public relations research paper ideas

118 Public Relations Topics

If you are writing a paper on public relations, you will need to explore the dynamic world of communication, reputation management, and strategic messaging. On this page, we’ve gathered an outstanding compilation of public relations topics that you can use for an essay, research paper, or project. With the help of our PR topics, you could reveal how public relations shape the perception of organizations in the public eye.

🏆 Best Public Relations Essay Topics

📰 Interesting Public Relation Topics

🎓 Catchy PR Topics

💡 simple public relations research topics, ❓ questions for a public relations research.

Public Relations Theories and Models
Lululemon Athletica Company’s Public Relations
Coca-Cola Light: Public Relations and Marketing
Public Relations in the Hair and Beauty Sector
Public Relations, Marketing, and Advertising
Alibaba Group’s Public Relations and Responsibility
ABC Company’s Public Relations: Strategic Plan

📰 10 Interesting Public Relation Topics

Effective Public Relations in the Fashion Industry The influence of public relations on other aspects of marketing, as well as on the perception and attitude of potential buyers to the promoted product.
Role of Public Relations Staff in a Sports Organization This paper highlights this very function and role of a PR staff in managing a crisis in a sports organization through his skills in effective communication and modern media management.
Public Relations Campaign A public relations campaign’s objectives, target audience, organization’s goals, and required communication medium must all be defined in a complete Media Plan.
Role of Women in Public Relations Public relations attract a significant number of women since it is necessary for specialists to work well in teams and empathize with and listen to their clients.
Measuring Public Relations and Advertising Efforts Advertising programs should be measured primarily by the organization’s internal experts. It is because “advertising is one of the main ways companies generate business”.
The Art of Persuasion and Public Relations The art of persuasion appears almost in the fields related to human interactions, such as advertising, TV, the Internet, and mass media.
Emerging Technologies in Public Relations The work reveals that PR experts are presently utilizing emerging technologies to complete their research works successfully and maximize productivity.
What Is Public Relations? As a PR professional, I expect to play an active role in monitoring public opinion over specific issues that affect the organization or client that I represent.
Public Relations and Photography Public relations are usually related to broadcasting, publicizing, photography, and promoting. The experts require time and talent to advance relations with mass media.
Cyber and Public Relations in an Organization The paper states that public relations professionals are essential to an organization. Modern technology has introduced digital corporate PR.
Optus Company: Organizational Public Relations Problem This report presents an analysis of the organizational PR problem of the company “Optus” based on media articles that followed particular “crisis” situations providing recommendations on managing those issues.
Alcohol and Drug Foundation’s Public Relations The campaign conducted by Alcohol and Drug Foundation is a vivid example of how the theories and practices of PR can help alter people’s behavior.
Public Relations: Preparing for a Job Preparing for a job in public relations requires developing and mastering skills related to public relations. In particular, soft skills present one of the top requirements.
Public Relations in Organizations: Article Response Communication affects all aspects of an organization including management, public relations, marketing and political communication, technical communication.
Sea Shepherd: Public Relations Proposal The proposal suggests the alternatives the Sea Shepherd organization can adopt in responding to future accusations or when effectively wants to communicate to its publics.
Larry Summers’s Public Relations Advisor: Case Study This paper will analyze and discuss the final decision on whether to fire or hire Summers, which rests with the Harvard Board.
What Is the Role of Rhetoric in Public Relations Practice? In public relations, rhetoric helps PR managers and administrators to appeal to the emotions of the target audience and their internal feelings.
Commercial Law: Sprod v Public Relations Oriented Security In Sprod v Public Relations Oriented Security, the plaintiff was found lying in a pool of blood at the northern side of the Great Western Highway at St Marys.
DM Public Relations’ Business Proposal to Agency-net DM Public Relations will assist Agency-net in emphasizing the Strategic Thinking Process. This is not the same as strategic planning.
Race and Gender in Public Relations The project evaluates the role of gender and race diversity in the field of public relations by exploring the experience of women and black people in building their careers.
Race and Gender in Public Relations Field This capstone paper examines the impact of race and gender diversity on building careers in the sphere of public relations.
Healthcare Marketing and Public Relations This paper discusses the marketing strategy of health care, including dealing with the negative reviews and managing long-term mutually beneficial relations.
Corporate Communications and Public Relations Corporate communications involve both internal and external information that the company’s management addresses to its employees, target audiences, and partners.
The 2008 Beijing Olympics: Public Relations Issues Advertisement China did during and at the close of the Olympics was a life-changing that was able to convince the entire world that things were not as earlier thought.
Chess Girls DC Organization’s Public Relations The key challenge encountered by Chess Girls DC is the lack of constant funding that creates a shortage of coaches and equipment for appropriate training.
Hospital’s Image Recovery and Public Relations In the long-term perspective, it will be significant to concentrate on the employees’ performance and the conditions to recreate the image of the hospital.
The Public Relations Practices of Tesla Motors
Public Relations and Other Corporate Functions
The Public Relations Industry
Science, Technology, and Public Relations
Public Relations Ethics Code Ethical
Southeast Asia Tourism and Public Relations Problems
New Media and Public Relations Practice
Health Care Public Relations
Public Relations Professionals Are Strategic Communicators
Difference Between Marketing and Public Relations
Hypothetical Public Relations Campaign
Education and Public Relations Within the United States
Big Business Affects Public Relations Ethics
Global Public Relations and Multicultural World
The Public Relations Firm of the Lake Anna Nuclear Power Plant
Grunig and Hunt’s Four Models of Public Relations
DIX and Eaton Public Relations Firm
Toyota Solara Public Relations Plan
Relationship Between Politics and Public Relations
The Burson-marsteller Public Relations Scandal
Public Relations and Relationship Marketing
The Subjectivity and Objectivity of Public Relations
Crisis Management and Public Relations Strategies
Public Relations and University Entrepreneurship
The Role and Importance of Public Relations at Non-Governmental Organizations
Global Public Relations Trends
The Many Different Functions in the Field of Public Relations
Marketing, Advertising, and Public Relations
Advertising and Public Relations in America
Effective Internal Public Relations
The Role and Importance of Public Relations in the University Environment
Journalism, Advertising, and Public Relations
The Relationship Between Public Relations Professionals and Journalism
The Differences Between Public Relations and Marketing
Understanding the Activities, Methods, and Importance of Public Relations
The Role and Importance of Public Relations in a Company
Successful and Unsuccessful Spin Doctoring Case in Public Relations
Toyota’s Accelerator and Public Relations Crisis
Propaganda and the Public Relations Industry
Internal Public Relations Action Plan
Public Relations Between Healthcare Organization Crisis
Advertising and Public Relations in the United States
Public Relations and the European Constitution for Greece
Historical and Contemporary Figures in Public Relations
Public Relations and Professionalism
Internal Public Relations Action Plan at Burt’s Bees Inc.
Effective Public Relations for Your Business World
Social Media and Public Relations
Science and Public Relations
Public Relations Contemporary Approaches
Connection Between Public Relations and Public Option
International and Intercultural Public Relations
The Demand for Public Relations Specialists
Public Relations Campaign for New York Animal Rescue Shelter
The Societal and Organizational Functions of Public Relations
Public Relations and Organizational Listening
Skills Needed for the Public Relations Profession
Transmedia Marketing and Re-invention of Public Relations
The Public Relations Practitioner as Cultural Intermediary
Media and Public Relations Campaigns
Why Public Relations Professionals Should Use Facebook?
What Are the Common Tools of Public Relations?
What Models of Public Relations and Communication Are There?
What Are Postmodern Values in Public Relations?
What Guidelines for Measuring Relationships in Public Relations Are There?
What Are the Definition, Dimensions, and Domain of Public Relations?
What Is the Relationship Between Culture and Public Relations?
How Do Diversity Issues Influence Public Relations?
Is Using Social Media “Good” for the Public Relations Profession?
How Did the Evolution of the Manager Role in Public Relations Practice Go?
What Does Excellence Theory in Public Relations Mean?
What Is the Organization of the Public Relations Function?
What Are Perceptions of Public Relations Education?
What Are Critical Perspectives on Public Relations?
How Feminist Values Are Changing Public Relations?
What Are the Differences Between Public Relations and Corporate Social Responsibility?
What Is the Effect of Worldviews on Public Relations Theory and Practice?
What Is the Paradigm Struggle in Public Relations?
What Is the Role of Theory in Public Relations?
How Public Relations Practitioners Actually Are Using Social Media?
What Are the Ethical Obligations of Public Relations?
What Is the Key to Successful Public Relations and Corporate Communication?
What Cultural Values Influence American Public Relations Practitioners?
Why Civil Society Is Considered as a Rhetorical Public Relations Process?
What the Public Thinks About Public Relations?

