenting and maintaining their social and cultural practices, identity and ideals, while granting settlers access to lands and resources at the expense of Indigenous peoples.

In the late 1700s, religious orders renewed efforts to assimilate Indigenous children through day and boarding schools ( see also Indian Day Schools in Canada ; Residential Schools in Canada ). These efforts at assimilation continued, ultimately forming the basis for Canada’s residential school system that lasted from the 1830s until 1996. The intent of these residential schools was to assimilate Indigenous children through a Christian education while isolating them from the influences of the reserves. Graduates were expected to either merge into mainstream society or return to their communities to act as harbingers of change.

Effects of Colonialism on Indigenous Peoples

When the Dominion of Canada formed in 1867, many policies, such as residential schools , continued. Other policies the Government of Canada created were similar to those enacted by the British Crown and its colonies. The Indian Act of 1876 reinforced and legitimated the domination of Indigenous peoples and lands. It has given the Crown control over nearly every aspect of Indigenous peoples’ lives and has worked towards assimilation and removal through systems like residential schools and bans on ceremonies, such as the Potlatch ban .

Did You Know? In 2007, a study by the Canadian Senate recognized that alienation from land created economic marginalization experienced by Indigenous peoples, which further contributed to lack of food security and education, high levels of poverty, unemployment, poor housing, homelessness and migration from home communities.

Regardless of intent, treaties have reduced Indigenous land holding for the benefit of the state, its settlers and corporations. The government created a reserve system that, when combined with racism and Indian policies, has led to poverty, ill health, violence and other forms of individual, familial and societal dysfunction. On top of this, resource extraction has led to contamination of soil and water, which has further eroded Indigenous sovereignty, culture and their right to self-determination.

Further Reading

Amié Césaire.  Discourse on Colonialism (1955).

Boris Kishchuk.  Canadian Colonialism: Past and Present (2021).

Lisa Monchalin. The Colonial Problem: An Indigenous Perspective on Crime and Injustice in Canada (2016).

Emma Lowman. Settler: Identity and Colonialism in 21st Century Canada (2015).

Cole Harris. A Bounded Land: Reflections on Settler Colonialism in Canada (2020).

Recommended

Doctrine of discovery.

Residential Schools in Canada

Indian day schools in canada, gradual civilization act.

• Peterborough

Writing the English Essay

Understanding the english essay.

• Understanding The English Essay
• Developing a Topic and Thesis for an English Essay
• Drafting the English Essay
• Using Secondary Sources in an English Essay
• Glossary of Common Formal Elements of Literature
• Documenting Sources in MLA Style (Modern Languages Association)

What is an English Essay?

The formal elements of literary works, considering theme, considering the formal elements and theme.

An English essay is an organized and analytical discussion and interpretation of a work or works of literature in English. There are many approaches to writing the English essay, but most start with you closely and actively reading, responding to and thinking about the text(s) being written about. You, the reader and essay writer, must ask and try to answer questions about what the work means, how it makes meaning, and how the author’s choices affect meaning. An English essay is built around what the essay writer thinks about the text(s), and the most important evidence and support in the essay will come from the texts themselves. Many English essays, then, are not research essays and require no use of secondary sources.

There are many approaches to the study of literature. We can

• consider the work in relation to its background or in relation to its author or its original readers or viewers
• think about and reflect on the themes in the work
• consider how the work is constructed and how it creates the effects it does
• read from a particular theoretical perspective
• examine the work in terms of its genre.

When we write an English essay, we, can approach the work or works in different ways. We might

• consider what the work means
• consider why the author made a particular choice
• consider what the central theme(s) of the work are
• analyze how parts of the work relate to the theme or themes
• consider the "craft" of the author (the author's use of language).

Many English essays analyze how the formal elements of a literary text work together to create meaning or affect the reader. The term formal element is used here to refer to the different techniques and tools writers have at their disposal. Essay writers must pay attention to the ways authors can arrange and pattern words, their medium, to create effect.

Often the essay topics assigned by professors focus on these formal elements; for example

• “What is the relationship between setting and character in 'The Painted Door'?"
• “How does the imagery of 'The Waste Land' contribute to our understanding of its themes?”

