parts of speech for hypothesis

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, what is a hypothesis and how do i write one.

General Education

Think about something strange and unexplainable in your life. Maybe you get a headache right before it rains, or maybe you think your favorite sports team wins when you wear a certain color. If you wanted to see whether these are just coincidences or scientific fact, you would form a hypothesis, then create an experiment to see whether that hypothesis is true or not.

But what is a hypothesis, anyway? If you’re not sure about what a hypothesis is--or how to test for one!--you’re in the right place. This article will teach you everything you need to know about hypotheses, including: 

• Defining the term “hypothesis” 
• Providing hypothesis examples 
• Giving you tips for how to write your own hypothesis

So let’s get started!

What Is a Hypothesis?

Merriam Webster defines a hypothesis as “an assumption or concession made for the sake of argument.” In other words, a hypothesis is an educated guess . Scientists make a reasonable assumption--or a hypothesis--then design an experiment to test whether it’s true or not. Keep in mind that in science, a hypothesis should be testable. You have to be able to design an experiment that tests your hypothesis in order for it to be valid. 

As you could assume from that statement, it’s easy to make a bad hypothesis. But when you’re holding an experiment, it’s even more important that your guesses be good...after all, you’re spending time (and maybe money!) to figure out more about your observation. That’s why we refer to a hypothesis as an educated guess--good hypotheses are based on existing data and research to make them as sound as possible.

Hypotheses are one part of what’s called the scientific method .  Every (good) experiment or study is based in the scientific method. The scientific method gives order and structure to experiments and ensures that interference from scientists or outside influences does not skew the results. It’s important that you understand the concepts of the scientific method before holding your own experiment. Though it may vary among scientists, the scientific method is generally made up of six steps (in order):

• Observation
• Asking questions
• Forming a hypothesis
• Analyze the data
• Communicate your results

You’ll notice that the hypothesis comes pretty early on when conducting an experiment. That’s because experiments work best when they’re trying to answer one specific question. And you can’t conduct an experiment until you know what you’re trying to prove!

Independent and Dependent Variables 

After doing your research, you’re ready for another important step in forming your hypothesis: identifying variables. Variables are basically any factor that could influence the outcome of your experiment . Variables have to be measurable and related to the topic being studied.

There are two types of variables:  independent variables and dependent variables. I ndependent variables remain constant . For example, age is an independent variable; it will stay the same, and researchers can look at different ages to see if it has an effect on the dependent variable. 

Speaking of dependent variables... dependent variables are subject to the influence of the independent variable , meaning that they are not constant. Let’s say you want to test whether a person’s age affects how much sleep they need. In that case, the independent variable is age (like we mentioned above), and the dependent variable is how much sleep a person gets. 

Variables will be crucial in writing your hypothesis. You need to be able to identify which variable is which, as both the independent and dependent variables will be written into your hypothesis. For instance, in a study about exercise, the independent variable might be the speed at which the respondents walk for thirty minutes, and the dependent variable would be their heart rate. In your study and in your hypothesis, you’re trying to understand the relationship between the two variables.

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

The best hypotheses start by asking the right questions . For instance, if you’ve observed that the grass is greener when it rains twice a week, you could ask what kind of grass it is, what elevation it’s at, and if the grass across the street responds to rain in the same way. Any of these questions could become the backbone of experiments to test why the grass gets greener when it rains fairly frequently.

As you’re asking more questions about your first observation, make sure you’re also making more observations . If it doesn’t rain for two weeks and the grass still looks green, that’s an important observation that could influence your hypothesis. You'll continue observing all throughout your experiment, but until the hypothesis is finalized, every observation should be noted.

Finally, you should consult secondary research before writing your hypothesis . Secondary research is comprised of results found and published by other people. You can usually find this information online or at your library. Additionally, m ake sure the research you find is credible and related to your topic. If you’re studying the correlation between rain and grass growth, it would help you to research rain patterns over the past twenty years for your county, published by a local agricultural association. You should also research the types of grass common in your area, the type of grass in your lawn, and whether anyone else has conducted experiments about your hypothesis. Also be sure you’re checking the quality of your research . Research done by a middle school student about what minerals can be found in rainwater would be less useful than an article published by a local university.

Writing Your Hypothesis

Once you’ve considered all of the factors above, you’re ready to start writing your hypothesis. Hypotheses usually take a certain form when they’re written out in a research report.

When you boil down your hypothesis statement, you are writing down your best guess and not the question at hand . This means that your statement should be written as if it is fact already, even though you are simply testing it.

The reason for this is that, after you have completed your study, you'll either accept or reject your if-then or your null hypothesis. All hypothesis testing examples should be measurable and able to be confirmed or denied. You cannot confirm a question, only a statement! 

In fact, you come up with hypothesis examples all the time! For instance, when you guess on the outcome of a basketball game, you don’t say, “Will the Miami Heat beat the Boston Celtics?” but instead, “I think the Miami Heat will beat the Boston Celtics.” You state it as if it is already true, even if it turns out you’re wrong. You do the same thing when writing your hypothesis.

Additionally, keep in mind that hypotheses can range from very specific to very broad.  These hypotheses can be specific, but if your hypothesis testing examples involve a broad range of causes and effects, your hypothesis can also be broad.  

The Two Types of Hypotheses

Now that you understand what goes into a hypothesis, it’s time to look more closely at the two most common types of hypothesis: the if-then hypothesis and the null hypothesis.

#1: If-Then Hypotheses

First of all, if-then hypotheses typically follow this formula:

If ____ happens, then ____ will happen.

The goal of this type of hypothesis is to test the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variable. It’s fairly simple, and each hypothesis can vary in how detailed it can be. We create if-then hypotheses all the time with our daily predictions. Here are some examples of hypotheses that use an if-then structure from daily life: 

• If I get enough sleep, I’ll be able to get more work done tomorrow.
• If the bus is on time, I can make it to my friend’s birthday party. 
• If I study every night this week, I’ll get a better grade on my exam. 

In each of these situations, you’re making a guess on how an independent variable (sleep, time, or studying) will affect a dependent variable (the amount of work you can do, making it to a party on time, or getting better grades). 

You may still be asking, “What is an example of a hypothesis used in scientific research?” Take one of the hypothesis examples from a real-world study on whether using technology before bed affects children’s sleep patterns. The hypothesis read s:

“We hypothesized that increased hours of tablet- and phone-based screen time at bedtime would be inversely correlated with sleep quality and child attention.”

It might not look like it, but this is an if-then statement. The researchers basically said, “If children have more screen usage at bedtime, then their quality of sleep and attention will be worse.” The sleep quality and attention are the dependent variables and the screen usage is the independent variable. (Usually, the independent variable comes after the “if” and the dependent variable comes after the “then,” as it is the independent variable that affects the dependent variable.) This is an excellent example of how flexible hypothesis statements can be, as long as the general idea of “if-then” and the independent and dependent variables are present.

#2: Null Hypotheses

Your if-then hypothesis is not the only one needed to complete a successful experiment, however. You also need a null hypothesis to test it against. In its most basic form, the null hypothesis is the opposite of your if-then hypothesis . When you write your null hypothesis, you are writing a hypothesis that suggests that your guess is not true, and that the independent and dependent variables have no relationship .

One null hypothesis for the cell phone and sleep study from the last section might say: 

“If children have more screen usage at bedtime, their quality of sleep and attention will not be worse.” 

In this case, this is a null hypothesis because it’s asking the opposite of the original thesis! 

Conversely, if your if-then hypothesis suggests that your two variables have no relationship, then your null hypothesis would suggest that there is one. So, pretend that there is a study that is asking the question, “Does the amount of followers on Instagram influence how long people spend on the app?” The independent variable is the amount of followers, and the dependent variable is the time spent. But if you, as the researcher, don’t think there is a relationship between the number of followers and time spent, you might write an if-then hypothesis that reads:

“If people have many followers on Instagram, they will not spend more time on the app than people who have less.”

In this case, the if-then suggests there isn’t a relationship between the variables. In that case, one of the null hypothesis examples might say:

“If people have many followers on Instagram, they will spend more time on the app than people who have less.”

You then test both the if-then and the null hypothesis to gauge if there is a relationship between the variables, and if so, how much of a relationship. 

4 Tips to Write the Best Hypothesis

If you’re going to take the time to hold an experiment, whether in school or by yourself, you’re also going to want to take the time to make sure your hypothesis is a good one. The best hypotheses have four major elements in common: plausibility, defined concepts, observability, and general explanation.

#1: Plausibility

At first glance, this quality of a hypothesis might seem obvious. When your hypothesis is plausible, that means it’s possible given what we know about science and general common sense. However, improbable hypotheses are more common than you might think. 

Imagine you’re studying weight gain and television watching habits. If you hypothesize that people who watch more than  twenty hours of television a week will gain two hundred pounds or more over the course of a year, this might be improbable (though it’s potentially possible). Consequently, c ommon sense can tell us the results of the study before the study even begins.

Improbable hypotheses generally go against  science, as well. Take this hypothesis example: 

“If a person smokes one cigarette a day, then they will have lungs just as healthy as the average person’s.” 

This hypothesis is obviously untrue, as studies have shown again and again that cigarettes negatively affect lung health. You must be careful that your hypotheses do not reflect your own personal opinion more than they do scientifically-supported findings. This plausibility points to the necessity of research before the hypothesis is written to make sure that your hypothesis has not already been disproven.

#2: Defined Concepts

The more advanced you are in your studies, the more likely that the terms you’re using in your hypothesis are specific to a limited set of knowledge. One of the hypothesis testing examples might include the readability of printed text in newspapers, where you might use words like “kerning” and “x-height.” Unless your readers have a background in graphic design, it’s likely that they won’t know what you mean by these terms. Thus, it’s important to either write what they mean in the hypothesis itself or in the report before the hypothesis.

Here’s what we mean. Which of the following sentences makes more sense to the common person?

If the kerning is greater than average, more words will be read per minute.

If the space between letters is greater than average, more words will be read per minute.

For people reading your report that are not experts in typography, simply adding a few more words will be helpful in clarifying exactly what the experiment is all about. It’s always a good idea to make your research and findings as accessible as possible. 

Good hypotheses ensure that you can observe the results. 

#3: Observability

In order to measure the truth or falsity of your hypothesis, you must be able to see your variables and the way they interact. For instance, if your hypothesis is that the flight patterns of satellites affect the strength of certain television signals, yet you don’t have a telescope to view the satellites or a television to monitor the signal strength, you cannot properly observe your hypothesis and thus cannot continue your study.

Some variables may seem easy to observe, but if you do not have a system of measurement in place, you cannot observe your hypothesis properly. Here’s an example: if you’re experimenting on the effect of healthy food on overall happiness, but you don’t have a way to monitor and measure what “overall happiness” means, your results will not reflect the truth. Monitoring how often someone smiles for a whole day is not reasonably observable, but having the participants state how happy they feel on a scale of one to ten is more observable. 

In writing your hypothesis, always keep in mind how you'll execute the experiment.

#4: Generalizability 

Perhaps you’d like to study what color your best friend wears the most often by observing and documenting the colors she wears each day of the week. This might be fun information for her and you to know, but beyond you two, there aren’t many people who could benefit from this experiment. When you start an experiment, you should note how generalizable your findings may be if they are confirmed. Generalizability is basically how common a particular phenomenon is to other people’s everyday life.

Let’s say you’re asking a question about the health benefits of eating an apple for one day only, you need to realize that the experiment may be too specific to be helpful. It does not help to explain a phenomenon that many people experience. If you find yourself with too specific of a hypothesis, go back to asking the big question: what is it that you want to know, and what do you think will happen between your two variables?

Hypothesis Testing Examples

We know it can be hard to write a good hypothesis unless you’ve seen some good hypothesis examples. We’ve included four hypothesis examples based on some made-up experiments. Use these as templates or launch pads for coming up with your own hypotheses.

Experiment #1: Students Studying Outside (Writing a Hypothesis)

You are a student at PrepScholar University. When you walk around campus, you notice that, when the temperature is above 60 degrees, more students study in the quad. You want to know when your fellow students are more likely to study outside. With this information, how do you make the best hypothesis possible?

You must remember to make additional observations and do secondary research before writing your hypothesis. In doing so, you notice that no one studies outside when it’s 75 degrees and raining, so this should be included in your experiment. Also, studies done on the topic beforehand suggested that students are more likely to study in temperatures less than 85 degrees. With this in mind, you feel confident that you can identify your variables and write your hypotheses:

If-then: “If the temperature in Fahrenheit is less than 60 degrees, significantly fewer students will study outside.”

Null: “If the temperature in Fahrenheit is less than 60 degrees, the same number of students will study outside as when it is more than 60 degrees.”

These hypotheses are plausible, as the temperatures are reasonably within the bounds of what is possible. The number of people in the quad is also easily observable. It is also not a phenomenon specific to only one person or at one time, but instead can explain a phenomenon for a broader group of people.