Cite this post

Chicago (N-B)
Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2022, March 1). 118 Public Relations Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/public-relations-essay-topics/

"118 Public Relations Topics." StudyCorgi , 1 Mar. 2022, studycorgi.com/ideas/public-relations-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . (2022) '118 Public Relations Topics'. 1 March.

1. StudyCorgi . "118 Public Relations Topics." March 1, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/public-relations-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "118 Public Relations Topics." March 1, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/public-relations-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "118 Public Relations Topics." March 1, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/public-relations-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Public Relations were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 3, 2024 .

144 Public Relations Essay Topics & Examples

Looking for inspiring public relations topics? This field is really worth exploring!

🔝 Top 10 PR Topics
🏆 Best PR Essay Examples
🕵 Current PR Topics to Research

👍 Interesting PR Topics to Write About

🔥 Hot PR Assignment Topics
🎓 Controversial PR Research Topics

❓ Public Relations Discussion Questions

In your public relations essay, you might want to focus on mass communication or media relations. Corporate PR is another current public relations assignment topic. In this article, we’ve gathered hot PR topics that will be suitable for essays, research papers, presentations, theses, and other projects. A collection of public relations essay examples is a nice bonus!

🔝 Top 10 Public Relations Topics

Public relations in business
History of public relations
Crisis management in political public relations
Public relations in non-governmental field
Ethical issues of public relations
Public relations and advertising: compare and contrast
Social media marketing as one of the key PR tactics
Audience targeting as a PR technique
Public relations campaign: the main stages
Classification of the publics in PR

🏆 Best Public Relations Essay Examples

The Coca Cola Public Relations: PR Strategy and Examples — Case Study Example The Coca Cola Company is an international firm based in the United States and is one of the leading manufacturers of soft drinks and other related products.
Discussion on Grunig and Hunt’s Public Relations Model In regard to this model, Grunig and Hunt propose that communication is two-way between the organization and the public. In these models, the writers present communication to the public and the organization and therefore the […]
Four Models of Public Relations So, the use of the press agentry model can be considered the most harmful when applied with the purpose of gaining money whereas the application of a two-way symmetric model is considered to be the […]
Public Relations and its importance in Modern Society Public relations is the procedure of checking the flow of information between an institution and its community. This became a success and thus led to creation of awareness to the Americans of the influence that […]
Model of Excellence Theory in Public Relations Department For the public relations department, establishing good relationship with the clients and people associated with the company is most important and more important is the way to retain this relationship.
Public Relations Campaign To understand the problem at hand, it is important to give a brief overview of the project and the need to launch the campaign.
The Coca-Cola Company’s Public Relations The Coca-Cola Company uses paid, earned, shared, and owned media to advertise its products to its customers to increase its sales.
Rex Harlow as a Historical Figure in Public Relations Rex Harlow is considered one of the most influential pioneers in the history of public relations. Harlow’s involvement in the Oklahoma City Chamber of Commerce and experience in publication provoked a public relations interest.
Public Relations However, it is important to understand that balancing the company’s need and those of the customer is a crucial step, and any strategy used by the company in the marketing process must be guided by […]
How Does Internal Public Relations Impact the Employee Productivity and Loyalty in Saudi Arabia? This study therefore intends to synthesize the issue of internal public relations and how it impacts the productivity and loyalty of employees in Saudi Arabia.
Toyota Company’s Public Relations and Marketing The recall crisis has led to the development of a negative perception and public image of Toyota Company. The internal society within the Toyota Company forms the first and most important stakeholders in this campaign.
Public Relations in Healthcare and Their Features Practically, healthcare PR has many objectives, the most vital of which are the improvement of the quality of care, the establishment of a good reputation, and the reduction of cost of care.
“Public Relations – Strategies and Tactics” by Wilcox A public relations practitioner of a company is supposed to identify the strategy with whom the company should have relationships. The department of public relations should assure the clients that Evergreen flooring system is committed […]
Public Relations and Their Functions One of the common scenarios with organizations is the characteristic of any organization trying to influence the general public hence the public relations initiatives help the organization to develop a good understanding of the organization […]
Public Relations and Relationship Marketing The organizers of the 2011 Mobile Research conference should consider using public relations and relationship marketing in order to ensure that the event promotion is successful.
Advertising, Publicity, and Public Relations Publicity is the act of drawing the attention of the media in order to improve the visibility of a brand, product or a company in the public. Second, publicity is cost-effective and provides a lot […]
Apple and Samsung Companies Virtual Public Relations According to Gregory, a website is like an ambassador of the firm to the world, and the impression it gives will be assumed to be the real image of the firm it represents.
McDonalds-Public Relations Practice in Global Contexts Like other retail organizations, McDonald’s believed that they have a social and moral responsibility for the people around the world to produce a positive impact to the stakeholders although the bottom line is the concern […]
Essential Foundations of the Public Relations According to Curtin and Gaither, there exists four main criticisms of the paradigm of the public relations: “the definition of public relations as a management function; the reliance on functional, transmission models of communication; the […]
Public relations and sales promotion It will analyze them based on the regularity of the chosen strategy, the target audience which covers the customers, the potential customers and the community and also PR and its impact.
Public Relations and Crisis Management Link The significance of developing a CMP lies in the fact that it aids in the process of collecting the necessary information to deal with the crisis.