For a helpful explanation of the most common formal elements you will encounter in a literature course, see the Glossary of Formal Elements.

When an essay focuses on a literary work’s theme or themes, it is focusing on the major or central ideas that the work seems to be considering or expressing. The assumption is that a work of literature is about ideas and preoccupations of the “real world,” and through its story, plot, characterization and formal elements, it not only entertains but is saying something meaningful and important about central preoccupations all people share: Love, Duty, Right, Wrong, Justice, Friendship, Death, God etc. Literary works may also be thematically concerned with political, social, religious and psychological concerns of the work's particular place and time.

English essays often seek to uncover and clarify what the major themes in a text are and what the writer seems to be saying about them. When we study and write about a literary work, we may study it for theme, but we must also look at how a work's themes are being expressed and conveyed with the tools, the formal elements, unique to literature and the particular literary genre or form.

Remember, writers love words and what they can do with them. In a literary work, the words have been chosen and arranged to make meaning, create effect, and to make you feel, think, and interpret. The best English essays never forget that the plot, characters, setting etc do not really exist but have been created by the writer using words arranged in certain ways and using all the tools at their disposal (the formal elements) to create effect and express meaning (themes).

Other English essays have an even broader focus than the formal elements of a particular work in relation to its theme or themes. They may focus on the relationship among works by an author, or the relationships between the author’s life and work or the political, historical, or social context of the work(s).

It is important to be aware of what you are doing or what your assigned topic is asking you to do. If your topic’s focus is on the formal elements of a work or its theme(s), your primary, perhaps only, source will be the work; for essays with a broader focus, secondary sources may be necessary.

English Language in Canada Essay

Basic concepts, world ‘englishes’, dialect geography, ‘cane’ autonomy and homogeneity, cane phonetics and phonology, apparent-time and real-time.

Language is a coherent organization of sounds that has meaning. The sounds are organized into sentences and words that are used in communication. Each language has a system of rules called grammar that allows an individual to create and understand speech or gestures.

The English language shows remarkable differences in terms of phonetics, phonology, dialect, syntax, and lexis or semantics. Phonetics is an acoustic concept that describes how people perceive and produce sounds or utterances. Pronunciations of similar words usually differ among the Canadian, British, and American English speakers. Phonology, on the other hand, is the way language sounds are organized into a pattern.

A language is also described by its morphology, i.e., the relations between sounds and words. Words are built from many morphemes that give them a grammatical meaning. The words are the building blocks of sentences or phrases. Sentence construction must conform to a set of rules called syntax. A language’s syntax dictates the arrangement or order of the subject, verb, and object in a sentence. In the English language, word order in a sentence determines its meaning.

The English spoken in Canada differs from the American and British varieties in terms of semantics and lexis. Semantics describe the actual meaning of a word, expressions, or sentence. A change in the word order in a sentence affects its semantic meaning. Lexis is a word used in a language as a vocabulary.

It has no grammatical meaning, but can be used in idioms or metaphors. Context has a big influence on the way people interpret or pronounce English words. It gives rise to dialect, which is the variety of English language spoken in a particular region or culture. Dialects differ in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and sentence structure.

Word forms vary depending on region or culture. This gives rise to multiple language varieties or native dialects. However, the words of the Standard English language remain unchanged with time or place. It is autonomous and homogeneous relative to other varieties. In linguistics, real-time change describes how language develops within a given period. On the other hand, apparent-time change is the linguistic difference that exists between the two generations.

Globally, the English language differs from one region to another. This gives rise to a number of distinctive English varieties native to different places. Standard English differs from regional dialects as it is unaffected by time or geography. It also exhibits linguistic autonomy and homogeneity.

Key linguistic variables distinguish English varieties. For example, the variants of ‘-ing’ can be ‘in’ or ‘ing’. Both the variants and the Standard English are social constructs and thus, depend on the local culture or region. English is classified as native (first or ENL), second (second or ESL), or foreign (EFL) language depending on the region.