To complete this experiment, you pick the month of October to observe the quad. Every day (except on the days where it’s raining)from 3 to 4 PM, when most classes have released for the day, you observe how many people are on the quad. You measure how many people come  and how many leave. You also write down the temperature on the hour. 

After writing down all of your observations and putting them on a graph, you find that the most students study on the quad when it is 70 degrees outside, and that the number of students drops a lot once the temperature reaches 60 degrees or below. In this case, your research report would state that you accept or “failed to reject” your first hypothesis with your findings.

Experiment #2: The Cupcake Store (Forming a Simple Experiment)

Let’s say that you work at a bakery. You specialize in cupcakes, and you make only two colors of frosting: yellow and purple. You want to know what kind of customers are more likely to buy what kind of cupcake, so you set up an experiment. Your independent variable is the customer’s gender, and the dependent variable is the color of the frosting. What is an example of a hypothesis that might answer the question of this study?

Here’s what your hypotheses might look like: 

If-then: “If customers’ gender is female, then they will buy more yellow cupcakes than purple cupcakes.”

Null: “If customers’ gender is female, then they will be just as likely to buy purple cupcakes as yellow cupcakes.”

This is a pretty simple experiment! It passes the test of plausibility (there could easily be a difference), defined concepts (there’s nothing complicated about cupcakes!), observability (both color and gender can be easily observed), and general explanation ( this would potentially help you make better business decisions ).

Experiment #3: Backyard Bird Feeders (Integrating Multiple Variables and Rejecting the If-Then Hypothesis)

While watching your backyard bird feeder, you realized that different birds come on the days when you change the types of seeds. You decide that you want to see more cardinals in your backyard, so you decide to see what type of food they like the best and set up an experiment. 

However, one morning, you notice that, while some cardinals are present, blue jays are eating out of your backyard feeder filled with millet. You decide that, of all of the other birds, you would like to see the blue jays the least. This means you'll have more than one variable in your hypothesis. Your new hypotheses might look like this: 

If-then: “If sunflower seeds are placed in the bird feeders, then more cardinals will come than blue jays. If millet is placed in the bird feeders, then more blue jays will come than cardinals.”

Null: “If either sunflower seeds or millet are placed in the bird, equal numbers of cardinals and blue jays will come.”

Through simple observation, you actually find that cardinals come as often as blue jays when sunflower seeds or millet is in the bird feeder. In this case, you would reject your “if-then” hypothesis and “fail to reject” your null hypothesis . You cannot accept your first hypothesis, because it’s clearly not true. Instead you found that there was actually no relation between your different variables. Consequently, you would need to run more experiments with different variables to see if the new variables impact the results.

Experiment #4: In-Class Survey (Including an Alternative Hypothesis)

You’re about to give a speech in one of your classes about the importance of paying attention. You want to take this opportunity to test a hypothesis you’ve had for a while: 

If-then: If students sit in the first two rows of the classroom, then they will listen better than students who do not.

Null: If students sit in the first two rows of the classroom, then they will not listen better or worse than students who do not.

You give your speech and then ask your teacher if you can hand out a short survey to the class. On the survey, you’ve included questions about some of the topics you talked about. When you get back the results, you’re surprised to see that not only do the students in the first two rows not pay better attention, but they also scored worse than students in other parts of the classroom! Here, both your if-then and your null hypotheses are not representative of your findings. What do you do?

This is when you reject both your if-then and null hypotheses and instead create an alternative hypothesis . This type of hypothesis is used in the rare circumstance that neither of your hypotheses is able to capture your findings . Now you can use what you’ve learned to draft new hypotheses and test again! 

Key Takeaways: Hypothesis Writing

The more comfortable you become with writing hypotheses, the better they will become. The structure of hypotheses is flexible and may need to be changed depending on what topic you are studying. The most important thing to remember is the purpose of your hypothesis and the difference between the if-then and the null . From there, in forming your hypothesis, you should constantly be asking questions, making observations, doing secondary research, and considering your variables. After you have written your hypothesis, be sure to edit it so that it is plausible, clearly defined, observable, and helpful in explaining a general phenomenon.

Writing a hypothesis is something that everyone, from elementary school children competing in a science fair to professional scientists in a lab, needs to know how to do. Hypotheses are vital in experiments and in properly executing the scientific method . When done correctly, hypotheses will set up your studies for success and help you to understand the world a little better, one experiment at a time.

What’s Next?

If you’re studying for the science portion of the ACT, there’s definitely a lot you need to know. We’ve got the tools to help, though! Start by checking out our ultimate study guide for the ACT Science subject test. Once you read through that, be sure to download our recommended ACT Science practice tests , since they’re one of the most foolproof ways to improve your score. (And don’t forget to check out our expert guide book , too.)

If you love science and want to major in a scientific field, you should start preparing in high school . Here are the science classes you should take to set yourself up for success.

If you’re trying to think of science experiments you can do for class (or for a science fair!), here’s a list of 37 awesome science experiments you can do at home

Ashley Sufflé Robinson has a Ph.D. in 19th Century English Literature. As a content writer for PrepScholar, Ashley is passionate about giving college-bound students the in-depth information they need to get into the school of their dreams.

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Grammar: Main Parts of Speech

Definitions and examples.

The name of something, like a person, animal, place, thing, or concept. Nouns are typically used as subjects, objects, objects of prepositions, and modifiers of other nouns.

• I = subject
• the dissertation = object
• in Chapter 4 = object of a preposition
• research = modifier

This expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does. In English, verbs follow the noun.

• It takes a good deal of dedication to complete a doctoral degree.
• She studied hard for the test.
• Writing a dissertation is difficult. (The "be" verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula or a linking verb. It links the subject, in this case "writing a dissertation," to the complement or the predicate of the sentence, in this case, "hard.")

This describes a noun or pronoun. Adjectives typically come before a noun or after a stative verb, like the verb "to be."

• Diligent describes the student and appears before the noun student .
• Difficult is placed after the to be verb and describes what it is like to balance time.

Remember that adjectives in English have no plural form. The same form of the adjective is used for both singular and plural nouns.

• A different idea
• Some different ideas
• INCORRECT: some differents ideas

This gives more information about the verb and about how the action was done. Adverbs tells how, where, when, why, etc. Depending on the context, the adverb can come before or after the verb or at the beginning or end of a sentence.

• Enthusiastically describes how he completed the course and answers the how question.
• Recently modifies the verb enroll and answers the when question.
• Then describes and modifies the entire sentence. See this link on transitions for more examples of conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join one idea to another to improve the cohesion of the writing).

This word substitutes for a noun or a noun phrase (e.g. it, she, he, they, that, those,…).

• they = applicants
• He = Smith; that = ideas; those = those ideas

This word makes the reference of the noun more specific (e.g. his, her, my, their, the, a, an, this, these, … ).

• Jones published her book in 2015.
• The book was very popular.

Preposition

This comes before a noun or a noun phrase and links it to other parts of the sentence. These are usually single words (e.g., on, at, by ,… ) but can be up to four words (e.g., as far as, in addition to, as a result of, …).

• I chose to interview teachers in the district closest to me.
• The recorder was placed next to the interviewee.
• I stopped the recording in the middle of the interview due to a low battery.

Conjunction

A word that joins two clauses. These can be coordinating (an easy way to remember this is memorizing FANBOYS = for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or subordinating (e.g., because, although, when, …).

• The results were not significant, so the alternative hypothesis was accepted.
• Although the results seem promising, more research must be conducted in this area.

Auxiliary Verbs

Helping verbs. They are used to build up complete verbs.

• Primary auxiliary verbs (be, have, do) show the progressive, passive, perfect, and negative verb tenses .
• Modal auxiliary verbs (can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would) show a variety of meanings. They represent ability, permission, necessity, and degree of certainty. These are always followed by the simple form of the verb.
• Semimodal auxiliary verbs (e.g., be going to, ought to, have to, had better, used to, be able to,…). These are always followed by the simple form of the verb.
• primary: have investigated = present perfect tense; has not been determined = passive, perfect, negative form
• The modal could shows ability, and the verb conduct stays in its simple form; the modal may shows degree of certainty, and the verb lead stays in its simple form.
• These semimodals are followed by the simple form of the verb.

Common Endings

Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs often have unique word endings, called suffixes . Looking at the suffix can help to distinguish the word from other parts of speech and help identify the function of the word in the sentence. It is important to use the correct word form in written sentences so that readers can clearly follow the intended meaning.

Here are some common endings for the basic parts of speech. If ever in doubt, consult the dictionary for the correct word form.

Common Noun Endings

Common verb endings, common adjective endings, common adverb endings, placement and position of adjectives and adverbs, order of adjectives.

If more than one adjective is used in a sentence, they tend to occur in a certain order. In English, two or three adjectives modifying a noun tend to be the limit. However, when writing in APA, not many adjectives should be used (since APA is objective, scientific writing). If adjectives are used, the framework below can be used as guidance in adjective placement.

• Determiner (e.g., this, that, these, those, my, mine, your, yours, him, his, hers they, their, some, our, several,…) or article (a, an, the)
• Opinion, quality, or observation adjective (e.g., lovely, useful, cute, difficult, comfortable)
• Physical description
• (a) size (big, little, tall, short)
• (b) shape (circular,  irregular, triangular)
• (c) age (old, new, young, adolescent)
• (d) color (red, green, yellow)
• Origin (e.g., English, Mexican, Japanese)
• Material (e.g., cotton, metal, plastic)
• Qualifier (noun used as an adjective to modify the noun that follows; i.e., campus activities, rocking chair, business suit)
• Head noun that the adjectives are describing (e.g., activities, chair, suit)

For example:

• This (1) lovely (2) new (3) wooden (4) Italian (5) rocking (6) chair (7) is in my office.
• Your (1) beautiful (2) green (3) French (4) silk (5) business (6) suit (7) has a hole in it.

Commas With Multiple Adjectives

A comma is used between two adjectives only if the adjectives belong to the same category (for example, if there are two adjectives describing color or two adjectives describing material). To test this, ask these two questions:

• Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
• Does the sentence make sense if the word “and” is written between them?

If the answer is yes to the above questions, the adjectives are separated with a comma. Also keep in mind a comma is never used before the noun that it modifies.

• This useful big round old green English leather rocking chair is comfortable . (Note that there are no commas here because there is only one adjective from each category.)
• A lovely large yellow, red, and green oil painting was hung on the wall. (Note the commas between yellow, red, and green since these are all in the same category of color.)

Position of Adverbs

Adverbs can appear in different positions in a sentence.

• At the beginning of a sentence: Generally , teachers work more than 40 hours a week.
• After the subject, before the verb: Teachers generally work more than 40 hours a week.
• At the end of a sentence: Teachers work more than 40 hours a week, generally .
• However, an adverb is not placed between a verb and a direct object. INCORRECT: Teachers work generally more than 40 hours a week.

More Detailed Rules for the Position of Adverbs

• Adverbs that modify the whole sentence can move to different positions, such as certainly, recently, fortunately, actually, and obviously.
• Recently , I started a new job.
• I recently started a new job.
• I started a new job recently .
• Many adverbs of frequency modify the entire sentence and not just the verb, such as frequently, usually, always, sometimes, often , and seldom . These adverbs appear in the middle of the sentence, after the subject.
• INCORRECT: Frequently she gets time to herself.
• INCORRECT: She gets time to herself frequently .
• She has frequently exercised during her lunch hour. (The adverb appears after the first auxiliary verb.)
• She is frequently hanging out with old friends. (The adverb appears after the to be verb.)
• Adverbial phrases work best at the end of a sentence.
• He greeted us in a very friendly way .
• I collected data for 2 months .

Main Parts of Speech Video Playlist

Note that these videos were created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

• Mastering the Mechanics: Nouns (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Introduction to Verbs (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Articles (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Introduction to Pronouns (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Modifiers (video transcript)

Writing Tools: Dictionary and Thesaurus Refresher Video

Note that this video was created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

• Writing Tools: Dictionary and Thesaurus Refresher (video transcript)

Related Resources

Knowledge Check: Main Parts of Speech

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Home » What is a Hypothesis – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

What is a Hypothesis – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Hypothesis is an educated guess or proposed explanation for a phenomenon, based on some initial observations or data. It is a tentative statement that can be tested and potentially proven or disproven through further investigation and experimentation.

Hypothesis is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments and the collection and analysis of data. It is an essential element of the scientific method, as it allows researchers to make predictions about the outcome of their experiments and to test those predictions to determine their accuracy.

Types of Hypothesis

Types of Hypothesis are as follows:

Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a statement that predicts a relationship between variables. It is usually formulated as a specific statement that can be tested through research, and it is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments.

Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is a statement that assumes there is no significant difference or relationship between variables. It is often used as a starting point for testing the research hypothesis, and if the results of the study reject the null hypothesis, it suggests that there is a significant difference or relationship between variables.

Alternative Hypothesis

An alternative hypothesis is a statement that assumes there is a significant difference or relationship between variables. It is often used as an alternative to the null hypothesis and is tested against the null hypothesis to determine which statement is more accurate.