🕵 Current Public Relations Topics to Research

Public Relations Practice Improvement by Public Opinion In order to understand how this happens, it is necessary to define a public opinion, examine its connections to public relations, describe what improvements in public relations mean, and explain the ways in which understanding […]
Solving Ethical Dilemmas in Public Relations In the case study, the main problem arises from the client’s deceit concerning the independent nature of the scientist testing the products in a bid to ensure a favorable public image of the products to […]
Public Relations and Customer Loyalty When a firm has a strong brand image in the market, the perception of the public would always be influenced positively towards the firm, and this will increase loyalty of the customers towards the firm.
Propaganda, Persuasion and Public Relations For example in the case of the Australia’s cancellation of the Fuel Watch program Senator Xenaphon utilized propaganda stating that Fuel Watch was not an effective means of helping consumers stating the need to tackle […]
Fire and emergency public relations management The video publications are significant in the provision of information to the public and employees as well as educating the fire service employees on issues concerning fire and emergency management.
The Airbnb Firm’s New Public Relations Campaign As a result of this, the company is available in a majority of the countries in the world, which gives it an advantage over local entities.
Public Relations Issues in the Music Industry TikTok is at the top of the funnel, and the issue with content-based marketing is that it diverts attention from the artists and interaction with their profiles.
Henry Booth House’s Marketing and Public Relations The identified elements of a well-developed marketing and public relations plan are consistent with the current trends in business and marketing.
Public Relations Campaign for Hewlett-Packard’s Recycling Program in Britain Part of the activities of this program is the sensitization of consumers on e-waste and the recycling of computers and their components.
Burke’s Pentad: Public Relations, Social Theory, and Rhetoric On the example of one of Jeff Wall’s photographs, it is illustrated how the motivation of an actor in this paradigm can be described in different ways in terms of the viewer’s focus.
Public Relations Plan and Implementation Strategies The goal of the training will be to ensure the team develops the confidence to sell the brand to the consumers.
Zappos Corporation Public Relations Zappos is one of the corporations that have handled the issue of public relations well in the past. Being a company that was in the limelight, it needed a way to give back to the […]
Framing: Social Media and Public Relations Notably, the media echoed the impact of the government’s behavior on increasing students’ tuition fees, citing that it would limit the students’ ability to pay the debts amidst the prevailing economic problems.
Walmart: New Perspectives on International Public Relations Walmart is one of the largest multinational corporations, which uses its public relations in order to establish its brand and influence public opinion regarding the company.
Careers in Marketing, Branding & Public Relations Among the competencies of marketing, a specialist is the way of presentation of the product, the methods of informing the target audience about it, and collecting and analyzing the data for evaluating the success of […]
Public Relations Plan: Toyota In particular, the most significant among the dilemmas that have currently emerged around Toyota is in serious allegations on the level of quality of automobiles, produced by the company.
Chemco Crisis Resolution and Public Relations In the real estate case mentioned in the case study, it is fundamental to note that the real estate company is in a crisis hence the need to resolve the conflict.
Public Relations Representative Possible Strategies If Erickson decides to come to the governor, he will have to announce a request to stop the fertilizer production in order to clarify the circumstances and to address problem-solving methods.
Public Relations Agencies in Business Development As for the opinions of the heavyweight people and organizations on the agency, they seem to be undivided, and this is a result of the hard work of public relations specialists from Iris PR.
Ethics in Public Relations in Three Big Companies Lastly, Facebook claims it enlisted the help of the PR company to verify people’s negative attitudes towards the inclusion of their Facebook data in Google’s Social Circles.
Public Relations: The Four Models This is because the three models involve use of a reciprocal communication method that enables corporations to understand the public’s worries while enabling the public to appreciate the firm as a well meaning entity.
Public Relations Campaign Harbour Town Rural Council Green Gift group; why are the locals against or in support of the plan; what are the issues in conflict between the locals and the council, the green Gift and the council, the locals and […]
Roe v Wade: Public Relations Industry Therefore, the burden of responsibility lies on this very industry to heal the wounds of the past and address the concerns of rights groups on both sides of the debate.
The Role of Journalists and Public Relations Professionals in Information Sphere Hurst et al noted that journalists are usually concerned with the interests of the public and that they use the media to communicate to the public but for the public relation officers they usually release […]
Public Relations. Press Release of J.Sanisbury It is precisely for gaining a larger market share and serving more customers, that JS has launched its money-saving and discount voucher schemes, off the counter to add value to client purchases and offer a […]
Public Relations Law in Australia Defamation cases in Australia are said to be too expensive in terms of time, reputation and money. Defamation cases in Australia are said to be too expensive in terms of time, reputation and money.
Public Relations and Crisis Plans for Schools The members of the school will develop a good reputation with the general community. The idea, operation and basis of the relationship should be well known by the community and school.
Public Relations and Integrated Marketing Communications in Organization Under the globalization regime, with the availability of a wide variety of tools for marketing communication to cater to a diverse target segment located in geographically diverse regions across the globe, an integrated approach is […]
What the Public Thinks About Public Relations? Public relations is one of the marketing communications disciplines, best thought of as an arsenal of weapons employed to induce adoption of an advocacy position, trial or purchase of a product or service, and assent […]
Public Relations Efforts Evaluation Taking into account the objectives of the rideshare week, it is necessary to emphasize, that the increase of participants may be defined either using the registration data of Ohio Rideshare, or arranging surveys and questionnaires […]
Public Relations: a Method to Organize and Boost Sales In any business situation, the public relations role is to harmonize the internal and external workings of an organization. To enhance the corporate image of the organization and boost the sales of the products and […]
Aramco Company’s Public Relations Department Considering this, the establishment of a public relations department in Aramco is important, and the present report aims to demonstrate why the launch of such a unit can provide the company with advantages in dealing […]
Effects of Public Relations in the United Arab Emirates Arguments made in the essay will support the premise that public relations are equally important in the strategic positioning of countries on both the global and regional levels.
Public Relations and Sponsorships: Emirates Airlines and the NFL in 2020 Super Bowl Super Bowl is often held in the first week of February and it involves the winners of the National and American Football Conferences.
Obesity: Public Relations Campaign It will aid in educating youths about the dangers of childhood obesity and the factors that expose them to the condition.
Public Relations Strategy and Campaigns The main aim of the strategy is to build a viable relationship between a company and its target audience. The main goal of the strategy was to increase the sales of soda globally.
Public Relations: Profession and Practice 2 This gives a good image of the company since the community feels part of the organization, and, therefore, the community supports fully the activities of the organization.
Australian Volunteers International: Public Relations The intention of this proposal is to endorse a conservation volunteer campaign that is aimed at reducing the pollution levels in China, which is among the countries that have high levels of environmental degradation in […]
Public Relations Plan Implementation The interview is to be properly developed, the questions are to be directed at understanding why people still refuse to use the services of the company and to buy their products rather than search for […]
Sunrise Ltd.’s Public Relations Management In the aspect of the power of buyers, it is clear that Sunrise Ltd.is under threat, considering the value of the houses that are traded to the real estate clients.
Canadian Public Relations and Management Functions The functions within this specific field of study can make or break a particular person or corporation since it has been noted that the perception of the general public towards a particular entity can result […]
Public Relations in Canada and the United States Practicing public relations in Canada and the United States has both differences and similarities in terms of educational orientation, required skills, and constructs involved in communication and public relations integration.

🔥 Hot Public Relations Assignment Topics

Augmented Reality in Public Relations Domain The rationale behind this suggestion has to do with the fact that the integration of AR into the very philosophy of PR is fully consistent with the most fundamental principles of the human brain’s functioning.
Public Relations: Ethics, Technology, Communication The study addresses the problem of ethics in public relations by proving that it is a global issue and is implemented worldwide.
Public Relations and Marketing History: The Stages of Development and Progress It is reasonable to review the literature on this subject matter to get a better understanding of the stages of development and progress that was shown over the years.
Press Secretary Profession in Public Relations This study aims to research the history of the public relations industry and to examine the effects of government regulations, the internet, and the international community on the industry.
The Online Public Relations Concept Organizational transparency can be measured by identifying the degree to which it shares the information and to which it allows contact with people who can provide this information.
E-Newsletters: Online Public Relations Further, the emergence of the internet has provided a wide variety of approaches that organizations can use to reach their customers and potential users of their products in the market.
Job Advert for a Public Relations Manager This paper, therefore, addresses the implications of the operational gap and provides a memo to a hiring manager to solve the issue.
Excellent Public Relations: Organizational Factors The chapter supports the view that PR is not only to be appreciated and valued by the C-suite but the representatives of PR departments should also be present in the dominant coalition.
Public Relations: Media Tools and Communication Technology The central goal of transparency is it to ensure that all the critical information about the company is available to consumers, and it helps to increase the level of trust.
Etisalat’s Entrepreneurial Decisions and Public Relations The full title of the company is Emirates Telecommunications Corporation, its headquarters are situated in the UAE, and, at the moment, it appears to provide more than a half of all the telecommunication, mobile, and […]
Wind Future Company’s Public Relations Plan In support of Windy City Council marketing objectives and community relations, the following objectives of its PR plans are: To increase the council’s recognition and credibility.
Photography Company’s Public Relations Campaign The accomplishment of each aim will be performed following the specificity of the targeted audience that is supposed to be composed of the middle-class population of the Seattle Area. In the meantime, they expect that […]
Public Relations and Cultural Intermediation The significance of PR studies as such is both theoretical and practical; as for the narrow topic of the study, the primary importance of recognising PR as a cultural mediator, in the view of Edwards, […]
Effective Writing Skills in Public Relations Writing Same as writing style, the length of a public relations writing is determined by the nature of the message in terms of content, and the need for an in-depth explanation.
Public Relations in Not-For-Profit Organisations In the context of non-profit organisations, PR departments can be viewed as semi-autonomous systems that can make their independent decisions with regard to the type of information that should be shared with the public. It […]
Public Relations in the United Arab Emirates The Middle East Public Relations Association is a not-for-profit establishment with the sole prerogative of securing the welfares of the public relations industry in the region.
Public Relations: Omnicom Group Website Analysis It is also involved in the control of the flow of information from the client to the media or the public.
Breast Cancer Public Relations Campaign Audiences It is clear that the breast cancer campaign will target at women in their 30-40s as this is one of the most vulnerable categories of women as they often pay little attention to the […]
Public Relations and the Big Brother Legislation The current developments in technology that have warranted the development of the internet has reduced the amount of money invested in communication as well as increased the number of people that are communicated to and […]
Strategic Communication in Public Relations Slogans, staged events, and being the first to reach the public and using a sustained approach to saturate the public with campaign messages are old tricks that have passed on from the informal forms of […]
Importance of Public Relations and Relationship Marketing The study also intends to incorporate relationship marketing theory to further the understanding of how the organization can manage to achieve the desired goal in a manner that would be convincing to all the stakeholders […]