The division of English shows the different linguistic varieties spoken globally. Thus, the world ‘Englishes’ are the creoles, pidgins, or varieties derived from the English language. They differ from Standard English because they are unofficial. Pidgin is a language that emerges out of a need to communicate verbally.

It has simple grammar and phonology to ease communication. In contrast, a Creole is a language that develops from Pidgin English. It is usually the language spoken by native speakers or descendants of Pidgin speakers. They have words that are absent in the pidgins. The native speakers modify Pidgin transforming it into a Creole, such as the Jamaican English.

Pidgins borrow from different dominant languages spoken in a region. The lexis of a Pidgin often has a European origin, while its syntax borrows from local languages. On the other hand, creoles originate from the interactions between people who speak nonstandard English and native language speakers. A standard language follows clear grammatical rules and has wide acceptance. It is usually the language of conducting business globally.

It also has vocabularies codified in a dictionary. Language standards constitute the enforceable rules that may be prescriptive or descriptive in nature. Over a third of the people in Canada speak the Standard Canadian English while the rest of the population is either multilingual or Anglophone.

On the other hand, nonstandard English encompasses all the varieties that are only useful in particular social contexts. In general, the world ’Englishes’ fall into three categories: norm-receiving (Russia), norm providing (UK and US), and norm-developing (India).

It describes the study of the various dialects in a region. Dialect geography involves two main approaches: the written questionnaire and interview method. The interview method involves both direct and indirect questions to find the local names for common items. The three subtypes of queries an interviewer can ask include naming, completing, and ‘reverse’ questions.

The interviewers ask people how they would pronounce particular phrases in their local dialect. This allows them to establish the dialectical lexemes common to language varieties in other geographical regions.

With regard to the written questionnaire method, respondents indicate how they pronounce certain words in their region. The aim is to identify grammatical features and sounds they use. The informants of dialectic geography include the Linguistic Atlas of New England (LAUSC) and the NORMs (Non-educated Old Rural Males).

NORMs involve trained informants who collect data from different countries regarding the pronunciations of the locals. The pre-sociolinguistic era informants are categorized into type I, II, and III, which include those with little, medium, and high level of literacy respectively. The informants also fall into two other categories, namely, Type A (aged) and Type B (middle-age).

Diachronic linguistics indicates that the lingual features of the language spoken in ‘rhotic’ (pronounced in a word) regions like Edinburg and Dublin are conservative. In contrast, people from ‘non-rhotic’ areas such as London use prestigious innovations. Speakers in Australia also use innovations.

Isoglosses demarcate the geographical regions where speakers use a certain linguistic feature. They are lines drawn on a map to distinguish rhotic speakers (North American accent) from non-rhotic ones (British pronunciation). Isogloss patterns have different meanings. When the two isoglosses intersect, it means that the language features spread in a wavelike fashion to produce distinct regional varieties. Thus, these regions have different linguistic features.

An isogloss bundle can also arise in a map. It occurs when many isoglosses lie together to mark distinct dialects of a region. Isogloss bundles are a product of cultural and geographic factors that limit the usage of innovations. Population movements cause changes in language features through interactions. Large cities are often the source of innovations, which spread to neighboring areas.

Speakers of standard Canadian English are the middle-class Anglophones residing in urban areas. The speakers have a standard Canadian accent. The morphology, pronunciation, and syntax of the Standard English are unique to Canada. Statistics indicate that the middle-class urban dwellers constitute 36 percent of the Canadian population. This population constitutes the speakers of the standard Canadian English.

Canadian English borrows heavily from the American and British ones. Its hybrid nature makes it unique and distinctive in terms of pronunciation and vocabulary. For instance, the way Americans pronounce the word ‘town’ is different from how Canadians do it. Another distinction relates to word spelling.

Words like color and center take British spellings in Canadian English. Americans and Canadians also use different words to refer to the same thing. For example, a restroom in America is called a washroom in Canada. Although Canadian English has a unique identity, the linguistic features are similar to those of the British and American varieties.