Directional Hypothesis

A directional hypothesis is a statement that predicts the direction of the relationship between variables. For example, a researcher might predict that increasing the amount of exercise will result in a decrease in body weight.

Non-directional Hypothesis

A non-directional hypothesis is a statement that predicts the relationship between variables but does not specify the direction. For example, a researcher might predict that there is a relationship between the amount of exercise and body weight, but they do not specify whether increasing or decreasing exercise will affect body weight.

Statistical Hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis is a statement that assumes a particular statistical model or distribution for the data. It is often used in statistical analysis to test the significance of a particular result.

Composite Hypothesis

A composite hypothesis is a statement that assumes more than one condition or outcome. It can be divided into several sub-hypotheses, each of which represents a different possible outcome.

Empirical Hypothesis

An empirical hypothesis is a statement that is based on observed phenomena or data. It is often used in scientific research to develop theories or models that explain the observed phenomena.

Simple Hypothesis

A simple hypothesis is a statement that assumes only one outcome or condition. It is often used in scientific research to test a single variable or factor.

Complex Hypothesis

A complex hypothesis is a statement that assumes multiple outcomes or conditions. It is often used in scientific research to test the effects of multiple variables or factors on a particular outcome.

Applications of Hypothesis

Hypotheses are used in various fields to guide research and make predictions about the outcomes of experiments or observations. Here are some examples of how hypotheses are applied in different fields:

• Science : In scientific research, hypotheses are used to test the validity of theories and models that explain natural phenomena. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a particular variable on a natural system, such as the effects of climate change on an ecosystem.
• Medicine : In medical research, hypotheses are used to test the effectiveness of treatments and therapies for specific conditions. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a new drug on a particular disease.
• Psychology : In psychology, hypotheses are used to test theories and models of human behavior and cognition. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a particular stimulus on the brain or behavior.
• Sociology : In sociology, hypotheses are used to test theories and models of social phenomena, such as the effects of social structures or institutions on human behavior. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of income inequality on crime rates.
• Business : In business research, hypotheses are used to test the validity of theories and models that explain business phenomena, such as consumer behavior or market trends. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a new marketing campaign on consumer buying behavior.
• Engineering : In engineering, hypotheses are used to test the effectiveness of new technologies or designs. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the efficiency of a new solar panel design.

How to write a Hypothesis

Here are the steps to follow when writing a hypothesis:

Identify the Research Question

The first step is to identify the research question that you want to answer through your study. This question should be clear, specific, and focused. It should be something that can be investigated empirically and that has some relevance or significance in the field.

Conduct a Literature Review

Before writing your hypothesis, it’s essential to conduct a thorough literature review to understand what is already known about the topic. This will help you to identify the research gap and formulate a hypothesis that builds on existing knowledge.

Determine the Variables

The next step is to identify the variables involved in the research question. A variable is any characteristic or factor that can vary or change. There are two types of variables: independent and dependent. The independent variable is the one that is manipulated or changed by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the one that is measured or observed as a result of the independent variable.

Formulate the Hypothesis

Based on the research question and the variables involved, you can now formulate your hypothesis. A hypothesis should be a clear and concise statement that predicts the relationship between the variables. It should be testable through empirical research and based on existing theory or evidence.

Write the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is the opposite of the alternative hypothesis, which is the hypothesis that you are testing. The null hypothesis states that there is no significant difference or relationship between the variables. It is important to write the null hypothesis because it allows you to compare your results with what would be expected by chance.

Refine the Hypothesis

After formulating the hypothesis, it’s important to refine it and make it more precise. This may involve clarifying the variables, specifying the direction of the relationship, or making the hypothesis more testable.

Examples of Hypothesis

Here are a few examples of hypotheses in different fields:

• Psychology : “Increased exposure to violent video games leads to increased aggressive behavior in adolescents.”
• Biology : “Higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will lead to increased plant growth.”
• Sociology : “Individuals who grow up in households with higher socioeconomic status will have higher levels of education and income as adults.”
• Education : “Implementing a new teaching method will result in higher student achievement scores.”
• Marketing : “Customers who receive a personalized email will be more likely to make a purchase than those who receive a generic email.”
• Physics : “An increase in temperature will cause an increase in the volume of a gas, assuming all other variables remain constant.”
• Medicine : “Consuming a diet high in saturated fats will increase the risk of developing heart disease.”

Purpose of Hypothesis

The purpose of a hypothesis is to provide a testable explanation for an observed phenomenon or a prediction of a future outcome based on existing knowledge or theories. A hypothesis is an essential part of the scientific method and helps to guide the research process by providing a clear focus for investigation. It enables scientists to design experiments or studies to gather evidence and data that can support or refute the proposed explanation or prediction.

The formulation of a hypothesis is based on existing knowledge, observations, and theories, and it should be specific, testable, and falsifiable. A specific hypothesis helps to define the research question, which is important in the research process as it guides the selection of an appropriate research design and methodology. Testability of the hypothesis means that it can be proven or disproven through empirical data collection and analysis. Falsifiability means that the hypothesis should be formulated in such a way that it can be proven wrong if it is incorrect.

In addition to guiding the research process, the testing of hypotheses can lead to new discoveries and advancements in scientific knowledge. When a hypothesis is supported by the data, it can be used to develop new theories or models to explain the observed phenomenon. When a hypothesis is not supported by the data, it can help to refine existing theories or prompt the development of new hypotheses to explain the phenomenon.

When to use Hypothesis

Here are some common situations in which hypotheses are used:

• In scientific research , hypotheses are used to guide the design of experiments and to help researchers make predictions about the outcomes of those experiments.
• In social science research , hypotheses are used to test theories about human behavior, social relationships, and other phenomena.
• I n business , hypotheses can be used to guide decisions about marketing, product development, and other areas. For example, a hypothesis might be that a new product will sell well in a particular market, and this hypothesis can be tested through market research.

Characteristics of Hypothesis

Here are some common characteristics of a hypothesis:

• Testable : A hypothesis must be able to be tested through observation or experimentation. This means that it must be possible to collect data that will either support or refute the hypothesis.
• Falsifiable : A hypothesis must be able to be proven false if it is not supported by the data. If a hypothesis cannot be falsified, then it is not a scientific hypothesis.
• Clear and concise : A hypothesis should be stated in a clear and concise manner so that it can be easily understood and tested.
• Based on existing knowledge : A hypothesis should be based on existing knowledge and research in the field. It should not be based on personal beliefs or opinions.
• Specific : A hypothesis should be specific in terms of the variables being tested and the predicted outcome. This will help to ensure that the research is focused and well-designed.
• Tentative: A hypothesis is a tentative statement or assumption that requires further testing and evidence to be confirmed or refuted. It is not a final conclusion or assertion.
• Relevant : A hypothesis should be relevant to the research question or problem being studied. It should address a gap in knowledge or provide a new perspective on the issue.

Advantages of Hypothesis

Hypotheses have several advantages in scientific research and experimentation:

• Guides research: A hypothesis provides a clear and specific direction for research. It helps to focus the research question, select appropriate methods and variables, and interpret the results.
• Predictive powe r: A hypothesis makes predictions about the outcome of research, which can be tested through experimentation. This allows researchers to evaluate the validity of the hypothesis and make new discoveries.
• Facilitates communication: A hypothesis provides a common language and framework for scientists to communicate with one another about their research. This helps to facilitate the exchange of ideas and promotes collaboration.
• Efficient use of resources: A hypothesis helps researchers to use their time, resources, and funding efficiently by directing them towards specific research questions and methods that are most likely to yield results.
• Provides a basis for further research: A hypothesis that is supported by data provides a basis for further research and exploration. It can lead to new hypotheses, theories, and discoveries.
• Increases objectivity: A hypothesis can help to increase objectivity in research by providing a clear and specific framework for testing and interpreting results. This can reduce bias and increase the reliability of research findings.

Limitations of Hypothesis

Some Limitations of the Hypothesis are as follows:

• Limited to observable phenomena: Hypotheses are limited to observable phenomena and cannot account for unobservable or intangible factors. This means that some research questions may not be amenable to hypothesis testing.
• May be inaccurate or incomplete: Hypotheses are based on existing knowledge and research, which may be incomplete or inaccurate. This can lead to flawed hypotheses and erroneous conclusions.
• May be biased: Hypotheses may be biased by the researcher’s own beliefs, values, or assumptions. This can lead to selective interpretation of data and a lack of objectivity in research.
• Cannot prove causation: A hypothesis can only show a correlation between variables, but it cannot prove causation. This requires further experimentation and analysis.
• Limited to specific contexts: Hypotheses are limited to specific contexts and may not be generalizable to other situations or populations. This means that results may not be applicable in other contexts or may require further testing.
• May be affected by chance : Hypotheses may be affected by chance or random variation, which can obscure or distort the true relationship between variables.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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HOW TO WRITE A HYPOTHESIS

Writing a hypothesis

Frequently, when we hear the word ‘hypothesis’, we immediately think of an investigation in the form of a science experiment. This is not surprising, as science is the subject area where we are usually first introduced to the term.

However, the term hypothesis also applies to investigations and research in many diverse areas and branches of learning, leaving us wondering how to write a hypothesis in statistics and how to write a hypothesis in sociology alongside how to write a hypothesis in a lab report.

We can find hypotheses at work in areas as wide-ranging as history, psychology, technology, engineering, literature, design, and economics. With such a vast array of uses, hypothesis writing is an essential skill for our students to develop.

What Is a Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a proposed or predicted answer to a question. The purpose of writing a hypothesis is to follow it up by testing that answer. This test can take the form of an investigation, experiment, or writing a research paper that will ideally prove or disprove the hypothesis’s prediction.

Despite this element of the unknown, a hypothesis is not the same thing as a guess. Though the hypothesis writer typically has some uncertainty, the creation of the hypothesis is generally based on some background knowledge and research of the topic. The writer believes in the likelihood of a specific outcome, but further investigation will be required to validate or falsify the claim made in their hypothesis.

In this regard, a hypothesis is more along the lines of an ‘educated guess’ that has been based on observation and/or background knowledge.

A hypothesis should:

• Make a prediction
• Provide reasons for that prediction
• Specifies a relationship between two or more variables
• Be testable
• Be falsifiable
• Be expressed simply and concisely
• Serves as the starting point for an investigation, an experiment, or another form of testing

A COMPLETE TEACHING UNIT ON WRITING PROCEDURAL TEXTS

This HUGE BUNDLE  offers 97 PAGES of hands-on, printable, and digital media resources. Your students will be WRITING procedures with STRUCTURE, INSIGHT AND KNOWLEDGE like never before.

Hypothesis Examples for Students and Teachers

If students listen to classical music while studying, they will retain more information.

Mold growth is affected by the level of moisture in the air.

Students who sleep for longer at night retain more information at school.

Employees who work more than 40 hours per week show higher instances of clinical depression.

Time spent on social media is negatively correlated to the length of the average attention span.

People who spend time exercising regularly are less likely to develop a cardiovascular illness.

If people are shorter, then they are more likely to live longer.

What are Variables in a Hypothesis?

Variables are an essential aspect of any hypothesis. But what exactly do we mean by this term?

Variables are changeable factors or characteristics that may affect the outcome of an investigation. Things like age, weight, the height of participants, length of time, the difficulty of reading material, etc., could all be considered variables.

Usually, an investigation or experiment will focus on how different variables affect each other. So, it is vital to define the variables clearly if you are to measure the effect they have on each other accurately.

There are three main types of variables to consider in a hypothesis. These are:

• Independent Variables
• Dependent Variables

The Independent Variable

The independent variable is unaffected by any of the other variables in the hypothesis. We can think of the independent variable as the assumed cause .

The Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is affected by the other variables in the hypothesis. It is what is being tested or measured. We can think of the dependent variable as the assumed effect .

For example, let’s investigate the correlation between test scores across different age groups. The age groups will be the independent variable, and the test scores will be the dependent variable .

Now that we know what variables are let’s look at how they work in the various types of hypotheses.

Types of Hypotheses

There are many different types of hypotheses, and it is helpful to know the most common of these if the student selects the most suitable tool for their specific job.

The most frequently used types of hypotheses are:

The Simple Hypothesis

The complex hypothesis, the empirical hypothesis, the null hypothesis, the directional hypothesis, the non-directional hypothesis.

This straightforward hypothesis type predicts the relationship between an independent and dependent variable.

Example: Eating too much sugar causes weight gain.

This type of hypothesis is based on the relationship between multiple independent and/or dependent variables.

Example: Overeating sugar causes weight gain and poor cardiovascular health.

Also called a working hypothesis, an empirical hypothesis is tested through observation and experimentation. An empirical hypothesis is produced through investigation and trial and error. As a result, the empirical hypothesis may change its independent variables in the process.

Example: Exposure to sunlight helps lettuces grow faster.

This hypothesis states that there is no significant or meaningful relationship between specific variables.