🎓 Controversial Public Relations Research Topics

Public Relations Theory And Campaign These tools assist in conveying a message to the public, and in return, the public begin to act according to the influence of the communication.
A Public Relations Campaign Plan In the USA, for example, there have been complaints regarding increased healthcare costs, a lack of stringent rules to guide people, especially the young, on proper usage of prescribed drugs, inability to take care of […]
Effectiveness of Public Relations & Relationship Marketing to the Successful Promotion of Beijing 2008 Olympic Games To conclude, it is evident from the assessment that public relations and relationship marketing are effective to the successful promotion of international events.
The Effectiveness of Public Relations and Relationship Marketing to the Successful Promotion of Winbeldon Championships This is referred to as the relationship marketing and is aimed at achieving the objective of creating customer loyalty for products offered by the company, interaction between the company and the market it serves, and […]
Public Relations and Relationship Marketing in Business Organisations One of the factors behind this dynamism is the change in the means of communication, the rate of dissemination of information and the advancement of technology.
Public Relations Campaign Strategy: Newlandia Education Foundation The aim of communication campaign among people in these regions will be to enhance public awareness of NEF activities, increase public participation in activities of NEF, outline the various ways donations and support for NEF […]
Strategic Planning for Public Relations BP oil’s public relations team had to work round the clock to disseminate information, answer questions and win the hearts and minds of the people closest to the site of the accident.
Public Relations Plan – New Startup Company The revitalization of the image of the company will be helpful in attracting customers and improving the performance of the company. The chief objective of the company is to restore the image of the company […]
2011 NBA Lockout: Public Relations Failure The NBA strike began on the 1st of July, 2011 and is still in effect until the time when the NBA owners and the National Basketball Players Association will make a deal.
The Effectiveness of Public Relations and Relationship Marketing to the Successful Promotion of an International Event Due to the size and the caliber of the fair, the event attracts world renowned media houses such as BBC, The Telegraph, The Times, among others.
Regent College Public Relations This includes the definition of the problem, the definition of the audience, identification of the communication avenues and finally employing the best tactics and strategies to ensure that the project is successful.
Public Relations and Ethical Decisions Basing the discussion on the fact that public relations and ethics include “the client good that is served by professionals public relations, and the principle ordering the theoretical ground of public relations the public pledge […]
The Effectiveness of Public Relations and Relationship Marketing Unlike the firms in the industries that deal with tangible goods, the firms in the service industry highly depend on their relationships with the customers in order to survive in the market.
Impact of Social Media on Public Relations Practice Many organizations in the modern world have employed PR personnel to improve the company image and products to the public in a bid to improve the reputation and performance of the firm.
Social Media and Public Relations In addition, Wikipedia has streamlined the process of information delivery on the internet because it allows individuals to add or delete unwanted information. The media has been accused of bias in almost every instance it […]
Career Path Paper in Public Relations For an individual to successfully acquire a job opportunity in the field of public relation, the specifications depend on the level of the job.
Public Relations Strategies and Tactics The process of communication involves the sender encoding the message and sending it through a medium to the receiver, who is required to decode the message. The practitioners in this case are the senders of […]
The History of Public Relations The intention of these drives was to cultivate a favourable image in the eyes of the public and especially to the consumers and to the society in general.
Public Relations Plan for Regent’s College In Regent’s College case, the primary objective is to increase the visibility of the school to the public, as well as raise the profile of the institute.
Integrating Public Relations in Market Communication The objective of the public relations campaign was to communicate the value of Dawn to the customers as being a strong dishwasher.
What Kinds of Objectives Can Be Accomplished Through Public Relations Research?
What Are the Practical, Ethical, and Legal Implications of Astroturfing for Public Relations Practitioners Under Current Australian Law?
What Are the Standard Tools of Public Relations?
What Is Secondary Research in Public Relations?
How Can the Dairy Farmers Use Public Relations Coursework?
How Has the Public Relations Changed Over the Past Decade?
Is Public Relations More Important than Marketing?
What Are the Weakness of Public Relations?
What Are the Types of Public Relations?
What Is the Main Aim of Public Relations?
What Are Public Relations Doing in a ‘Place’ Like Place Marketing?
Why Should Public Relations Professionals Use Facebook?
What Are Public Relations Research and Evaluation?
Public Relations: What Does This Job Entail?
How Do Luxury Fashion Brands Centralize Public Relations?
How Companies Use Public Relations to Launch New Products and Lessen the Effects of a Crisis?
What Is the Difference between Marketing and PR?
What Does a Career in Public Relations Look Like?
What Comes First Marketing or PR?
What Is the Difference between Journalism and Public Relations?
How Psychoanalysis Changed Society With Consumerism and Public Relations?
Did the Board Cover Any Guidelines Be a Public Relations Policy?
How Do Public Relations Programs Work?
What Are the Functions of Public Relations?
What Are the Three Dominant Approaches in Public Relations Research?
What Is Research in Public Relations and Advertising?
Why Honesty and Ethics Are Crucial for Public Relations?
How Can Teachers Motivate Students to Study Theoretical Modules in Public Relations?
How Can Public Relations Communications Theory Help Us Understand the Role of New Media?
How Gender Issues Affect Income in Public Relations?
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, March 1). 144 Public Relations Essay Topics & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/public-relations-essay-topics/

"144 Public Relations Essay Topics & Examples." IvyPanda , 1 Mar. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/public-relations-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2024) '144 Public Relations Essay Topics & Examples'. 1 March.

IvyPanda . 2024. "144 Public Relations Essay Topics & Examples." March 1, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/public-relations-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "144 Public Relations Essay Topics & Examples." March 1, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/public-relations-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "144 Public Relations Essay Topics & Examples." March 1, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/public-relations-essay-topics/.

Broadcasting Paper Topics
Communication Research Ideas
Corporate Communication Questions
Bureaucracy Paper Topics
Crisis Communication Essay Ideas
Dispute Resolution Questions
Public Speaking Research Ideas
Telecommunications Questions

How it works

Useful Links

How much will your dissertation cost?

Have an expert academic write your dissertation paper!

Dissertation Services

Get unlimited topic ideas and a dissertation plan for just £45.00

Order topics and plan

Get 1 free topic in your area of study with aim and justification

Yes I want the free topic

Public Relations Dissertation Topics

Published by Grace Graffin at January 4th, 2023 , Revised On May 3, 2024

Public relations is a communication process that builds a positive relationship between an organisation and its audience. In other words, a public relations professional is responsible for using strategic communication to build a positive image of an organisation or individual through unpaid and earned means. The earned channels leveraged to build a positive image include news and press, media outreach, and social media engagements.

Public relations is a lot different from advertising and is much more difficult, too. Using unpaid means and earned channels for image building is more difficult than employing paid methodologies for creating brand awareness and image.

Given its high importance for a company, a public relations professional has to be the master of his job. Choosing public relations as a career is deemed as a very excellent choice, as its demand and importance are gaining importance day by day.

You might have approached or just entered your final year of the public relations degree and may be required to start working on the dissertation. If that is the case, you may be quite nervous and slightly clueless as to where to begin your work. the entire process starts with choosing a topic that is worthy of being discussed. If you are struggling to select the right topic for your public relations dissertation , here are a few topics along with their research aims for your guidance.

Want to know what essay structure and style will work best for your assignment?

Problem fixed! We can write any type of essay in any referencing style. We ensure every essay written is beyond your expectations.

Topic 1: Investigating the role of target marketing through public relations while confronting the increasing competition in digital marketing.

Research Aim: The research examines the significance of target marketing with the help of public relations while dealing with the rising competition in digital marketing.

Objectives:

To identify the use of public relations strategies for target marketing practices.
To analyse the way companies use PR strategies for target marketing to gain competitive advantages in digital marketing activities.
To suggest ideas about how PR strategies can be used in a better way for target marketing thereby confronting competition in digital marketing.

Topic 2: Examining the role of different PR tools in improving relations between brands and customers – a study on the usefulness of newsletters.

Research Aim: The research aims to identify and assess the usefulness of different PR tools to improve the relationship between brands and customers. For analysing PR tools, this study will specifically focus on the use of newsletters.

To identify different PR tools and analyse their importance in marketing, especially newsletters.
To investigate the role of newsletters as a PR tool in improving relations between brands and customers.
To recommend strategies about how newsletters can be used more strategically to improve relations between brands and customers.

Topic 3: A study on the impact of the rising demand and trend of digital marketing on the radical changes in public relations strategies.

Research Aim: The research aim is to carry out a detailed discussion on the impacts of the growing demands and ongoing trend of digital marketing on the radical changes in public relations strategies in the modern age.

To describe how demand for digital marketing is increasing and the way it is becoming an important trend.
To examine how changes in PR strategies are driven by the trend of digital marketing and rising demands for advanced marketing practices.
To provide recommendations for advancing the PR strategies to respond to the increasing demands of digital marketing.

Topic 4: The impact of paid PR on the brand penetration of UK based tech startups through their social media platforms

Research Aim: The research aim evaluates the impact of paid PR on the brand penetration of UK-based tech startups through their social media platforms

To shed light on the concept of brand penetration and paid PR
To examine the significance of brand penetration and paid PR in UK-based tech startups
To analyse how brand penetration of UK-based tech startups has been impacted by paid PR through their social media platforms

Topic 5: An investigation into the different ways paid PR is impacting the workforce and productivity of the UK-based SMEs

Research Aim: The research aim concentrates on the different ways paid PR is impacting the workforce and productivity of UK-based SMEs.

To examine the concept of paid PR and its importance in SMEs
To identify different ways through which the workforce and productivity of the UK-based SMEs can be improved
To evaluate how paid PR in different ways is impacting the workforce and productivity of UK-based SMEs

Topic 6: Impact of social media on public relations strategies

Research Aim: Even since social media was invented, it has changed the patterns of communication in regular and corporate settings. Social media has inevitably changed how organisations interact with their audience since they are ensuring their presence on relevant platforms.

The main aim of the research will be to identify how social media has affected traditional public relations strategies.

Topic 7: The relationship between public relations and inbound marketing

Research Aim: Inbound marketing uses multiple marketing tools and techniques such as content marketing, blogs, and social media to create brand awareness and attract new business. Inbound marketing aims to build a relationship of goodwill with the customers, consumers, and prospects which somehow relates to public relations.