The unique identity has given rise to a characteristic Canadian English. It is easy to distinguish Americans and Ontarians based on their speech because of clear differences in word choice and accent. This implies that Canadian English is distinct from that of the Americans or the British. However, since it has no unique linguistic features, the language cannot be described as autonomous. It is a hybrid of the American and British English and thus, heterogeneous in terms of linguistic features.

Canadian English is relatively homogeneous compared to the British or the American one. Young Canadians, irrespective of their geographic location, use the dialect in their speech. The homogeneity of the language only applies to Standard Canadian English. Rural varieties, including the vernaculars spoken in Alberta, the Maritimes, and Newfoundland province, exhibit a huge variability from one place to another.

The middle-class people of Vancouver, Victoria, and Quebec speak a similar standard Canadian English. Standard English is homogeneous across different regions and age groups. Young Canadians in these regions use it in their speech. In addition, authors and other writers use standard Canadian English in books and magazine articles.

Canadian lexis describes the words that are unique to Canada. Examples include the Canadian words like ‘eh’ and ‘pop’, which correspond to ‘huh’ and ‘soda’ in the American English respectively. Some Canadian words have British origins and thus, different from the American vocabulary.

This contradicts the assertion that the isogloss between America and Canada is fast disappearing. Examples of such words include Chesterfield, tap, and eves-troughs. Historical experiences determine the lexical variation. Canadians’ history and heritage are distinct from those of Americans, French, or Germans in terms of trade and commerce. Historical events are recorded using words unique to Canada. Such historical words, their spelling, and meaning are explained in the Canadian English dictionaries.

Lexicography is a hybrid of linguistics and philology. A country’s lexis not only encompasses its unique words, but also their sounds or pronunciation. The Canadian accent is different from the American and British ones. Moreover, some words in Canadian English have no British or American origins.

Words used to describe geographical features, animals, and plants are peculiar to Canada. In addition, the Canadians describe cultural, social, and political activities using words that are absent in the American or British dictionaries. Dictionaries contain words native to a particular region and thus, words unique to Canada may lack in a British or an American dictionary.

In this regard, the Canadian lexis gives rise to ‘Canadianism’, which is comparable to Americanism in the United States. ‘Canadianism’ describes the words or phrases that are unique to Canada. Although such words dominate Canadian conversations, people outside Canada may also use them.

An example is a Chesterfield or couch, which in America is often called a sofa. ‘Canadianisms’ are of six types, namely, original words like ‘garburator’, preserved phrases, altered semantics (Chesterfield), common expressions (washroom), memorial, and culturally significant language.

Canadian lexis also shows regional variation due to the existence of many dialects in different parts of the country. Nevertheless, the existence of words and phrases that are uniquely Canadian is the basis for ‘Canadianism.’ The meaning of such words is also unique to Canada. Since such words or phrases have evolved within Canada, they are rarely used outside the country.

The term phonetics describes the expression of sounds in a language or dialect. Canadian English has a unique accent or pronunciation. On the other hand, phonology describes the speech sounds or phonemes common to a particular dialect. Unlike the British, Canadians raise two diphthongs when pronouncing vowel sounds, i.e., /a/ and /ai/ in words like houses and wives. ‘Canadian Raising’ (CR) of these diphthongs is evident when they occur before a voiceless consonant of a word.

The pronunciation of voiceless consonants does not cause the larynx to vibrate. Words like wife and house are voiceless and thus, ‘raised’ when uttered with a Canadian accent. On the other hand, the plurals of the same words, i.e., wives and houses, are voiced during pronunciation. CR is evident when Canadian utters words like milk, bat, progress, and silk, among others.

Canadian shift is another linguistic (phonetics) feature common among speakers in major cities like Montreal and Vancouver. Canadian shift is detected through the analysis of sounds to reveal subtle phonetic features of the speech. It affects vowels in words like ‘pan’ and ‘pen’.

In these words, the vowel /i/ shifts to /ǣ/ when pronounced with a Canadian dialect. However, the Canadian shift has no effect on vowels that occur before /g/, /n/, or /m/ in words like ‘bag’. The Canadian shift started in the northern cities before spreading to other areas. Its usage depends on gender and social class of the speaker. Thus, the Canadian shift is a social process whose changes can be tracked through apparent-time studies.