Example: Exposure to sunlight does not affect the rate of a plant’s growth.

This type of hypothesis predicts the direction of an effect between variables, i.e., positive or negative.

Example: A high-quality education will result in a greater number of career opportunities.

Similar to the directional hypothesis, this type of hypothesis predicts the nature of the effect but not the direction that effect will go in.

Example: A high-quality education will affect the number of available career opportunities.

How to Write a Hypothesis : A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE

• Ask a Question

The starting point for any hypothesis is asking a question. This is often called the research question . The research question is the student’s jumping-off point to developing their hypothesis. This question should be specific and answerable. The hypothesis will be the point where the research question is transformed into a declarative statement.

Ideally, the questions the students develop should be relational, i.e., they should look at how two or more variables relate to each other as described above. For example, what effect does sunlight have on the growth rate of lettuce?

• Research the Question

The research is an essential part of the process of developing a hypothesis. Students will need to examine the ideas and studies that are out there on the topic already. By examining the literature already out there on their topic, they can begin to refine their questions on the subject and begin to form predictions based on their studies.

Remember, a hypothesis can be defined as an ‘educated’ guess. This is the part of the process where the student educates themself on the subject before making their ‘guess.’

• Define Your Variables

By now, your students should be ready to form their preliminary hypotheses. To do this, they should first focus on defining their independent and dependent variables. Now may be an excellent opportunity to remind students that the independent variables are the only variables that they have complete control over, while dependent variables are what is tested or measured.

• Develop Your Preliminary Hypotheses

With variables defined, students can now work on a draft of their hypothesis. To do this, they can begin by examining their variables and the available data and then making a statement about the relationship between these variables. Students must brainstorm and reflect on what they expect to happen in their investigation before making a prediction upon which to base their hypothesis. It’s worth noting, too, that hypotheses are typically, though not exclusively, written in the present tense.

Students revisit the different types of hypotheses described earlier in this article. Students select three types of hypotheses and frame their preliminary hypotheses according to each criteria. Which works best? Which type is the least suitable for the student’s hypothesis?

• Finalize the Phrasing

By now, students will have made a decision on which type of hypothesis suits their needs best, and it will now be time to finalize the wording of their hypotheses. There are various ways that students can choose to frame their hypothesis, but below, we will examine the three most common ways.

The If/Then Phrasing

This is the most common type of hypothesis and perhaps the easiest to write for students. It follows a simple ‘ If x, then y ’ formula that makes a prediction that forms the basis of a subsequent investigation.

If I eat more calories, then I will gain weight.

Correlation Phrasing

Another way to phrase a hypothesis is to focus on the correlation between the variables. This typically takes the form of a statement that defines that relationship positively or negatively.

The more calories that are eaten beyond the daily recommended requirements, the greater the weight gain will be.

Comparison Phrasing

This form of phrasing is applicable when comparing two groups and focuses on the differences that the investigation is expected to reveal between those two groups.

Those who eat more calories will gain more weight than those who eat fewer calories.

Questions to ask during this process include:

• What tense is the hypothesis written in?
• Does the hypothesis contain both independent and dependent variables?
• Is the hypothesis framed using the if/then, correlation, or comparison framework (or other similar suitable structure)?
• Is the hypothesis worded clearly and concisely?
• Does the hypothesis make a prediction?
• Is the prediction specific?
• Is the hypothesis testable?
• Gather Data to Support/Disprove Your Hypothesis

If the purpose of a hypothesis is to provide a reason to pursue an investigation, then the student will need to gather related information together to fuel that investigation.

While, by definition, a hypothesis leans towards a specific outcome, the student shouldn’t worry if their investigations or experiments ultimately disprove their hypothesis. The hypothesis is the starting point; the destination is not preordained. This is the very essence of the scientific method. Students should trust the results of their investigation to speak for themselves. Either way, the outcome is valuable information.

TOP 10 TIPS FOR WRITING A STRONG HYPOTHESIS

• Begin by asking a clear and compelling question. Your hypothesis is a response to the inquiry you are eager to explore.
• Keep it simple and straightforward. Avoid using complex phrases or making multiple predictions in one hypothesis.
• Use the right format. A strong hypothesis is often written in the form of an “if-then” statement.
• Ensure that your hypothesis is testable. Your hypothesis should be something that can be verified through experimentation or observation.
• Stay objective. Your hypothesis should be based on facts and evidence, not personal opinions or prejudices.
• Examine different possibilities. Don’t limit yourself to just one hypothesis. Consider alternative explanations for your observations.
• Stay open to the possibility of being wrong. Your hypothesis is just a prediction, and it may not always be correct.
• Search for evidence to support your hypothesis. Investigate existing literature and gather data that supports your hypothesis.
• Make sure that your hypothesis is pertinent. Your hypothesis should be relevant to the question you are trying to investigate.
• Revise your hypothesis as necessary. If new evidence arises that contradicts your hypothesis, you may need to adjust it accordingly.

HYPOTHESIS TEACHING STRATEGIES AND ACTIVITIES

When teaching young scientists and writers, it’s essential to remember that the process of formulating a hypothesis is not always straightforward. It’s easy to make mistakes along the way, but with a bit of guidance, you can ensure your students avoid some of the most common pitfalls like these.

• Don’t let your students be too vague. Remind them that when formulating a hypothesis, it’s essential to be specific and avoid using overly general language. Make sure their hypothesis is clear and easy to understand.
• Being swayed by personal biases will impact their hypothesis negatively. It’s important to stay objective when formulating a hypothesis, so avoid letting personal biases or opinions get in the way.
• Not starting with a clear question is the number one stumbling block for students, so before forming a hypothesis, you need to reinforce the need for a clear understanding of the question they’re trying to answer. Start with a question that is specific and relevant.

Hypothesis Warmup Activity: First, organize students into small working groups of four or five. Then, set each group to collect a list of hypotheses. They can find these by searching on the Internet or finding examples in textbooks . When students have gathered together a suitable list of hypotheses, have them identify the independent and dependent variables in each case. They can underline each of these in different colors.

It may be helpful for students to examine each hypothesis to identify the ‘cause’ elements and the ‘effect’ elements. When students have finished, they can present their findings to the class.

Task 1: Set your students the task of coming up with an investigation-worthy question on a topic that interests them. This activity works particularly well for groups.

Task 2: Students search for existing information and theories on their topic on the Internet or in the library. They should take notes where necessary and begin to form an assumption or prediction based on their reading and research that they can investigate further.

Task 3: When working with a talking partner, can students identify which of their partner’s independent and dependent variables? If not, then one partner will need to revisit the definitions for the two types of variables as outlined earlier.

Task 4: Organize students into smaller groups and task them with presenting their hypotheses to each other. Students can then provide feedback before the final wording of each hypothesis is finalized.

Perhaps due to their short length, learning how to create a well-written hypothesis is not typically afforded much time in the curriculum.

However, though they are brief in length, they are complex enough to warrant focused learning and practice in class, particularly given their importance across many curriculum areas.

Learning how to write a hypothesis works well as a standalone writing skill. It can also form part of a more comprehensive academic or scientific writing study that focuses on how to write a research question, develop a theory, etc.

As with any text type, practice improves performance. By following the processes outlined above, students will be well on their way to writing their own hypotheses competently in no time.

Learn How To Write A Hypothesis For Your Next Research Project!

Undoubtedly, research plays a crucial role in substantiating or refuting our assumptions. These assumptions act as potential answers to our questions. Such assumptions, also known as hypotheses, are considered key aspects of research. In this blog, we delve into the significance of hypotheses. And provide insights on how to write them effectively. So, let’s dive in and explore the art of writing hypotheses together.

Table of Contents

What is a Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a crucial starting point in scientific research. It is an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables. In other words, a hypothesis acts as a foundation for a researcher to build their study.

Here are some examples of well-crafted hypotheses:

• Increased exposure to natural sunlight improves sleep quality in adults.

A positive relationship between natural sunlight exposure and sleep quality in adult individuals.

• Playing puzzle games on a regular basis enhances problem-solving abilities in children.

Engaging in frequent puzzle gameplay leads to improved problem-solving skills in children.

• Students and improved learning hecks.

S tudents using online  paper writing service  platforms (as a learning tool for receiving personalized feedback and guidance) will demonstrate improved writing skills. (compared to those who do not utilize such platforms).

• The use of APA format in research papers. 

Using the  APA format  helps students stay organized when writing research papers. Organized students can focus better on their topics and, as a result, produce better quality work.

The Building Blocks of a Hypothesis

To better understand the concept of a hypothesis, let’s break it down into its basic components:

• Variables . A hypothesis involves at least two variables. An independent variable and a dependent variable. The independent variable is the one being changed or manipulated, while the dependent variable is the one being measured or observed.
• Relationship : A hypothesis proposes a relationship or connection between the variables. This could be a cause-and-effect relationship or a correlation between them.
• Testability : A hypothesis should be testable and falsifiable, meaning it can be proven right or wrong through experimentation or observation.

Types of Hypotheses

When learning how to write a hypothesis, it’s essential to understand its main types. These include; alternative hypotheses and null hypotheses. In the following section, we explore both types of hypotheses with examples. 

Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

This kind of hypothesis suggests a relationship or effect between the variables. It is the main focus of the study. The researcher wants to either prove or disprove it. Many research divides this hypothesis into two subsections: 

• Directional 

This type of H1 predicts a specific outcome. Many researchers use this hypothesis to explore the relationship between variables rather than the groups. 

• Non-directional

You can take a guess from the name. This type of H1 does not provide a specific prediction for the research outcome. 

Here are some examples for your better understanding of how to write a hypothesis.

• Consuming caffeine improves cognitive performance.  (This hypothesis predicts that there is a positive relationship between caffeine consumption and cognitive performance.)
• Aerobic exercise leads to reduced blood pressure.  (This hypothesis suggests that engaging in aerobic exercise results in lower blood pressure readings.)
• Exposure to nature reduces stress levels among employees.  (Here, the hypothesis proposes that employees exposed to natural environments will experience decreased stress levels.)
• Listening to classical music while studying increases memory retention.  (This hypothesis speculates that studying with classical music playing in the background boosts students’ ability to retain information.)
• Early literacy intervention improves reading skills in children.  (This hypothesis claims that providing early literacy assistance to children results in enhanced reading abilities.)
• Time management in nursing students. ( Students who use a  nursing research paper writing service  have more time to focus on their studies and can achieve better grades in other subjects. )

Null Hypothesis (H0)

A null hypothesis assumes no relationship or effect between the variables. If the alternative hypothesis is proven to be false, the null hypothesis is considered to be true. Usually a null hypothesis shows no direct correlation between the defined variables. 

Here are some of the examples

• The consumption of herbal tea has no effect on sleep quality.  (This hypothesis assumes that herbal tea consumption does not impact the quality of sleep.)
• The number of hours spent playing video games is unrelated to academic performance.  (Here, the null hypothesis suggests that no relationship exists between video gameplay duration and academic achievement.)
• Implementing flexible work schedules has no influence on employee job satisfaction.  (This hypothesis contends that providing flexible schedules does not affect how satisfied employees are with their jobs.)
• Writing ability of a 7th grader is not affected by reading editorial example. ( There is no relationship between reading an  editorial example  and improving a 7th grader’s writing abilities.) 
• The type of lighting in a room does not affect people’s mood.  (In this null hypothesis, there is no connection between the kind of lighting in a room and the mood of those present.)
• The use of social media during break time does not impact productivity at work.  (This hypothesis proposes that social media usage during breaks has no effect on work productivity.)

As you learn how to write a hypothesis, remember that aiming for clarity, testability, and relevance to your research question is vital. By mastering this skill, you’re well on your way to conducting impactful scientific research. Good luck!

Importance of a Hypothesis in Research

A well-structured hypothesis is a vital part of any research project for several reasons:

• It provides clear direction for the study by setting its focus and purpose.
• It outlines expectations of the research, making it easier to measure results.
• It helps identify any potential limitations in the study, allowing researchers to refine their approach.

In conclusion, a hypothesis plays a fundamental role in the research process. By understanding its concept and constructing a well-thought-out hypothesis, researchers lay the groundwork for a successful, scientifically sound investigation.

How to Write a Hypothesis?

Here are five steps that you can follow to write an effective hypothesis. 

Step 1: Identify Your Research Question

The first step in learning how to compose a hypothesis is to clearly define your research question. This question is the central focus of your study and will help you determine the direction of your hypothesis.

Step 2: Determine the Variables

When exploring how to write a hypothesis, it’s crucial to identify the variables involved in your study. You’ll need at least two variables:

• Independent variable : The factor you manipulate or change in your experiment.
• Dependent variable : The outcome or result you observe or measure, which is influenced by the independent variable.

Step 3: Build the Hypothetical Relationship

In understanding how to compose a hypothesis, constructing the relationship between the variables is key. Based on your research question and variables, predict the expected outcome or connection. This prediction should be specific, testable, and, if possible, expressed in the “If…then” format.