The aim of the research is to identify how(if ) public relations and inbound marketing are related to each other by tracing their overlapping characteristics.

Topic 8: Can Public relations and advertising go hand in hand

Research Aim: Most people confuse public relations for advertising, although they are two separate strategies employed to achieve similar goals for a business. In that regard, it is important to identify if public relations and advertising can go hand in hand and what outcomes they may cause.

Topic 9: Public relations and artificial intelligence

Research Aim: The future belongs to artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence refers to technology that can imitate human cognitive abilities and thus perform tasks that are ascribed to humans. Since artificial intelligence is going to take over, it already has, and it will change the operation of public relations. The responses and communication generated by public relations professionals will be generated by bots geared toward artificial intelligence.

The target of the research will be identifying how and in what capacity artificial intelligence will modify the practice of public relations.

Topic 10: Differences between traditional vs modern public relation practices

Research Aim: The aim of the research will be to compare and contrast the conventional and modern practices of public relations. The researcher will evaluate the key practices employed and the channels selected today versus a couple of decades ago and highlight the key differences. The researcher can identify as many variables as possible to perform a clear and broad comparison between both strategies.

Topic 11: The evolution of the PR agency model

Research Aim: The PR agency model today is not the same as what it used to be a couple of years ago. The researcher will study and evaluate the evolution process of the PR agency model and key changes that have occurred over the period.

Topic 12: Significance of public relations for social media influencers

Research Aim: Social media influencers are gaining more importance as their influencer marketing is reaching new heights. While they play a significant role in helping brands achieve their marketing goals, they need to build public relations to keep themselves relevant, credible, and valuable to a particular niche. The aim of the research will be to identify how it is important for social media influencers to strengthen their PR strategies.

Topic 13: positive public relations- case study

Research Aim: Public relations is perceived with a negative connotation in general, although it is not like that. The aim of the research is to study and highlight positive public relations through different case studies. The researcher can choose very immediate examples or global examples.

Topic 14: public relations strategy employed by brands in the pandemic

Research Aim: While the pandemic was a shocking situation for all of us, the brands were having multiple problems in terms of managing health as well as the economic crisis at the time. During the pandemic, different responses from different brands were noted, which was a part of the public relations policy. The aim of the research is to identify how brands were able to execute their public relations strategy.

Topic 15: Public relations as an instrument to increase ROI

Research Aim: The main goal of public relations is to increase brand awareness, promote goodwill, and increase demand. The aim of the research is to identify if a public relations campaign can be oriented to increase the ROI and, if it does, How.

How Can ResearchProspect Help?

ResearchProspect writers can send several custom topic ideas to your email address. Once you have chosen a topic that suits your needs and interests, you can order for our dissertation outline service which will include a brief introduction to the topic, research questions , literature review , methodology , expected results , and conclusion . The dissertation outline will enable you to review the quality of our work before placing the order for our full dissertation writing service !

Also Read: Civil Engineering Dissertation Topics

Topic 16: Effectiveness of public relations in the health sector- case study

Research Aim: Public relations is only associated with businesses, politics, and media, but it can be used for just every sector. The research will identify how necessary public relations are and how effective they can be for the health sector by conducting a case study.

Topic 17: Uses and abuses of public relations

Research Aim: Although public relations strategies are useful and important, they have flaws of their own kind. The flaws lie in how the strategy is prepared and executed and the goals it aims to target.

The aim of the research will be to identify and analyse the uses and abuses of public relations. The researcher can evaluate in what ways public relations can be useful and in what ways they cannot.

Topic 18: Importance of public relations for political parties in the age of technology

Research Aim: The political parties rely on public relations to establish a relationship of goodwill and create a good image in front of the public. With the advent of social media, political parties have to be extra conscious as one act can ruin their established credibility. The study will aim to find out how it has become more important than ever for political parties to focus on public relations for their own benefit.

Topic 19: Public relations and journalism

Research Aim: The aim of the research is to identify how public relations is important in journalism and vice versa. The research will also identify the key similarities between public relations and journalism. The researcher can also point out to what extent public relations is misused by political leaders to influence journalism.

Topic 20: How PR programs have affected the government plans and decisions around the world

Research Aim: The research will analyse and evaluate how public relations programs run by state heads or governments have affected their decisions and plans. The researcher can take the example of successful and unsuccessful PR campaigns and their impact, respectively.

Topic 21: How technology has changed the strategies of public relations

Research Aim: The research will evaluate and figure out the changes that occurred to public relations strategies due to the technology. The researcher can evaluate the impact of different technologies to understand the impact.

Topic 22: Whistleblowers and public relations

Research Aim: Whistleblowers are individuals responsible for reporting any wrongdoings that may cause a threat to society to those in authority to rectify them. The whistleblowers thus play an important role in helping public leaders in improving public relations. The aim of the research would be to find out the wide-ranging benefits of whistleblowers for making effective public relations plans.

Topic 23: Trends in advertising and public relations to look forward to

Research Aim: The aim of the research is to find out the trends in advertising and public relations today and in the future. The research will also find the potential of each trend to evaluate how long it is expected to remain relevant in their respective fields.

Topic 24: Importance of strategic communication in PR

Research Aim: Communication is the key tool of PR. The research will find the definition of strategic communication. It will also identify and explore the importance of strategic communication in PR and the ways to improve it.

Topic 25: Tourism and public relations

Research Aim: The aim of the research is to identify the importance of public relations for tourism sectors for enhancing tourism. Tourism is not something about the tourists and destination, but it is a major government sector that can help economic growth if focused on it . It will analyse and evaluate the key elements essential for fostering tourism that is possible with public relations.

List of New & Trending Dissertation Topics on Public Relations

A Case Study Analysis on the Role of Public Relations in Crisis Management
The Influence of Social Media on Public Relations Strategies.
Corporate Social Responsibility and Its Impact on Public Relations Practices.
The Use of Influencers in Contemporary Public Relations Campaigns.
Challenges and Solutions of Public Relations Ethics in the Digital Age
The Effectiveness of Storytelling in Public Relations Campaigns.
Campaign Strategies in Public Relations and Political Communication.
Stakeholder Engagement Strategies in Public Relations
The Role of Emotional Appeal in Public Relations Messaging.
The Impact of Culture on International Public Relations Campaigns.
The Role of Public Relations in Influencing Public Policy.
Social Justice and Advocacy Campaigns in Public Relations.
Employee Engagement in Internal Public Relations Communications.
The Influence of Visual Communication in Public Relations.
Globalisation and Localisation in Public Relations Campaigns.
The Role of Public Relations in Building Trust in Financial Institutions.
The Role of Emotion in Public Relations Crisis Communication.
Public Relations Strategies for Startups and Small Businesses.
The Influence of Generation Z on Public Relations Practices.

Free Dissertation Topic

Phone Number

Academic Level Select Academic Level Undergraduate Graduate PHD

Academic Subject

Area of Research

Frequently Asked Questions

How to find public relations dissertation topics.

To discover public relations dissertation topics:

Examine recent PR challenges.
Investigate industry trends.
Analyse PR strategies’ effectiveness.
Explore ethics and social media’s role.
Consider cross-cultural PR issues.
Select a topic aligning with your passion and career objectives.

Public Relations Dissertation Topics (26 Examples) For Research

Mark Aug 15, 2021 Aug 16, 2021 Public Relations No Comments

Public relation is a practice of deliberately managing the spread of information between the organization and the public. The ability of a company to relate to the public has an impact on its reputation and position. We have listed down some of the most impressive public relations dissertation topics that you can practice on. The […]

A list Of Public Relations Dissertation Topics

Topic with mini-proposal (paid service).

Along with a topic, you will also get;

An explanation why we choose this topic.
2-3 research questions.
Key literature resources identification.
Suitable methodology with identification of raw sample size, and data collection method
View a sample of topic consultation service

Get expert dissertation writing help to achieve good grades

Writer consultation before payment to ensure your work is in safe hands.
Free topic if you don't have one
Draft submissions to check the quality of the work as per supervisor's feedback
Free revisions
Complete privacy
Plagiarism Free work
Guaranteed 2:1 (With help of your supervisor's feedback)
2 Instalments plan
Special discounts

Chapter 8 Public Relations Research: The Key to Strategy

If you previously ascribed to the common misconception that public relations is a simple use of communication to persuade publics, Bowen (2003), pp. 199–214. you might be surprised at the important role that research plays in public relations management. Bowen (2009a), pp. 402–410. We can argue that as much as three quarters of the public relations process is based on research—research, action planning, and evaluation—which are three of the four steps in the strategic management process in the RACE acronym (which stands for research, action planning, communication, and evaluation).