With regard to phonology, the Canadian pronunciation of /a/ and /ɔ/ in words like ‘palm’ and ‘thought’ respectively tends to merge into ‘a’. In the Canadian dialect, mergers before /r/ involve the back vowels in words like ‘tomorrow’, while in the American pronunciation it affects the front ones (e.g. marry).

Thus, a word like ‘sorry’ is pronounced differently in the American and Canadian dialects. Foreign pronunciations of the letter ‘a’ in words like ‘pasta’ and ‘llama’ also dominate the Canadian accent. Thus, unlike the American English, foreign pronunciations of /a/ have been integrated into the Canadian dialect.

Real-time studies describe the social development of a language over time. In contrast, apparent-time studies assess the linguistic variations that exist between the old and young generations. Differences in vowel sounds can arise in a country resulting in a distinct linguistic identity.

An example is in the Southern US where surveys (GRITS and PTS) reveal linguistic differences in terms of grammar and phonetics. Two types of surveys are used to determine real-time and apparent-time changes, namely, panel and trend studies. Apparent-time studies assess the usage of a particular linguistic feature by people of different age groups. In this way, it is easier to assess its variation across the age groups.

On the other hand, real-time studies the development of a linguistic feature through history. Real-time studies are important in historical linguistics because they trace the evolution of common expressions through history. In contrast, apparent-time studies reveal the distribution of words and expressions across the ages. For instance, the modal expression ‘have to’ is more common among teenagers (9 to 16 years old) than among people above 60 years. Apparent-time studies can also reveal sex-based and past linguistic changes. They also determine changes that have occurred in particular social networks.

Older changes are commonly associated with the gender of the speaker while newer features only emerge from distinct social networks. Apparent-time hypothesis applies to linguistic variables such as phonetics, pragmatics, and lexis in grownups. However, the model does not apply to the language used by teenagers and children. The apparent-time model classifies features that recur in all generations at a given time into age-graded changes.

Research indicates that the apparent-time model explains the changes that occur among adult speakers. In particular, changes in the grammar used by adults can be explained using the apparent-time model. However, it is unclear whether the model works for other linguistic variables.

Apparent-time data can be used to validate the findings of real-time studies, which examine the development of a language within a given period in history. However, the apparent-time model does not capture all the variables of a language as it changes through time (diachronic linguistics).

Texting represents a new genre of the written word. Developments in technology and mobile telephony contributed to the evolution of text messaging. Texting depends on the cultural context of the communicators. Thus, texting in the American context differs from that in Europe because of cultural differences. Text messages often reflect the linguistic features of the dominant language.

Mobile phones, besides being important devices in communication, have a cultural significance. A text message conveys important information about the cultural background of the sender. Moreover, the act of texting depends on age and generation of the user. Inbuilt linguistic symbols such as clippings and initials also influence texting.

In addition, features such as keypad letters and ringtones shape the way people compose texts, including the use of homonyms and other words. Texting has caused changes in the form and function of language. Language has four primary functions, namely, emotive, referential, social, and poetic roles.

The language used in texting depends on technological constraints and social contexts. The cost of sending the text also influences the orthography of a text message. The linguistic form of texting is often nonstandard because users usually use texts to express their creativity and playfulness.

Moreover, users often use a friendly tone when texting to others. Some common features of the texting language include reduced length, contractions, abbreviations, acronyms, and emoticons. Users often reduce the length of words, characters, or sentences when texting. Others exclude vowels in a word resulting in non-conventional abbreviations. Contractions used in texting are usually nonstandard and thus, peculiar to a particular region or age group.

Users also create homophones by combining words with numbers. Some texts contain non-standard spellings or local dialects that do not conform to specific grammatical rules. Common linguistic features of texting include dialogue (conversation), wordplay to express creativity and informality (chit chatting).

Texting is also more intimate than other forms of written communication. Its aim is to satisfy the intimate and communication needs of the users and thus, plays a role in strengthening social bonds. Texting also gives users a certain level of anonymity unseen in other communication forms.