Step 4: Write the Null Hypothesis

When mastering how to write a hypothesis, it’s important to create a null hypothesis as well. The null hypothesis assumes no relationship or effect between the variables, acting as a counterpoint to your primary hypothesis.

Step 5: Review Your Hypothesis

Finally, when learning how to compose a hypothesis, it’s essential to review your hypothesis for clarity, testability, and relevance to your research question. Make any necessary adjustments to ensure it provides a solid basis for your study.

In conclusion, understanding how to write a hypothesis is crucial for conducting successful scientific research. By focusing on your research question and carefully building relationships between variables, you will lay a strong foundation for advancing research and knowledge in your field.

Hypothesis vs. Prediction: What’s the Difference?

Understanding the differences between a hypothesis and a prediction is crucial in scientific research. Often, these terms are used interchangeably, but they have distinct meanings and functions. This segment aims to clarify these differences and explain how to compose a hypothesis correctly, helping you improve the quality of your research projects.

Hypothesis: The Foundation of Your Research

A hypothesis is an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables. It provides the basis for your research question and is a starting point for an experiment or observational study.

The critical elements for a hypothesis include:

• Specificity: A clear and concise statement that describes the relationship between variables.
• Testability: The ability to test the hypothesis through experimentation or observation.

To learn how to write a hypothesis, it’s essential to identify your research question first and then predict the relationship between the variables.

Prediction: The Expected Outcome

A prediction is a statement about a specific outcome you expect to see in your experiment or observational study. It’s derived from the hypothesis and provides a measurable way to test the relationship between variables.

Here’s an example of how to write a hypothesis and a related prediction:

• Hypothesis: Consuming a high-sugar diet leads to weight gain.
• Prediction: People who consume a high-sugar diet for six weeks will gain more weight than those who maintain a low-sugar diet during the same period.

Key Differences Between a Hypothesis and a Prediction

While a hypothesis and prediction are both essential components of scientific research, there are some key differences to keep in mind:

• A hypothesis is an educated guess that suggests a relationship between variables, while a prediction is a specific and measurable outcome based on that hypothesis.
• A hypothesis can give rise to multiple experiment or observational study predictions.

To conclude, understanding the differences between a hypothesis and a prediction, and learning how to write a hypothesis, are essential steps to form a robust foundation for your research. By creating clear, testable hypotheses along with specific, measurable predictions, you lay the groundwork for scientifically sound investigations.

Here’s a wrap-up for this guide on how to write a hypothesis. We’re confident this article was helpful for many of you. We understand that many students struggle with writing their school research . However, we hope to continue assisting you through our blog tutorial on writing different aspects of academic assignments.

For further information, you can check out our reverent blog or contact our professionals to avail amazing writing services. Paper perk experts tailor assignments to reflect your unique voice and perspectives. Our professionals make sure to stick around till your satisfaction. So what are you waiting for? Pick your required service and order away!

How to write a good hypothesis?

How to write a hypothesis in science, how to write a research hypothesis, how to write a null hypothesis, what is the format for a scientific hypothesis, how do you structure a proper hypothesis, can you provide an example of a hypothesis, what is the ideal hypothesis structure.

The ideal hypothesis structure includes the following;

• A clear statement of the relationship between variables.
• testable prediction.
• falsifiability.

If your hypothesis has all of these, it is both scientifically sound and effective.

How to write a hypothesis for product management?

Writing a hypothesis for product management involves a simple process:

• First, identify the problem or question you want to address.
• State your assumption or belief about the solution to that problem. .
• Make a hypothesis by predicting a specific outcome based on your assumption.
• Make sure your hypothesis is specific, measurable, and testable.
• Use experiments, data analysis, or user feedback to validate your hypothesis.
• Make informed decisions for product improvement.

Following these steps will help you in effectively formulating hypotheses for product management.

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• Knowledge Base
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• How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples

How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Shona McCombes .

A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. If you want to test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you start your experiment or data collection.

Table of contents

What is a hypothesis, developing a hypothesis (with example), hypothesis examples, frequently asked questions about writing hypotheses.

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.

A hypothesis is not just a guess – it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).

Variables in hypotheses

Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more variables . An independent variable is something the researcher changes or controls. A dependent variable is something the researcher observes and measures.

In this example, the independent variable is exposure to the sun – the assumed cause . The dependent variable is the level of happiness – the assumed effect .

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Step 1: ask a question.

Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.

Step 2: Do some preliminary research

Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated assumptions about what your research will find.

At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to identify which variables you will study and what you think the relationships are between them. Sometimes, you’ll have to operationalise more complex constructs.

Step 3: Formulate your hypothesis

Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.

Step 4: Refine your hypothesis

You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should contain:

• The relevant variables
• The specific group being studied
• The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis

Step 5: Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if … then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.

In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.

If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find between them.

Step 6. Write a null hypothesis

If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing , you will also have to write a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H 0 , while the alternative hypothesis is H 1 or H a .

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

A hypothesis is not just a guess. It should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (‘ x affects y because …’).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses. In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

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Writers' Center

Eastern Washington University

Grammar, Punctuation, and Sentences

• Beyond Commas (Other Punctuation Marks)
• Sentence Patterns
• Compound and Complex Sentences
• Comma Splices, Run-Ons, and Fragments
• Parts of Speech

Parts of Speech Overview

Conjunction, preposition, interjection.

• Practice Parts of Speech
• Articles (a, an, the)
• Infinitives
• Subject-Verb Agreement
• Verb Tenses and Shifts
• Active vs. Passive Voice
• Plural Nouns
• Count and Non-Count Nouns
• Commonly Misused Words

Sometimes it’s helpful to breakdown the different parts of speech (or elements of a sentence) in order to simplify the sentence. This exercise can help you get to the root of what you’re trying to say. Below are definitions of the different parts of speech.

An  article  is placed before a noun or an adjective:  a, an, the.

Click  HERE  for a more in-depth look at articles.

A  noun  is a  person, place, or thing:  Ella, Cheney, eggplant.

Nouns within a sentence:

• SUBJECT   (person, place, or thing that is the doer of the action in a sentence—a.k.a. the star of your sentence):  Luiz   cooked dinner.
• Side Note:  To determine the direct object, ask yourself, Luiz cooked  what ? Nicole lent  what ?
• INDIRECT OBJECT  (for whom the action/verb was performed): Luiz cooked  Carmen  dinner. Nicole lent  me  jeans.

A  pronoun  replaces a noun (and is sometimes called a “personal pronoun”):  I, you, we, he, him, she, it, them.

Click  HERE  to learn more about pronouns and the difference between pronouns within the subjective, objective and possessive cases.

An  adjective  describes a noun:  red, round, translucent.

A  verb  is an action or state:  jump, move, lift, write, can.

HERE  is more information about verbs.

An  adverb  describes a verb and often ends in “ly”:  carefully, methodically, quietly.

A  conjunction  joins words/clauses/sentences together:  and, or, but, when.

Side Note:  Conjunctions can fall under several different categories, but the most commonly used are coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) and subordinating conjunctions (because, when, while, after… and many more).

Click  HERE  for ways to correctly use conjunctions to fix run-on sentences and comma splices.

A  preposition  begins a prepositional phrase and shows relationships between other words in a sentence; a preposition often indicates time or place:  in, at, on, behind, under.

Click  HERE  to practice using prepositions.

An  interjection  is an  exclamation:  Oh!, Ah!

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Parts of Speech for Hypothesis

Gramatical hierarchy.

• Plural form
• Variable noun

Grammatically "Hypothesis" is a noun, to be more precise even a variable noun. But also it is used as a , specifically a variable noun. Part of speech depends on meaning of this word.

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Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to,

• understand how languages can be described in terms of abstract descriptive rules.
• use morphology and distribution to determine word categories
• identify characteristic properties of core parts of speech (e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, adpositions, etc)

To build a theory of syntax, we need to look at data. We’ll start by considering the following sentences of English.

Here’s an obvious observation about these sentences: All the sentences in (1) are different . For instance, they use different words; they mean different things; some of them are in different tenses. Ask any English speaker, and they would agree: these are different sentences.

Here’s a not-so-obvious observation about these sentences: All the sentences in (1) are the same. Why? Well, they all can be described in the same way. They consist of a determiner   followed by a noun followed by a verb. Stated schematically, I can say that,

What have we done? We’ve translated English into a system of variables . For whichever values (that is, words) that we choose for each of the variables (Determiner, Noun, Verb) we will generate a sentence of English.

This means that I, as an English learner/speaker, don’t have to memorize every combination of determiner, noun, and verb in English. All I have to know is this rule, and I can generate an infinite number of sentences (…as long I know the possible determiners, nouns, and verbs in English).

The goal for every generative syntactician is the set of rules that describe a human language — and nothing else. That is, we want to find the rules that can accurately describe what is, and is not, a sentence in a language.

In general, syntactic theories (of which there are many) differ on what the rules should look like and what the background assumptions should be (that is, what is given, and what must be stated as part of the rule). But the goal is always the same: a precise and accurate description of language. This is what we are aiming for in this class.

So far we are able to capture only a limited set of data. Obviously it is possible to say many more things in English than sentences with intransitive verbs. Let’s look at some more examples.

Our rule for Sentence English doesn’t allow us to generate the sentences in (2), because the rule doesn’t know what to do with words like happy, terrible, new, stubborn , and stupid . So let’s make another rule.

Sentence English → Determiner Adjective Noun Verb

“A sentence in English consists of a Determiner, followed by an Adjective, followed by a Noun, followed by a Verb.”

By itself, this rule generates all the sentences in (2), but now it over-generates, because according to the rule, every sentence in English must consist of the sequence Determiner-Adjective-Noun-Verb. So according to this new rule, the sentences in (1) are not possible sentences in English because they don’t have adjectives.

So we conclude that we need two rules for English. Now our grammar fragment of English is the following

A grammar fragment of English

Rule 1: Sentence English → Determiner Noun Verb.

“An English sentence consists of a determiner followed by a noun followed by a verb.”

Rule 2: Sentence English → Determiner Adjective Noun Verb.

“An English sentence consists of a determiner followed by an adjective followed by a noun followed by a verb.”

This is simply a logical step. Rule 1 and Rule 2 both correctly generate the sentences in (1) and (2), and they don’t generate any sentences that aren’t in English, like *Mailman happy slept the . Our rules predict that this sentence shouldn’t be an English sentence, because our rules do not allow this sequence of elements.

Together, Rules 1 and 2 are a grammar fragment . They just describe some of what is possible in English. To continue the process and develop a complete grammar, we’d look at more data, and determine the rules that describe the data. We would do this until we developed a set of rules that could generate all the possible sentences in English, and wouldn’t generate any sentences that weren’t in English. We would then have a complete  grammar of English.

However, there are a couple of things we seem to be missing in this grammar fragment. Foremost, these rules don’t really capture the relationships  between the words. For instance, intuitively, we have the sense that the happy mailman “goes together,” like it’s a unit, more than mailman slept . For instance, I can replace  the happy mailman with  he and the sentence means the same thing:  He slept .  I cannot replace mailman slept with anything to get an equivalent sentence: * The happy he. (This is called substitution ; we’ll talk about it in the next chapter.) Thus, if we want our rules to truly represent English, then we want to represent that the happy mailman goes together to the exclusion of slept .

We can actually re-write our grammar fragment to capture this grouping. We’ll use the term “Determiner Phrase” (abbreviated DP) to refer to the sequence Determiner-Adjective-Noun or Determiner-Noun.

A revised grammar fragment of English

Rule 1:  Sentence English → DP Verb

“A sentence in English consists of a determiner phrase followed by a verb.”

Rule 2: D P → Determiner Noun

“A determiner phrase consists of a determiner followed by a noun.”

Rule 3 : DP → Determiner Adjective Noun

“A determiner phrase consists of a determiner followed by an adjective followed by a noun.”

By adding the term Determiner Phrase , we can now correctly represent that the words the happy mailman go together. Putting a determiner phrase together with a verb makes a sentence in English. I can choose either one of the DP rules, Rule 2 or Rule 3, and put it into Rule 1 to make a sentence. Importantly, our revised grammar fragment does all the things that our first attempt did, that is, it gets all the words in the right order, and does not generate sentences of English that don’t exist.

This level of abstraction raises two issues.

This topic is addressed in the chapter titled Constituency and so we’ll put it aside for now. 

The second question is asking about syntactic categories . A noun has the syntactic category of N. A determiner has syntactic category D. A verb has the syntactic category of V, an adjective has the syntactic category of A, etc. A noun phrase     is a group of words that “acts like” a noun. A determiner  phrase is a group of words that “acts like” a determiner, etc.

The names are essentially arbitrary. We’re simply saying that there are classes of things that behave similarly. Table, dog, teacher, brick, honesty, …, all behave in a similar fashion (in some respects). Lick, sit, own, jump, describe, believe, …, all behave in a similar fashion (in some respects).   When we say that something is a “noun” and has category N all we’re saying is that that thing “acts like” the other noun-words. Likewise, when we say that something is a verb, we’re simply saying that that thing “acts like” the other verb-words. 