8.1 Importance of Research in Public Relations Management

Public relations professionals often find themselves in the position of having to convince management to fund research, or to describe the importance of research as a crucial part of a departmental or project budget. Research is an essential part of public relations management. Here is a closer look at why scholars argued that conducting both formative and evaluative research is vital in modern public relations management:

Research makes communication two-way by collecting information from publics rather than one-way, which is a simple dissemination of information. Research allows us to engage in dialogue with publics, understanding their beliefs and values, and working to build understanding on their part of the internal workings and policies of the organization. Scholars find that two-way communication is generally more effective than one-way communication, especially in instances in which the organization is heavily regulated by government or confronts a turbulent environment in the form of changing industry trends or of activist groups. See, for example, Grunig (1984), pp. 6–29; Grunig (1992a; 2001); Grunig, Grunig, and Dozier (2002); Grunig and Repper (1992).
Research makes public relations activities strategic by ensuring that communication is specifically targeted to publics who want, need, or care about the information. Ehling and Dozier (1992). Without conducting research, public relations is based on experience or instinct, neither of which play large roles in strategic management. This type of research prevents us from wasting money on communications that are not reaching intended publics or not doing the job that we had designed them to do.
Research allows us to show results , to measure impact, and to refocus our efforts based on those numbers. Dozier and Ehling (1992). For example, if an initiative is not working with a certain public we can show that ineffectiveness statistically, and the communication can be redesigned or eliminated. Thus, we can direct funds toward more successful elements of the public relations initiative.

Without research, public relations would not be a true management function . It would not be strategic or a part of executive strategic planning, but would regress to the days of simple press agentry, following hunches and instinct to create publicity. As a true management function, public relations uses research to identify issues and engage in problem solving, to prevent and manage crises, to make organizations responsive and responsible to their publics, to create better organizational policy, and to build and maintain long-term relationships with publics. A thorough knowledge of research methods and extensive analyses of data also allow public relations practitioners a seat in the dominant coalition and a way to illustrate the value and worth of their activities. In this manner, research is the strategic foundation of modern public relations management. Stacks and Michaelson (in press).

8.2 Purpose and Forms of Research

The purpose of research is to allow us to develop strategy in public relations in order to (a) conduct our campaigns with specific purpose and targeted goals, (b) operate as a part of the overall strategic management function in an organization, and (c) measure the effectiveness of public relations efforts. By conducting research before we communicate, we revise our own thinking to include the views of publics. We can segment those publics, tailor communications for unique publics, send different messages to specifically targeted publics, and build relationships by communicating with publics who have an interest in our message. This type of planning research is called formative research Planning research that is conducted so that what the publics know, believe, or value and what they need or desire to know can be understood before communication is begun. because it helps us form our public relations campaign. Stacks (2002). Formative research is conducted so that we can understand what publics know, believe, or value and what they need or desire to know before we began communicating. Thereby, public relations does not waste effort or money communicating with those that have no interest in our message.

Research also allows public relations professionals to show the impact made through their communication efforts after a public relations campaign. This type of research is called evaluation research Research that allows public relations professionals to show the impact made through their communication efforts after a public relations campaign. . Using both forms of research in public relations allows us to communicate strategically and to demonstrate our effectiveness. For example, formative research can be used to determine the percentage of publics who are aware of the organization’s policy on an issue of concern. Through the use of a survey, we might find that 17% of the target public is aware of the policy. Strategically, the organization would like more members of that public to be aware of the organization’s policy, so the public relations department communicates through various channels sending targeted messages.

After a predetermined amount of time, a survey practically identical to the first one is conducted. If public relations efforts were successful, the percentage of members of a public aware of the organization’s policy should increase. That increase is directly attributable to the efforts of the public relations campaign. We could report, “Members of the community public aware of our new toxic waste disposal initiative increased from 17% to 33% in the last 2 months.” Measures such as these are extremely common in public relations management. They may be referred to as benchmarking because they establish a benchmark and then measure the amount of change, similar to a before-and-after comparison. Stacks (2002); Broom and Dozier (1990). The use of statistically generalizable research methods allows such comparisons to be made with a reasonable degree of confidence across various publics, geographic regions, issues, psychographics, and demographic groups.

In this section, we will provide a brief overview of the most common forms of research in public relations management and providing examples of their uses and applications and professional public relations. Building upon that basic understanding of research methods, we then return to the theme of the purpose of research and the importance of research in the public relations function.

Formal Research

Research in public relations can be formal or informal. Formal research Research that typically takes place in order to generate numbers and statistics. Formal research is used to both target communications and measure results. normally takes place in order to generate numbers and statistics that we can use to both target communications and measure results. Formal research also is used to gain a deeper, qualitative understanding of the issue of concern, to ascertain the range of consumer responses, and to elicit in-depth opinion data. Formal research is planned research of a quantitative or qualitative nature, normally asking specific questions about topics of concern for the organization. Formal research is both formative , at the outset of a public relations initiative, and evaluative , to determine the degree of change attributable to public relations activities.

Informal Research

Informal research Research that typically gathers information and opinions through conversations and in an ongoing and open exchange of ideas and concerns. is collected on an ongoing basis by most public relations managers, from sources both inside and outside of their organizations. Informal research usually gathers information and opinions through conversations. It consists of asking questions, talking to members of publics or employees in the organization to find out their concerns, reading e-mails from customers or comment cards, and other informal methods, such as scanning the news and trade press. Informal research comes from the boundary spanning role of the public relations professional, meaning that he or she maintains contacts with publics external to the organization, and with internal publics. The public relations professional spends a great deal of time communicating informally with these contacts, in an open exchange of ideas and concerns. This is one way that public relations can keep abreast of changes in an industry, trends affecting the competitive marketplace, issues of discontent among the publics, the values and activities of activist groups, the innovations of competitors, and so on. Informal research methods are usually nonnumerical and are not generalizable to a larger population, but they yield a great deal of useful information. The data yielded from informal research can be used to examine or revise organizational policy, to craft messages in the phraseology of publics, to respond to trends in an industry, to include the values or priorities of publics in new initiatives, and numerous other derivations.

8.3 Types of Research

Research in public relations management requires the use of specialized terminology. The term primary research The collection of unique data, normally proprietary, that is firsthand and relevant to a specific client or campaign. It is often the most expensive type of data to collect. is used to designate when we collect unique data in normally proprietary information, firsthand and specifically relevant to a certain client or campaign. Stacks (2002). Primary research, because it is unique to your organization and research questions, is often the most expensive type of data to collect. Secondary research The collection of data that is typically part of the public domain but is applicable to a client, organization, or industry. It can be used to round out and support the conclusions drawn from primary research. refers to research that is normally a part of public domain but is applicable to our client, organization, or industry, and can be used to round out and support the conclusions drawn from our primary research. Stacks (2002); Stacks and Michaelson (in press). Secondary research is normally accessed through the Internet or available at libraries or from industry and trade associations. Reference books, encyclopedias, and trade press publications provide a wealth of free or inexpensive secondary research. Managers often use secondary research as an exploratory base from which to decide what type of primary research needs to be conducted.

Quantitative Research

When we speak of research in public relations, we are normally referring to primary research, such as public opinion studies based on surveys and polling. (The following lists quantitative research methods commonly employed in public relations.) Surveys are synonymous with public opinion polls, and are one example of quantitative research. Quantitative research Research that is based on statistical generalization. It allows numerical observations to be made in order for organizations to improve relationships with certain publics and then measure how much those relationships have improved or degraded. is based on statistical generalization . It allows us to make numerical observations such as “85% of Infiniti owners say that they would purchase an Infiniti again.” Statistical observations allow us to know exactly where we need to improve relationships with certain publics, and we can then measure how much those relationships have ultimately improved (or degraded) at the end of a public relations initiative. For example, a strategic report in public relations management for the automobile maker Infiniti might include a statement such as “11% of new car buyers were familiar with the G35 all-wheel-drive option 3 months ago, and after our campaign 28% of new car buyers were familiar with this option, meaning that we created a 17% increase in awareness among the new car buyer public.” Other data gathered might report on purchasing intentions, important features of a new vehicle to that public, brand reputation variables, and so on. Quantitative research allows us to have a before and after snapshot to compare the numbers in each group, therefore allowing us to say how much change was evidenced as a result of public relations’ efforts.