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"English Language in Canada." IvyPanda , 21 Mar. 2020, ivypanda.com/essays/english-language-in-canada/.

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1. IvyPanda . "English Language in Canada." March 21, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/english-language-in-canada/.

Bibliography

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• Second-Language Acquisition and Phonology
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English Assessment Preparation

How to prepare for your english assessment.

We've outlined what you can expect from your English assessment, including what content will be covered and the format it will take. We've also provided some resources to help you prepare.

Assessment Content and Format  

In your Accuplacer WritePlacer assessment, you’ll be provided with a short passage and you’ll be asked to respond to it by writing a multi-paragraph essay to develop a point of view and support it with arguments and examples.   

• You will have  80 minutes  to plan and write the essay. 
• Your essay must be  300-600 words .   
• Use of dictionary is not allowed 

Your response will be evaluated on the following criteria: 

• Purpose and Focus  – Have you addressed the topic? Have you presented the information clearly and logically?  
• Organization and Structure  – Have you connected and ordered your ideas?   
• Development and Support  – Have you developed and supported your ideas? 
• Sentence variety and Style –  Are your sentences varied in length and style, demonstrating control of vocabulary, voice, and structure?  
• Mechanical Conventions  – Have you used correct grammar and spelling?   
• Critical Thinking  – Have you communicated your point of view and demonstrated consistent relationships among ideas?  
• Read the passage and the question carefully so your essay addresses the topic.  
• Before you start writing, take some time to plan your essay. 
• Be sure to develop a clear point of view.  
• Follow a standard essay format: introduction, body paragraph(s), and conclusion.   
• Relate each paragraph to your main argument. Relate each sentence in your paragraph to the paragraph’s topic sentence.    

Essay Preparation

For more information, review: 

• WritePlacer Sample Essays  

GBC Tutoring and Learning Centre (TLC) writing resources

Assessment Content

The ACCUPLACER Next Generation Reading Comprehension Test includes four types of questions.   

• Information and Ideas questions  focus on determining central ideas and themes of a passage, summary of a passage, and understanding relationships between ideas presented. 
• Rhetoric questions  focus on analyzing a passage for the author’s word choice, text structure, point of view, purpose and arguments used.  
• Synthesis questions  focus on relating the information and ideas from different texts. 
• Vocabulary questions  focus on finding the meaning of word and phrases used in contexts.  

Assessment Format 

• 20 questions, multiple choice 
• The test software will select questions based on your previous answers. Answer all the questions to the best of your ability and do not skip any, as you cannot go back.   
• No time limit (on average, students take 30 – 60 minutes) 
• Score range: 200-300 
• Use of a dictionary is not allowed 

Reading Comprehension Sample Questions 

  ACCUPLACER Next Generation Reading Sample Questions    

See pages 2-7.  The answer key is on pages 8-13. 

Free ACCUPLACER App  - ACCUPLACER has created an App containing a sample Reading Comprehension test. To find the sample test and review test content, please create an account. 

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Material for WAEC 2024 Lit-in English (Prose, OBJ/ESSAY Questions and Answers

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GET STUDY MATERIAL FOR WAEC MAY/JUNE 2024 LITERATURE IN ENGLISH (PROSE, OBJ, DRAMA & POETRY FREE MATERIAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS [SCHOOL CANDIDATES] Friday, 17th May 2024 Literature-In-English 2 (Prose) 9:30am – 10:45am Literature-In-English 1 (Objective) 10:45am – 11:45am Get Complete Study Material For Verified 2024 Waec Literature In English 2 (Prose & Obj Essay) Questions And Answers Click Here To Get Full Answers material On WhatsApp  

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There’s a New Covid Variant. What Will That Mean for Spring and Summer?

Experts are closely watching KP.2, now the leading variant.

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By Dani Blum

For most of this year, the JN.1 variant of the coronavirus accounted for an overwhelming majority of Covid cases . But now, an offshoot variant called KP.2 is taking off. The variant, which made up just one percent of cases in the United States in mid-March, now makes up over a quarter.