What does it even mean to “act like noun” or “act like a verb?” In what way are “nouns” differentiated from “verbs” or “adjectives?” In defining syntactic categories, i t is tempting to rely on what you were probably taught in school: nouns are “people, places, or things” and verbs are “actions,” adjectives “describe,” etc. That is, we can attempt to define syntactic category using meaning .

This turns out be wrong for a number of reasons. For instance, we can all agree that idea is a noun, but it’s debatable whether it’s a person, place, or thing. Or what about the (uncontroversial) noun  destruction . That’s an action! The destruction of the city by Godzilla describes an event—it’s clearly not a person, a place, or a thing. 

Likewise, not all verbs are actions.  Tasha owns a car contains the verbs  owns.   Is owning an action? Only under a very loose definition of “action.” What about the verb  seems in  Abigail seems tired . Is  seem an action?  Doubtful…

Perhaps most problematic for the idea that we can use meaning to define syntactic category comes when we look at languages other than English. For instance, if you’ve studied a Romance language, you’ve learned that certain concepts which are expressed in English using adjectives are expressed in Romance using verbs and nouns. This happens to be a robust strategy found across the world’s languages, occurring beyond Romance languages, like, e.g., Swahili.

If we (as English speakers) were to use meaning to define word category, we might be tempted to call words like hambre, faim , and njaa adjectives meaning “hungry.” This would clearly be wrong, because in fact they’re nouns, as the literal translations suggest. So we simply cannot use meaning to determine syntactic category; it doesn’t help us to define categories within a language, and it doesn’t help us define across categories across languages.

So how actually do I know that idea, table, hambre, faim,  and njaa are nouns if I can’t use meaning? Or stated differently, how can I uniquely define a class of words in any particular language? There are two kinds of reliable evidence we can use to classify syntactic categories.

Morphological properties. What are the pieces of morphology that distinguish a particular word class?

• For instance, in English only nouns can appear with plural morpheme (typically -s ). Again in English, only verbs can appear with tense morphology (like past tense  -ed ). Morphological properties are going to be specific to a language. The morphological properties of nouns in Swahili are different from the morphological properties of nouns in English.

Distributional properties. Where do members of a particular noun appear with respect to other categories.

• For instance, a determiner in English must always be the first thing in a determiner phrase. A verb in English must always be preceded by a determiner phrase. Distributional properties, too, are going to be specific to a language. In Swahili, determiners generally follow nouns, whereas in English, they strictly precede nouns.

Morphology refers to pieces of words. In any particular language, every word class may have its own specific morphological pattern. In English, only nouns can take a plural suffix :  idea s , table s , child ren , etc. Adjectives cannot inflect for plural in English:  *red s , *sad s ,  etc. Only verbs in English can inflect for (be marked with) tense and aspect information. walk ed , walk ing , *child ed , child ing . Only adjectives in English can inflect for the comparative suffix:  sadd er , *child er . 

Importantly, morphological properties are going to be language specific. For instance, in Estonian, nouns inflect for number (singular or plural), just like in English and also for case (which indicates the role the noun plays in the sentence).

Thus, in Estonian, if a word inflects for both number and case in the same way, then we have evidence that it’s a noun. Just like in English, if a word inflects for tense and aspect, then we conclude that it’s a verb. If a word in English can take the comparative morpheme  -er , then we conclude that it’s an adjective.

The second piece of evidence we can use to determine syntactic category is distributional evidence. Every word class goes in a particular position with respect to other word classes. In English, the only thing that can appear in the underlined space is a noun: The ____ is… . That is, only nouns can appear between a determiner and copula . Or stated differently: only certain words can appear between a determiner and copula in English, and we call those words “nouns.” In French, the only thing that can appear in the underlined space in a comparative construction is an adjective.

Or stated slightly differently, the only kind of word that can appear in the configuration above is a word like grande “tall,” or  intelligente , “smart,” and we give those words the label “adjective.” (Notice that adjectives in French also have a morphological distinction: they inflect for masculine and feminine gender, in addition to singular and plural.)

Again, distributional properties of syntactic categories are going to be language-specific. We can’t make general statements like “adjectives always precede nouns” because there are many languages in which they come after nouns. Similarly we can’t say something like “verbs always come after subjects” because there are many languages in which the verb comes after the object, or even before the subject. To distinguish syntactic categories for any particular language, you have to look at the properties of that particular language.

Parts of speech (length: 2m 46s)

Where we’re going

Now that we can identity parts of speech (using distribution and morphology), we can use that information to write our abstract rules about language, as demonstrated earlier. That is, we can translate any language into a system of variables.

We can also determine the category of groups of words. For instance, suppose I wanted to know what category the group of words happy mailman is. From distributional evidence, we would conclude that it behaves like a noun, not like an adjective (or a verb, adverb, etc). For instance, we can’t use this phrase to modify another noun (5a), and it can go in the location that only nouns can go (5b).

We’re going to use this information to help us determine how to “chunk up” the sentences we find, and in turn how to write the rules that are in our grammar fragment.

Things to remember

• Language description in terms of abstract rules
• Using data to create a grammar fragment
• How to use morphological and distributional properties of words to determine syntactic categories.

Changing categories

One of the complications that frequently crops up when we’re considering category is that words can  change category. Consider the English word  cut.   If I asked you what category  cut was you could say, “It’s a verb.” Or you could say, “It’s a noun.” Both answers would be correct.

One question that this raises is, for any particular word, which category (if any) is the  “true” form? That is, is the word cut fundamentally a verb which can be turned into a noun? Or is it a noun which can be turned into a verb? A third option is that it’s fundamentally neither a noun nor a verb! It’s simply some abstract semantic information which can be used either as a noun or a verb.

It’s also interesting to think about  the limit of possibilities For cut , there is an upper bound on the category. It can be a verb, it can be a noun, and it can also be an adjective (technically a participial form): the cut bread . That’s probably it. But other words can definitely have more categories. Consider the word  down :

Given the abundance of forms for down , why are some “alternations” not allowed? For instance, unlike cut , the noun chop doesn’t naturally have similar noun form: Mary chopped the wood. ??It was a deep chop. Why not? Why are some words restricted in “changing” categories, and others less so?

Morphological complexity in word formation

When a word is  morphologically ambiguous between different categories, we call it  conversion . So the difference between  cut as a verb and cut as a noun is descriptively an instance of conversion.

Sometimes, in fact often, there are morphological reflexes of changing category. Consider the (famous) example of the verb  destroy , which has the noun form destruction . Unlike cut , the nominalization of destroy involves at least addition of the suffix -tion , plus a change in the stem of the verb from destroy to  destruc-

One question we can ask about such processes is how “productive” they are. By this, we mean, “How many words exhibit a similar change?” For instance, what other verbs  form nouns with -tion ? If we find that it’s a lot of verbs, we might say that this kind of nominalization is generally productive. If it only happens with a few idiosyncratic verbs, then we might say that it isn’t fully productive.

English has a few fully productive category changing processes. Consider – ness affixation. Basically any adjective can be suffixed with -ness to form a noun.

Interestingly, such morphological affixation “stacks,” meaning that I can add multiple affixes to a word, each one changing the category.  Consider the following productive affixation processes: [1]

Other languages have a much richer process of category alternations. In Dumi, a Kirati (Tibeto-Burman) language spoken in Eastern Nepal, adjectives can be made from verbs by putting – sa at the end.

In K’iche’, a Mayan language spoken in Guatemala, verbs can be suffixed with  -ib’al to forms nouns meaning “location for VERBing.”

Overt realizations of a category changing affixes introduce a number of interesting theoretical questions. For instance, what actually is a category? Is it just the affix that attaches last? That is, since  -ness always “makes” a noun, can we just say that  -ness is the category noun? This is schematized below.

But if that’s true, does that mean when we have conversion (e.g., cut Noun  versus cut Verb ), do we have to say that there’s a  null affix , corresponding to a noun or verb?

Another question concerns the stacking noted earlier. Take the word  breakability . This consists of three distinct morphemes, each associated with a different category.  Break is a verb;  -able (here spelled – abil ) attaches to verbs and makes adjectives;  -ity attaches to adjectives and makes nouns. It’s clear that there is an  order in how the elements stack.  -Able has to attach to  break before  -ity can. What about when there is a suffix and a prefix ? Is there also an ordering?

Consider the word  unbreakable . This also consists of three morphemes:  un-break-able . At first glance, it might not seem possible to determine the order of attachment of  un- and  -able . But in fact, it must be the case that  -able attaches first, to form the word  breakable , and then un- attaches after that, to form the word  unbreakable . If it happened in the opposite order, we would first make the word  *unbreak —but this isn’t a word!

More importantly, the idea that there is a determined order of “introduction” for each piece of a word—and that order might not be the same as the linear order—will be a central observation when we start looking not at individual words, but at groupings of  words, otherwise called  constituents . What is remarkable is that the same processes that underlie our understanding of syntax also underlies our understanding of morphology (for the most part). These topics are discussed more in depth in LING 527/727.

• Don't be fooled by the orthography! For historical (and phonological) reasons, we sometimes use a slightly different spelling for some affixes, but it's still the same affix. ↵

Morphology is the study of morphemes. Morphemes are defined as the smallest unit of meaning.

The distribution of an element refers to where it occurs, including its syntactic, morphological, and even phonological context.

A determiner is syntactic category. Determiners specify properties of noun phrases.

Intransitive verbs only every appear with a subject, and never appear with an object. In theoretical terms, an intransitive verb is a verb that c-selects for only one argument.

A grammar of a language is a complete set of phrase structure rules.

Syntactic categories are parts of speech, referring to N (Nouns), D, (Determiners), V (Verbs), etc.

A morpheme that attaches to the end of a word.

A morphological category referring to either singular or plural (and in some languages including dual and trial as well).

A morphology property of nouns in many languages. Case can either be structural, and indicate the grammatical role (subject/object) or semantic, and indicate the thematic role of the noun.

A "be" verb.

The Science of Syntax Copyright © by John Gluckman is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: How Language Influences How We Express Ourselves

Rachael is a New York-based writer and freelance writer for Verywell Mind, where she leverages her decades of personal experience with and research on mental illness—particularly ADHD and depression—to help readers better understand how their mind works and how to manage their mental health.

Thomas Barwick / Getty Images

What to Know About the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Real-world examples of linguistic relativity, linguistic relativity in psychology.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, also known as linguistic relativity, refers to the idea that the language a person speaks can influence their worldview, thought, and even how they experience and understand the world.

While more extreme versions of the hypothesis have largely been discredited, a growing body of research has demonstrated that language can meaningfully shape how we understand the world around us and even ourselves.

Keep reading to learn more about linguistic relativity, including some real-world examples of how it shapes thoughts, emotions, and behavior.  

The hypothesis is named after anthropologist and linguist Edward Sapir and his student, Benjamin Lee Whorf. While the hypothesis is named after them both, the two never actually formally co-authored a coherent hypothesis together.

This Hypothesis Aims to Figure Out How Language and Culture Are Connected

Sapir was interested in charting the difference in language and cultural worldviews, including how language and culture influence each other. Whorf took this work on how language and culture shape each other a step further to explore how different languages might shape thought and behavior.

Since then, the concept has evolved into multiple variations, some more credible than others.

Linguistic Determinism Is an Extreme Version of the Hypothesis

Linguistic determinism, for example, is a more extreme version suggesting that a person’s perception and thought are limited to the language they speak. An early example of linguistic determinism comes from Whorf himself who argued that the Hopi people in Arizona don’t conjugate verbs into past, present, and future tenses as English speakers do and that their words for units of time (like “day” or “hour”) were verbs rather than nouns.

From this, he concluded that the Hopi don’t view time as a physical object that can be counted out in minutes and hours the way English speakers do. Instead, Whorf argued, the Hopi view time as a formless process.

This was then taken by others to mean that the Hopi don’t have any concept of time—an extreme view that has since been repeatedly disproven.

There is some evidence for a more nuanced version of linguistic relativity, which suggests that the structure and vocabulary of the language you speak can influence how you understand the world around you. To understand this better, it helps to look at real-world examples of the effects language can have on thought and behavior.

Different Languages Express Colors Differently

Color is one of the most common examples of linguistic relativity. Most known languages have somewhere between two and twelve color terms, and the way colors are categorized varies widely. In English, for example, there are distinct categories for blue and green .

Blue and Green

But in Korean, there is one word that encompasses both. This doesn’t mean Korean speakers can’t see blue, it just means blue is understood as a variant of green rather than a distinct color category all its own.

In Russian, meanwhile, the colors that English speakers would lump under the umbrella term of “blue” are further subdivided into two distinct color categories, “siniy” and “goluboy.” They roughly correspond to light blue and dark blue in English. But to Russian speakers, they are as distinct as orange and brown .