Methods of Quantitative Data Collection

Internet-based surveys
Telephone surveys
Mail surveys
Content analysis (usually of media coverage)
Comment cards and feedback forms
Warranty cards (usually demographic information on buyers)
Frequent shopper program tracking (purchasing data)

In quantitative research, the entire public you wish to understand or make statements about is called the population In quantitative research, the entire public that is sought to be understood or about which statements are made. . The population might be women over 40, Democrats, Republicans, purchasers of a competitor’s product, or any other group that you would like to study. From that population, you would select a sample In quantitative research, a portion of a population that is sought for study. to actually contact with questions. Probability samples A randomly drawn portion of a population from which the strongest statistical measure of generalizability can be drawn. can be randomly drawn from a list of the population, which gives you the strongest statistical measures of generalizability. A random sample A randomly drawn portion of a population in which the participants have an equal chance of being selected. means that participants are drawn randomly and have an equal chance of being selected. You know some variants in your population exists, but a random sample should account for all opinions in that population. The larger the sample size (number of respondents), the smaller the margin of error and the more confident the researcher can be that the sample is an accurate reflection of the entire population.

There are also other sampling methods, known as nonprobability samples Research sampling that does not allow for generalization but that meets the requirements of the problem or project. , that do not allow for generalization but meet the requirement of the problem or project. A convenience sample A population sample drawn from those who are convenient to study. , for instance, is drawn from those who are convenient to study, such as having visitors to a shopping mall fill out a survey. Another approach is a snowball sample A population sample in which the researcher asks a respondent participating in a survey to recommend another respondent for the survey. in which the researcher asks someone completing a survey to recommend the next potential respondent to complete the survey. A purposive sample Research sampling in which a specific group of people is sought out for research. is when you seek out a certain group of people. These methods allow no generalizability to the larger population, but they are often less expensive than random sample methods and still may generate the type of data that answers your research question.

Quantitative research has the major strength of allowing you to understand who your publics are, where they get their information, how many believe certain viewpoints, and which communications create the strongest resonance with their beliefs. Demographic variables are used to very specifically segment publics. Demographics are generally gender, education, race, profession, geographic location, annual household income, political affiliation, religious affiliation, and size of family or household. Once these data are collected, it is easy to spot trends by cross-tabulating the data with opinion and attitude variables. Such cross-tabulations result in very specific publics who can be targeted with future messages in the channels and the language that they prefer. For example, in conducting public relations research for a health insurance company, cross-tabulating data with survey demographics might yield a public who are White males, are highly educated and professional, live in the southeastern United States, have an annual household income above $125,000, usually vote conservatively and have some religious beliefs, have an average household size of 3.8 people, and strongly agree with the following message: “Health insurance should be an individual choice, not the responsibility of government.” In that example, you would have identified a voting public to whom you could reach out for support of individualized health insurance.

Segmenting publics in this manner is an everyday occurrence in public relations management. Through their segmentation, public relations managers have an idea of who will support their organization, who will oppose the organization, and what communications—messages and values—resonate with each public. After using research to identify these groups, public relations professionals can then build relationships with them in order to conduct informal research, better understand their positions, and help to represent the values and desires of those publics in organizational decision making and policy formation.

Qualitative Research

The second major kind of research method normally used in the public relations industry is qualitative research. Qualitative research Research that allows the researcher to generate in-depth, quality information in order to understand public opinion. This type of research is not generalizable but it often provides quotes that can be used in strategy documents. generates in-depth , “quality ” information that allows us to truly understand public opinion , but it is not statistically generalizable. (The following lists qualitative research methods commonly employed in public relations.) Qualitative research is enormously valuable because it allows us to truly learn the experience, values, and viewpoints of our publics. It also provides ample quotes to use as evidence or illustration in our strategy documents, and sometimes even results in slogans or fodder for use in public relations’ messages.

Qualitative research is particularly adept at answering questions from public relations practitioners that began “How?” or “Why?” Yin (1994). This form of research allows the researcher to ask the participants to explain their rationale for decision making, belief systems, values, thought processes, and so on. It allows researchers to explore complicated topics to understand the meaning behind them and the meanings that participants ascribe to certain concepts. For example, a researcher might ask a participant, “What does the concept of liberty mean to you?” and get a detailed explanation. However, we would expect that explanation to vary among participants, and different concepts might be associated with liberty when asking an American versus a citizen of Iran or China. Such complex understandings are extremely helpful in integrating the values and ideas of publics into organizational strategy, as well as in crafting messages that resonate with those specific publics of different nationalities.

Methods of Qualitative Data Collection

In-depth interviews
Focus groups
Case studies
Participant observation
Monitoring toll-free (1-800 #) call transcripts
Monitoring complaints by e-mail and letter

Public relations managers often use qualitative research to support quantitative findings. Qualitative research can be designed to understand the views of specific publics and to have them elaborate on beliefs or values that stood out in quantitative analyses. For example, if quantitative research showed a strong agreement with the particular statement, that statement could be read to focus group participants and ask them to agree or disagree with this statement and explain their rationale and thought process behind that choice. In this manner, qualitative researchers can understand complex reasoning and dilemmas in much greater detail than only through results yielded by a survey. Miles and Huberman (1994).

Another reason to use qualitative research is that it can provide data that researchers did not know they needed. For instance, a focus group may take an unexpected turn and the discussion may yield statements that the researcher had not thought to include on a survey questionnaire. Sometimes unknown information or unfamiliar perspectives arise through qualitative studies that are ultimately extremely valuable to public relations’ understanding of the issues impacting publics.

Qualitative research also allows for participants to speak for themselves rather than to use the terminology provided by researchers. This benefit can often yield a greater understanding that results in far more effective messages than when public relations practitioners attempt to construct views of publics based on quantitative research alone. Using the representative language of members of a certain public often allows public relations to build a more respectful relationship with that public. For instance, animal rights activists often use the term “companion animal” instead of the term “pet”—that information could be extremely important to organizations such as Purina or to the American Veterinary Medical Association.

Mixed Methods/Triangulation

Clearly, both quantitative and qualitative research have complementary and unique strengths. These two research methodologies should be used in conjunction whenever possible in public relations management so that both publics and issues can be fully understood. Using both of these research methods together is called mixed method research A research method that combines quantitative and qualitative research. This method is considered to yield the most reliable research results. , and scholars generally agree that mixing methods yields the most reliable research results. Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998). It is best to combine as many methods as is feasible to understand important issues. Combining multiple focus groups from various cities with interviews of important leaders and a quantitative survey of publics is an example of mixed method research because it includes both quantitative and qualitative methodology. Using two or more methods of study is sometimes called triangulation In public relations, the use of two or more methods of study in order to ascertain how publics view an issue. , meaning using multiple research methods to triangulate upon the underlying truth of how publics view an issue. See Stacks (2002); Hickson (2003).

8.4 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, we examined the vital role of research in public relations management, both in making the function strategic and in adding to its credibility as a management function. Because research comprises such a large part of the public relations process—three of the four steps in the strategic management process—we discussed the purposes and forms of commonly used research in public relations. The roles of formal and informal research were discussed, as well as the major approaches to research: quantitative (numerically based) and qualitative (in-depth based) as well as the types of types of data collection commonly used in public relations in the mixing of methods.

Updated: Public relations dissertation topics

Its dissertation season for MA media and public relations university students. Here are more than 40 potential areas of study.

For the last four years I’ve been a Visiting Professor at Newcastle University, supporting the university and students through teaching and mentoring.

An MA dissertation is a 12,000-word document in which you make a reasonable argument, answering a research question, problem or hypothesis, based on evidence. That evidence is collected and the document written in a few short months.

A dissertation must be made of good, university-style writing, well-organised, consistently cited and formatted, and 12,000 words in length.

I'm frequently asked by public relations students at Newcastle and elsewhere for advice on choosing a dissertation topic.

Professor Benno Signitzer at the University of Salzburg wrote a chapter on this topic in Public Relations Research: An International Perspective . It’s worth seeking out. Thanks to Professor Dejan Verčič from the University of Ljubljana for the reference.

My answer is always to follow a passion and ideally use it as an opportunity to set yourself up for your career. The ideal is a topic aligned to a developing area of practice.

“I'd say to make it as specific to your dream career as possible. Even if career visions change in the future, you'll enjoy researching and writing it at the time and therefore won't get bored and find more motivation,” said Livi Wilkes, Digital Public Relations Consultant, Aira.

Avoid populist topics and go deep. The best dissertations are original and niche. They make a genuine contribution to the professional body of knowledge in public relations.

Your research question needs to be one that can be answered in a few short months. It needs to be simple and focused.

A good research question describes clearly exactly what you want to find out. It is self-contained, straightforward and logical. It should be modest, measuring only one or two variables with respect to your object of study.

“Explore a very small, easily defined area and use rigorous academic research methods to establish new knowledge or explore a topic from a new perspective,” said Liz Bridgen, Principal Lecturer, Department of Media Arts and Communication, Sheffield Hallam University.

“What’s your elevator pitch? I want to understand the application of your research in practice – in three minutes or less,” said Ramona Slusarczyk, Lecturer in PR and Corporate Communications, Newcastle University.

In the past two years I’ve asked my network on Facebook for suggestions for areas of study. I’ve been called out by several people for short cutting an important area of the research process.