KP.2 belongs to a subset of Covid variants that scientists have cheekily nicknamed “FLiRT,” drawn from the letters in the names of their mutations. They are descendants of JN.1, and KP.2 is “very, very close” to JN.1, said Dr. David Ho, a virologist at Columbia University. But Dr. Ho has conducted early lab tests in cells that suggest that slight differences in KP.2’s spike protein might make it better at evading our immune defenses and slightly more infectious than JN.1.

While cases currently don’t appear to be on the rise, researchers and physicians are closely watching whether the variant will drive a summer surge.

“I don’t think anybody’s expecting things to change abruptly, necessarily,” said Dr. Marc Sala, co-director of the Northwestern Medicine Comprehensive Covid-19 Center in Chicago. But KP.2 will most likely “be our new norm,’” he said. Here’s what to know.

The current spread of Covid

Experts said it would take several weeks to see whether KP.2 might lead to a rise in Covid cases, and noted that we have only a limited understanding of how the virus is spreading. Since the public health emergency ended , there is less robust data available on cases, and doctors said fewer people were using Covid tests.

But what we do know is reassuring: Despite the shift in variants, data from the C.D.C. suggests there are only “minimal ” levels of the virus circulating in wastewater nationally, and emergency department visits and hospitalizations fell between early March and late April.

“I don’t want to say that we already know everything about KP.2,” said Dr. Ziyad Al-Aly, the chief of research and development at the Veterans Affairs St. Louis Healthcare System. “But at this time, I’m not seeing any major indications of anything ominous.”

Protection from vaccines and past infections

Experts said that even if you had JN.1, you may still get reinfected with KP.2 — particularly if it’s been several months or longer since your last bout of Covid.

KP.2 could infect even people who got the most updated vaccine, Dr. Ho said, since that shot targets XBB.1.5, a variant that is notably different from JN.1 and its descendants. An early version of a paper released in April by researchers in Japan suggested that KP.2 might be more adept than JN.1 at infecting people who received the most recent Covid vaccine. (The research has not yet been peer-reviewed or published.) A spokesperson for the C.D.C. said the agency was continuing to monitor how vaccines perform against KP.2.

Still, the shot does provide some protection, especially against severe disease, doctors said, as do previous infections. At this point, there isn’t reason to believe that KP.2 would cause more severe illness than other strains, the C.D.C. spokesperson said. But people who are 65 and older, pregnant or immunocompromised remain at higher risk of serious complications from Covid.

Those groups, in particular, may want to get the updated vaccine if they haven’t yet, said Dr. Peter Chin-Hong, an infectious disease specialist at the University of California, San Francisco. The C.D.C. has recommended t hat people 65 and older who already received one dose of the updated vaccine get an additional shot at least four months later.

“Even though it’s the lowest level of deaths and hospitalizations we’ve seen, I’m still taking care of sick people with Covid,” he said. “And they all have one unifying theme, which is that they’re older and they didn’t get the latest shot.”

The latest on symptoms and long Covid

Doctors said that the symptoms of both KP.2 and JN.1 — which now makes up around 16 percent of cases — are most likely similar to those seen with other variants . These include sore throat, runny nose, coughing, head and body aches, fever, congestion, fatigue and in severe cases, shortness of breath. Fewer people lose their sense of taste and smell now than did at the start of the pandemic, but some people will still experience those symptoms.

Dr. Chin-Hong said that patients were often surprised that diarrhea, nausea and vomiting could be Covid symptoms as well, and that they sometimes confused those issues as signs that they had norovirus .

For many people who’ve already had Covid, a reinfection is often as mild or milder than their first case. While new cases of long Covid are less common now than they were at the start of the pandemic, repeat infections do raise the risk of developing long Covid, said Fikadu Tafesse, a virologist at Oregon Health & Science University. But researchers are still trying to determine by how much — one of many issues scientists are trying to untangle as the pandemic continues to evolve.

“That’s the nature of the virus,” Dr. Tafesse said. “It keeps mutating.”

Dani Blum is a health reporter for The Times. More about Dani Blum