In one study comparing English and Russian speakers, participants were shown a color square and then asked to choose which of the two color squares below it was the closest in shade to the first square.

The test specifically focused on varying shades of blue ranging from “siniy” to “goluboy.” Russian speakers were not only faster at selecting the matching color square but were more accurate in their selections.

The Way Location Is Expressed Varies Across Languages

This same variation occurs in other areas of language. For example, in Guugu Ymithirr, a language spoken by Aboriginal Australians, spatial orientation is always described in absolute terms of cardinal directions. While an English speaker would say the laptop is “in front of” you, a Guugu Ymithirr speaker would say it was north, south, west, or east of you.

As a result, Aboriginal Australians have to be constantly attuned to cardinal directions because their language requires it (just as Russian speakers develop a more instinctive ability to discern between shades of what English speakers call blue because their language requires it).

So when you ask a Guugu Ymithirr speaker to tell you which way south is, they can point in the right direction without a moment’s hesitation. Meanwhile, most English speakers would struggle to accurately identify South without the help of a compass or taking a moment to recall grade school lessons about how to find it.

The concept of these cardinal directions exists in English, but English speakers aren’t required to think about or use them on a daily basis so it’s not as intuitive or ingrained in how they orient themselves in space.

Just as with other aspects of thought and perception, the vocabulary and grammatical structure we have for thinking about or talking about what we feel doesn’t create our feelings, but it does shape how we understand them and, to an extent, how we experience them.

Words Help Us Put a Name to Our Emotions

For example, the ability to detect displeasure from a person’s face is universal. But in a language that has the words “angry” and “sad,” you can further distinguish what kind of displeasure you observe in their facial expression. This doesn’t mean humans never experienced anger or sadness before words for them emerged. But they may have struggled to understand or explain the subtle differences between different dimensions of displeasure.

In one study of English speakers, toddlers were shown a picture of a person with an angry facial expression. Then, they were given a set of pictures of people displaying different expressions including happy, sad, surprised, scared, disgusted, or angry. Researchers asked them to put all the pictures that matched the first angry face picture into a box.

The two-year-olds in the experiment tended to place all faces except happy faces into the box. But four-year-olds were more selective, often leaving out sad or fearful faces as well as happy faces. This suggests that as our vocabulary for talking about emotions expands, so does our ability to understand and distinguish those emotions.

But some research suggests the influence is not limited to just developing a wider vocabulary for categorizing emotions. Language may “also help constitute emotion by cohering sensations into specific perceptions of ‘anger,’ ‘disgust,’ ‘fear,’ etc.,” said Dr. Harold Hong, a board-certified psychiatrist at New Waters Recovery in North Carolina.

As our vocabulary for talking about emotions expands, so does our ability to understand and distinguish those emotions.

Words for emotions, like words for colors, are an attempt to categorize a spectrum of sensations into a handful of distinct categories. And, like color, there’s no objective or hard rule on where the boundaries between emotions should be which can lead to variation across languages in how emotions are categorized.

Emotions Are Categorized Differently in Different Languages

Just as different languages categorize color a little differently, researchers have also found differences in how emotions are categorized. In German, for example, there’s an emotion called “gemütlichkeit.”

While it’s usually translated as “cozy” or “ friendly ” in English, there really isn’t a direct translation. It refers to a particular kind of peace and sense of belonging that a person feels when surrounded by the people they love or feel connected to in a place they feel comfortable and free to be who they are.

Harold Hong, MD, Psychiatrist

The lack of a word for an emotion in a language does not mean that its speakers don't experience that emotion.

You may have felt gemütlichkeit when staying up with your friends to joke and play games at a sleepover. You may feel it when you visit home for the holidays and spend your time eating, laughing, and reminiscing with your family in the house you grew up in.

In Japanese, the word “amae” is just as difficult to translate into English. Usually, it’s translated as "spoiled child" or "presumed indulgence," as in making a request and assuming it will be indulged. But both of those have strong negative connotations in English and amae is a positive emotion .

Instead of being spoiled or coddled, it’s referring to that particular kind of trust and assurance that comes with being nurtured by someone and knowing that you can ask for what you want without worrying whether the other person might feel resentful or burdened by your request.

You might have felt amae when your car broke down and you immediately called your mom to pick you up, without having to worry for even a second whether or not she would drop everything to help you.

Regardless of which languages you speak, though, you’re capable of feeling both of these emotions. “The lack of a word for an emotion in a language does not mean that its speakers don't experience that emotion,” Dr. Hong explained.

What This Means For You

“While having the words to describe emotions can help us better understand and regulate them, it is possible to experience and express those emotions without specific labels for them.” Without the words for these feelings, you can still feel them but you just might not be able to identify them as readily or clearly as someone who does have those words. 

Rhee S. Lexicalization patterns in color naming in Korean . In: Raffaelli I, Katunar D, Kerovec B, eds. Studies in Functional and Structural Linguistics. Vol 78. John Benjamins Publishing Company; 2019:109-128. Doi:10.1075/sfsl.78.06rhe

Winawer J, Witthoft N, Frank MC, Wu L, Wade AR, Boroditsky L. Russian blues reveal effects of language on color discrimination . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007;104(19):7780-7785.  10.1073/pnas.0701644104

Lindquist KA, MacCormack JK, Shablack H. The role of language in emotion: predictions from psychological constructionism . Front Psychol. 2015;6. Doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00444

By Rachael Green Rachael is a New York-based writer and freelance writer for Verywell Mind, where she leverages her decades of personal experience with and research on mental illness—particularly ADHD and depression—to help readers better understand how their mind works and how to manage their mental health.

Justice Alito warns of declining support for freedom of speech on college campuses

Conservative Supreme Court Justice Samuel Alito on Saturday warned that support for freedom of speech is "declining dangerously," especially on college campuses, as part of a commencement address he delivered at the Franciscan University of Steubenville, a Catholic college in Ohio.

His remarks appeared to reference unrest at various college campuses around the country arising from protests against Israel's military operations in Gaza.

“Right now in the world outside this beautiful campus, troubled waters are slamming against some of our most fundamental principles," Alito said.

"Support for freedom of speech is declining dangerously," he added, especially on college campuses, where the exchange of ideas should be most protected.

"Very few colleges live up to that ideal. This place is one of them … but things are not that way out there in the broader world," Alito said.

But Alito's support for free speech has its limits — he was a notable sole dissenter when the Supreme Court in 2011 ruled 8-1 that members of the conservative Westboro Baptist Church had a free speech right to picket the funeral of a military veteran.

"Our profound national commitment to free and open debate is not a license for the vicious verbal assault that occurred in this case," he wrote in dissent.

Alito, who is Catholic, has frequently raised the alarm about freedom of religion being under attack and has often voted in favor of expanding religious rights.

"Freedom of religion is also imperiled," he told the graduating students. "When you venture out into the world, you may well find yourself in a job, or community or a social setting when you will be pressured to endorse ideas you don’t believe, or to abandon core beliefs. It will be up to you to stand firm."

The Supreme Court is poised in the coming weeks to issue major rulings on a series of contentious issues including abortion, gun rights and whether former President Donald Trump is immune from prosecution for his attempts to overturn the results of the 2020 election.

Alito, the author of the 2022 ruling that overturned the landmark Roe v. Wade, is one of several justices making public appearances while the court prepares its rulings.

On Friday, fellow conservative Justice Clarence Thomas spoke at a judicial conference in Alabama, where he decried the "nastiness and the lies" he has faced.

He and his wife, conservative political activist Ginni Thomas, have both been in the spotlight in recent years. He has been accused of failing to follow ethics rules, while she was criticized for backing Trump's effort to challenge election results.

At another judicial conference in Texas, conservative Justice Brett Kavanaugh said Friday that Supreme Court rulings that are unpopular when issued can later become part of the "fabric of American constitutional law."

Lawrence Hurley covers the Supreme Court for NBC News.

Recommended

Canada and trudeau go full orwell behind anti-speech bill: fear the maple curtain.

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When it comes to Canadian PM Justin Trudeau’s Orwellian Online Harms Act, tech titan Elon Musk gets it: “This sounds insane.”  

Insane is putting it mildly; look at some of the law’s provisions .

• Rewarding people who snitch on their “hateful” neighbors up to $20,000 and making the thought criminals pay up to $50,000. 
• Allowing the possibility of a literal life sentence for online hate crimes, including speech.
• Letting judges, based on snitch testimony, jail people for up to a year because someone thinks they might commit a hate crime.

The law would also empower the cops to comb through your old posts — including those made before the law even passed — and punish you. 

And if social-media companies or other platforms don’t take down your hate speech, they can be fined astronomical sums, up to 6% of gross global revenue.

In other words, the law is the end of online speech, period, and a giant step toward ending any public free speech anywhere in Canada. 

Like so many other authoritarian policies, this one was brought into the daylight in the name of “safety.”

Justice Minister Arif Virani, ludicrously, has compared it to product regulations for toys. 

No: Playing with your GI Joe wrong never landed anyone in prison. 

But the “safetyism” doesn’t stop there. 

In a bid to hide the ugly ideas at the heart of the bill with appeals to emotion, the Trudeau government is cruelly exploiting the deaths of actual teens as cover — the tragic suicides of kids caught up in sextortion schemes and victimized by bullies. 

It’s unclear why all Canadians should be muzzled in order to punish a few psychopaths, of course. 

But that was never the real purpose of the law, only the window dressing. 

The real meaning can be found in Trudeau’s wholesale crackdown on any and all ideological opposition. 

He froze the assets of Canadian citizens for supporting the trucker protests against his crazy and harmful COVID response.

The proposed new law is simply the next logical step in nakedly, directly outlawing criticism of him and his policies. 

The Online Harms Act is one of those Euro-style civil liberties horror-shows that should make Americans wrap their arms as tightly as they can around their own Constitution . 

If it passes, a Maple Curtain will descend and stretch across our northern border, from Lubec, Maine, to Cape Flattery. 

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Pragati Jhunjhunwala

Pragati Jhunjhunwala is a consulting intern at MarktechPost. She is currently pursuing her B.Tech from the Indian Institute of Technology(IIT), Kharagpur. She is a tech enthusiast and has a keen interest in the scope of software and data science applications. She is always reading about the developments in different field of AI and ML.

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Chiefs kicker Harrison Butker's speech was ugly. He's only part of a bigger problem.

A question: Are the Kansas City Chiefs OK with one of their players, kicker Harrison Butker, saying women belong as homemakers?

The team has several women executive vice presidents who have careers outside of the kitchen. What do they think of this? The team has celebrated Women's History Month , not Woman You Better Get My Dinner on the Table Month.

"I think it is you, the women, who have had the most diabolic lies told to you," Butker said at a recent college commencement. "Some of you may go on to lead successful careers in the world, but I would venture to guess that the majority of you are most excited about your marriage and the children you will bring into this world.

"I can tell you that my beautiful wife, Isabelle, would be the first to say that her life truly started when she began living her vocation as a wife and a mother," Butker added. "I’m on this stage, and able to be the man I am, because I have a wife who leans into her vocation."

Her vocation? Really? Did I slip and fall into a time machine and travel back to the 1950s?

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“I’m beyond blessed with the many talents god has given me," he said, "but it cannot be overstated that all of my success is made possible because a girl I met in band class back in middle school would convert to the faith, become my wife, and embrace one of the most important titles of all: homemaker."

The team thus far has been silent about Butker's comments which don't stop with his antiquated views of a woman's role in society. He also went on an anti-LGBTQ rant.

Speaking of Pride month, Butker said: “Not the deadly sins sort of Pride that has an entire month dedicated to it, but the true God-centered pride that is cooperating with the holy ghost to glorify him.”

The organization did not respond to an email request for comment.

But former Kansas City commissioner Justice Horn did respond to Butker. He wrote in a post on X, formerly Twitter: "Harrison Butker doesn’t represent Kansas City nor has he ever. Kansas City has always been a place that welcomes, affirms, and embraces our LGBTQ+ community members."

Before all of you Constitutional scholars chime in from your grammy's basement, I'm aware Butker can say whatever he wants, but that doesn't mean the rest of us should stay silent.

On social media, one of the prevailing sentiments was that Butker was just an idiot kicker and didn't matter. That's false. Not the part about him being an idiot. That's true. The part about him not mattering.

He's a key part of a Super Bowl champion team. He plays in the most popular sport in the country. His words will carry and while they have the waft of Archie Bunker's couch, they shouldn't be ignored. We should take every opportunity to push back against this type of extremist, Neanderthalic view of the world.

(It's also interesting to see right-wing and white nationalist platforms that usually tell athletes of color to shut up and dribble championing Butker's remarks. Maybe interesting isn't the word for it.)

Read more KC Chiefs news: Harrison Butker strikes against Pride Month, lauds wife's role as 'homemaker'

Butker represents a segment of the population that wants to go backwards, particularly with women's rights. These people are getting bolder and more hateful.

The goal is to wrench power from a society that has become more pluralistic and diverse, and put it back into the hands of a small group of men. And I can tell you, in their universe, they aren't talking about men of color having all this power.

Butker gives the entire game away with this part of his speech.

"To the gentlemen here today, part of what plagues society is this lie that has been told to you that men are not necessary in the home or in our communities,' Butker said. "As men, we set the tone of the culture, and when that is absent, disorder, dysfunction and chaos set in. This absence of men in the home is what plays a large role in the violence we see all around the nation.

"Be unapologetic in your masculinity. Fight against the cultural emasculation of men. Do hard things. Never settle for what is easy."

There is no emasculation of men. It's not happening. It has never happened. It's a totally fabricated thing.

Again, none of this has to do with the loss of rights. No one is being emasculated. Men aren't losing power. Women don't need to stay in the kitchen. Unless they want to.

There are people like Butker who want to take America back in time. Not the majority. But enough.

And that's scary.

Australian Court Sides With Elon Musk’s X in Freedom of Speech Row

By Patrick Frater

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An Australian court on Monday sided with Elon Musk ’s X (formerly Twitter) in an argument over graphic video.

The federal government’s internet safety watchdog, known as the eSafety Commissioner, had last month won an injunction against X over video footage of a knife attack at a Sydney church.

The government had ruled that the attack in which four people were seriously injured, constituted a terrorist incident and applied to the courts for an order requiring the removal of the footage within 24 hours.

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“Our concern is that if ANY country is allowed to censor content for ALL countries, which is what the Australian ‘eSafety Commissar’ is demanding, then what is to stop any country from controlling the entire Internet?” Musk said on X.

Musk’s stance outraged the Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese who accused Musk of “arrogance” and acting “above Australian law.” “The e-Safety Commissioner has made a ruling. The other social media platforms all complied without complaint,” Albanese said in interviews in April. “This is a measure that has a bipartisan support in this country.”

On Monday, however, Justice Geoffrey Kennett rejected the eSafety Commissioner’s application to extend the injunction. He did not explain his reasoning and a further hearing on the matter is scheduled later this week ahead of a final decision.

The issues of government controls over the internet, national security versus censorship and the extent of jurisdiction, is fraught with contradictions and ongoing cases – Bytedance is currently arguing that a U.S. decision to force it to sell social media platform TikTok is against the U.S. First Amendment right to free speech, yet TiKtok’s sister company Douyin actively complies with the Chinese government’s content censorship regime.

“X says [..] global removal is reasonable when X does it because X wants to do it, but it becomes unreasonable when it is told to do it by the laws of Australia,” Begbie told the court.

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Concerns over free speech grow as abortion travel ban heads to Tennessee governor's desk

Some free speech advocates are raising the alarm over wording in a new Tennessee bill that could potentially restrict a person's right to speak about abortion health care.

The law, passed by Tennessee lawmakers this year, makes it a felony to recruit or transport a minor for an illegal abortion without parental consent.

HB1895 , which will soon head to Gov. Bill Lee’s desk, closely mirrors a recent law passed in Idaho, which a federal judge halted on First Amendment grounds. 

The legislation targets an adult who "recruits, harbors or transports" a pregnant minor within the state for the purposes of receiving an illegal abortion, defined by Tennessee's near-total abortion ban, or for getting abortion medication without notarized consent from the minor’s parents.

Free speech concerns from opponents of the bill are heavily centered on the word “recruit,” which is not defined in Tennessee state law, and which they say could potentially criminalize speaking to a pregnant minor about health care options.

“This bill raises concerning First Amendment issues, as the term recruits is not defined in the bill or anywhere in the Tennessee code,” said Bryan Davidson, policy director at the American Civil Liberties Union of Tennessee.

“The free expression implications are troubling. It's easy to imagine that there could be a reproductive health clinic or a clinician, non-medical counselor or a social worker, anybody who provides information or options around abortion care and counseling to pregnant minors in Tennessee, who could potentially have their free speech rights infringed upon.”

James Bopp Jr., the general counsel for the National Right to Life Committee, which helped draft model legislation on the issue, called the First Amendment concerns unfounded.

“There's no confusion about that,” he said in an interview, adding that “nobody thinks” that the word “recruit” could include “just posting information” or speaking about abortion.

Travel-ban law is slippery slope part of larger pattern, say opponents

The concern over the limitation on free speech rights under the bill is not new. In Idaho in late 2023, lawmakers passed a nearly identical law to Tennessee’s version.

The law was quickly temporarily paused by a federal judge after three plaintiffs — a lawyer and two medical advocacy groups — sued Idaho alleging the law’s language is overly vague and violates their First Amendment right to discuss abortion with minors and their Fourth Amendment right to travel between states where the procedure is legal.

Sen. Paul Rose, R-Lauderdale, and Rep. Jason Zachary, R-Knoxville, sponsors of the legislation, did not respond to multiple requests for comment.

Rep. Aftyn Behn, D-Nashville, has been one of the most vocal opponents of the bill.

Standing on the sidewalk in downtown Broadway on April 10, Behn, along with members of Abortion Care Tennessee, held a large sign aloft emblazoned with bright purple letters reading “Need an abortion? We’re here to help.”

She later described the law as “dystopian.”

“I believe that this is a test case for what is deemed constitutionally protected in an increasingly polarized kind of authoritarian environment we're seeing nationally," she said.

According to Behn, when asked about the definition of the word recruit, Zachary suggested looking the word up in a dictionary.

“Zachary was asked by my colleagues as to how he would define the word recruit,” she said. “And he generically pointed to a dictionary and said, ‘As it is in the dictionary.’ Which, you know, any dictionary, any definition is pretty broad as to what remains. And when you're dealing with a civil liability of up to a million dollars and jail time, it seems to be pretty important to know what the word recruit means.”

Behn said the concern was echoed by multiple medical professionals who spoke against the bill.

“We had a few practicing pediatricians and obstetricians comment that even them talking to minors in a grocery store might be illegal,” she said. “They weren't clear, for example, if they had a neighborhood minor that came up to them and said, ‘I'm pregnant, we're having issues,’ and whether they, as a trusted adult, would be protected under the law.”

Behn said the bill highlights how Tennessee is “on the front lines of the most extreme, post-Roe, anti-abortion legislation,” with some of the strictest abortion laws in the country.

“I think this is a test case, and it's trying to penetrate the parameters of what is protected by the First Amendment,” she said. “And I think this case will go to the Supreme Court and inevitably, whatever government is in charge at the time, will prevent free speech from happening.”

On the House floor, moments before the bill was approved, Behn attempted to pass a number of amendments to it, including one that sought to protect discussions of health care options by “trusted adults” — which included a number of health care workers, abortion clinic staff or volunteers, attorneys and more — from being held criminally liable, as long as they were not “forcing the minor” to obtain an abortion.

The amendments failed.

Davidson of the ACLU said his organization is “watching the bill,” with special attention on the key differences in Tennessee’s bill that, in his view, make it more vague than Idaho’s.

“There is a key difference in our version of the bill versus the one that was (paused) in Idaho is that the Idaho statute requires concealment from the minor’s parent or guardian as an element overall,” he said. “Whereas the Tennessee statute does not require concealment. So the criminal offense in our version applies to a much broader array of activity, and I think contributes to an even more concerning sense of vagueness.”

Davidson said this broader level of vagueness is what concerns the legal experts at the ACLU.

“They're so vaguely written that it's unclear how the law would be applied and enforced,” he said. “But what we see is that just the threat of enforcement is enough to stoke fear and confusion and leads to self-censorship that has the ultimate effect of limiting access to vital reproductive health care to folks that need it most.”

Anti-abortion advocate dismisses free speech concerns

Both the Tennessee law and the Idaho law are based on model legislation written by the National Right to Life Committee — the nation’s largest anti-abortion organization that lobbies legislatures to end abortion access.  

Bopp developed the model legislation these bills are based on and said concerns over vagueness in the bill’s language — particularly the word “recruit” — are unfounded.

When asked why a key word in his bill did not need defining, Bopp reiterated that concerns over a lack of definition were “a complete lie.”

“That's complete bulls***,” he said. “There are all sorts of words that are used in statutes that are not defined. So that's just complete bulls***. If their argument is there's not a definition in state law, then you look to the common dictionary definition. … The Supreme Court, most of the time, is looking at dictionaries to determine the meaning of words that are in statutes and have never struck down a statute based on vagueness, because a word was not defined in a statute.”

Upon inspecting court records, there have been numerous major U.S. Supreme Court cases that ruled certain laws as being “unconstitutionally vague” due to words not being defined, and references to the importance of clarity in laws dating back as far as James Madison’s Federalist Papers.

When asked how he defined the word “recruit,” written in his own model legislation for the travel ban, Bopp read the definition of the word from vocabulary.com and gave an example of what he considered illegal recruitment — an example that included speech activity.

“You can see in the vocabulary.com that it says ‘to recruit’ means ‘to get someone to join something,’ and the something here is to participate in an unlawful abortion,” he said. “You know, to go on campus and say, ‘Hey, come on with us. We will take you to in our car to go get an unlawful abortion.’”

Bopp said he did not think the word needed clarifying in bills emulating his legislation, which can be seen working their way through legislatures in numerous states.

“’Recruit’ is more specific than just providing information,” he said. “The common definition of recruit is quite adequate.”

Bopp said opponents are “just making (concerns) up because they're abortion advocates and trying to use the First Amendment as a weapon.”

William Brewer, head legal counsel and lobbyist for the Tennessee chapter of Right to Life, declined to comment on the free speech concerns but said the bill was “needed to protect underage girls from being taken for a surgical procedure or given dangerous chemicals without their parent’s knowledge or consent.”

Chemicals routinely used in abortion procedures, almost exclusively mifepristone and misoprostol, have been rated as safe by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for 24 years.

Definitions are crucial to understand legality, says expert

Battling encroaching limitations on free speech is imperative to protecting the freedoms within the First Amendment for all, whether those limitations come through intentionally restricting legislation or from vaguely worded laws, said Kevin Goldberg, a First Amendment lawyer at the Freedom Forum in Washington, D.C.

The confusion in this law over the word “recruit” is a prime example, he said.

“I do think this is vague as written,” he said. “If you put the law in front of more than one person, and they come to clearly different results as to what it means, it's probably vague. And if it's clearly vague, it could be void — ergo unconstitutional and unenforceable.”

The reason laws are often deemed void for vagueness is twofold, he said.

“The first reason we have this ‘void for vagueness’ doctrine is because laws of this type essentially deny due process rights, which is actually a part of the 14th amendment,” he said. “The point is that I need to know that I'm going to get in trouble and be given certain protections that allow me to defend myself. I need to be fully informed that I am going to get in trouble or not based on what I'm about to do.”

Laws addressing speech issues that are too vague essentially deny citizens the ability to know whether they are allowed to speak, said Goldberg.

“The second reason is that vague laws tend to be prone to arbitrary enforcement,” he said. “So you might have a pamphlet put out about abortion by a pro-life group and a pamphlet put out by a pro-choice group, and they may look relatively similar and may even both provide information that could fall under what somebody believes is recruitment. And law enforcement may punish only one because they can manipulate the meaning of the term recruit in the statute."

Gregory Magarian, a law professor at Washington University School of Law in St. Louis and a former Supreme Court judicial clerk, noted that even including the word "recruit" in the law was an unusual choice.

"We can look to a dictionary definition and find the meaning of the word recruit, but when you look at it in the context of this statute, it's a sort of curious usage," Magarian said. "We don't normally think of 'recruiting' someone to get a medical procedure done, even if we're talking about an elective medical procedure. If I told you I thought you might benefit from plastic surgery, we wouldn't say that I recruited you to get plastic surgery. That's a really strange and non-intuitive use of the word. And so that's why it's really important to define words within their statutory context."

Magarian added that the persistence of lawmakers, in addition to the original writers of the bill, to not clarify the word recruit or add more defining language to the bill, could chill speech.

"It would certainly make sense from the standpoint of the legislature to avoid this problem by defining the term clearly," he said. "So that sort of opens up the question, 'Well, why didn't they do that?' Why didn't the sponsor on the floor not clarify this? The sort of cynical possibility is that they wanted this term to be vague — and in the free speech context, the reason that we don't like vagueness is the chilling effect on speech. It makes people self-censor. Maybe in this case, the legislature wanted to chill speech around abortion.

"The less sinister possibility is that (lawmakers) just really didn't know what they were doing and what they were enacting because it was a model legislation they picked up," he said. "It might seem politically expedient, at least before you start thinking about the constitutional implications."

Regardless of intentions, placing the onus on the person speaking to “try to figure out” whether they may break the law by speaking is simply not allowed under the constitution, Goldberg said.

“Just pointing to the fact that a word is in the dictionary and saying, ‘Well, anybody can look it up and know what it means,’ isn't a valid argument at all,” he said. “This law is going to have to either be rewritten with language directed to a definition of recruit — they're going to have to take more time on it, or the courts are going to have to deal with it.”

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