This wasn’t my intention. Instead I wanted to share issues that are challenging practitioners.

I’ve consistently said that we need to encourage better engagement between research, teaching and practice. If that’s not your view, please look away now.

Thank you to everyone who participated in the discussion. Each suggestion is a jumping off point for further investigation.

The only way is ethics

How does post truth or fake news change the way public relations operates and how does it sit alongside codes of practice? Jane Crofts

Should social media be held to the same journalistic standards as other media outlets? Lauren Oldy

How important is the truth versus storytelling. Ged Caroll

We've always believed good public relations should be open, transparent etc. But what if we're wrong? What if good public relations is actually as dishonest, ugly and brazen as you can make it? Jemima Gibbons

How should practitioners ensure that messages resonate in an era of fake news and post truth? Rob Bruce

The importance of trusted brands in a post-truth world. In other words why the claims about your cornflakes are held to a higher standard than the claims of political candidates. Nick Jones

What does transparency in public relations look like? Aly Sandhaus Saxe

Does anyone have the right to be forgotten? Claire Thompson

Data and the science of measurement

How can public relations be measured more effectively; focusing on whether public relations campaigns should be treated the same as marketing ones; using the same tools such as Salesforce and Marketo. Paul Wooding

Measuring the effectiveness of video as a means of communication in the social sphere. Dan Slee

Test measurement frameworks for Paid, Earned, Shared and Owned (PESO) communications and content. Michelle Goodall

How can data be used to improve the impact of campaigns? Is this a route to improving the perception of public relations in society? Rob Bruce

Data visualisation looking not just at economist infographics and similar but a historical review of people such as Florence Nightingale who understood the importance of conveying a story succinctly in an as easy to understand form as possible. Rob Ashwell

Does reputation have a monetary value? Ella Minty

The business of influence

Study the behavioural economics aspects of the science of influence –influencing perceptions in order to influence market behaviour – how individual minds work, as well as the collective. Steve Schuster

What does influence look like for the next generation? Becky McMichael

What’s the role of social media influencers as part of a modern public relations campaign Stephen Waddington

Reputation wars

What makes a brand invincible? How and why do some brands die due to reputational harm, while others seem to shrug off a crisis and carry on regardless? Joe Hanley

Evidence based research showing how trust in the conventional [media] has been eroded over the past decade and the impact this has on society and business. Andy West

How do bots propagate and what are potential defensive strategies? Dan Howarth

Characterising the public relations profession

Explore the lack of diversity in the public relations profession; LGBT, women at the top, disability, ethnicity and social mobility. Sarah Stimson

How do CEOs perceive public relations and what needs to be done to improve understanding of the strategic value it can add? Sarah Hall

What skills and understanding does the communications advisor to the board need to be credible? Should reputation sit above sales and marketing in the corporate hierarchy? Patrick Blewer

Why are ethnic minorities under-represented in public relations? Liz Bridgen

Why do so many women leave public relations? Liz Bridgen

Is social media helping to reduce inequalities – or is everything staying the same? Liz Bridgen

Is public relations dead? We tend to work in wider communications roles now and need knowledge and skills to survive. Michelle Atkinson

How do you build mental resilience in journalism and public relations, particularly post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) through exposure to traumatic events and materials, as well as the wider issues around the job and its impact on mental health? Bridget Aherne

Personal versus professional expectations: where does a job and public persona end and personal life begin? Ella Minty

Is the news cycle dead? Matt Muir

Does the connected economy increase the need for niche specialism? Adrian Bridgwater

Characterise the rise of online and social echo chambers and the impact they have on decision-making. Julio Romo

Media platforms

How low can production values be? We're in the social media age, with Facebook Live, YouTube live streaming as video-based platforms, and Facebook and LinkedIn and lots more as type-based platforms. So how garbled can the sound be, how fuzzy can the video be, how distorted can the speakers be, and so on? Brian Kilgore

How can global, US-run social networks effectively deal with personal attacks, death threats or even define trolling, when they have a US President that is normalising [trolling]? Jemima Gibbons

Explore emerging strategies as companies increasingly need to market to an algorithm [rather than a human being]. Rob Flaherty

Future of public relations

What is the role of paid media in public relations programmes? Ged Caroll

The impact of artificial intelligence on content creation and distribution. Explore ethics, impact on jobs, and the relationship between the quality and quantity of content and the role it plays in manipulating the human brain. Helen Keegan

Explore digital as a means of genuine business transformation, compared with when it is used as a bolt on or stick plaster. Dan Purvis

What is the likely impact of voice search and home automation devices on brand reputation? Matt Anderson

What’s the impact of artificial intelligence on skills and workflow in public relations? Stephen Waddington

What’s the impact of artificial intelligence on media and public discourse? Stephen Waddington

Public relations education

Are we teaching students the necessary skills to succeed in the industry locally, nationally, and globally? Ai Addyson-Zhang

How do leading public relations companies and agencies perceive the value of public relations education? Ai Addyson-Zhang

Public relations in practice

Explore the fundamental changes of internal communication due to internal social media. Holger Sievert

Explore the use of social media by parties in a political campaign. Paula Clare Keaveney

Explore the application of social media in hospitals as part of the patient journey. Alexander Verstappen

What role should public relations play in a hostile takeover? How can it be justified, and used as a positive promotion of the business? Ella Minty

Should public relations practitioners own or participate in the company narrative or content strategy as part of an integrated public relations approach? Ruth Jones

Here's my blog post from last year .

Tech in marketing and PR: more than shiny objects searching for problems

Agencies as a foundation for entrepreneurs.

school Campus Bookshelves
menu_book Bookshelves
perm_media Learning Objects
login Login
how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
hub Instructor Commons

Margin Size

Download Page (PDF)
Download Full Book (PDF)
Periodic Table
Physics Constants
Scientific Calculator
Reference & Cite
Tools expand_more
Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

8.1: Importance of Research in Public Relations Management

Last updated
Save as PDF
Page ID 44946

$ \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } $

$ \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} $

$ \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}$ $ \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}$

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) $ \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}$

$ \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}$ $ \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}$

$ \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}$ $ \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}$

$ \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}$

$ \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}$

$ \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}$

$ \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}$

$ \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}$

$ \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}$

$ \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}$

$ \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}$

$ \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}$

$ \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}$ $ \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}$

$ \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}} % arrow$

$ \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}} % arrow$

$ \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } $

$ \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} $

$ \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} $

$ \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} $

$ \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} $

If you previously ascribed to the common misconception that public relations is a simple use of communication to persuade publics,Bowen (2003), pp. 199–214. you might be surprised at the important role that research plays in public relations management.Bowen (2009a), pp. 402–410. We can argue that as much as three quarters of the public relations process is based on research—research, action planning, and evaluation—which are three of the four steps in the strategic management process in the RACE acronym (which stands for research, action planning, communication, and evaluation).

Research makes communication two-way by collecting information from publics rather than one-way, which is a simple dissemination of information. Research allows us to engage in dialogue with publics, understanding their beliefs and values, and working to build understanding on their part of the internal workings and policies of the organization. Scholars find that two-way communication is generally more effective than one-way communication, especially in instances in which the organization is heavily regulated by government or confronts a turbulent environment in the form of changing industry trends or of activist groups.See, for example, Grunig (1984), pp. 6–29; Grunig (1992a; 2001); Grunig, Grunig, and Dozier (2002); Grunig and Repper (1992).
Research makes public relations activities strategic by ensuring that communication is specifically targeted to publics who want, need, or care about the information.Ehling and Dozier (1992). Without conducting research, public relations is based on experience or instinct, neither of which play large roles in strategic management. This type of research prevents us from wasting money on communications that are not reaching intended publics or not doing the job that we had designed them to do.
Research allows us to show results , to measure impact, and to refocus our efforts based on those numbers.Dozier and Ehling (1992). For example, if an initiative is not working with a certain public we can show that ineffectiveness statistically, and the communication can be redesigned or eliminated. Thus, we can direct funds toward more successful elements of the public relations initiative.

Public Relations Research Paper

This sample public relations research paper features: 7300 words (approx. 24 pages), an outline, and a bibliography with 30 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Much like atmospheric pressure, the practice of public relations affects all of us even though we usually are not aware of its presence. What you read, what you see, and what you hear in the media are often the direct or indirect effects of organizations trying to establish and maintain relationships with those important to their success or failure. The organizations include corporations, nonprofits, associations, health care organizations, educational institutions, governmental agencies, military branches, and many more.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code, more public relations research papers:.

Theories and Effects of Public Relations Research Paper
Public Relations Research/Measurement Research Paper
Public Relations Ethics Research Paper
Issues Management Research Paper
Public Relations Campaign Research Paper
Political Communication Research Paper
Crisis Communication Research Paper
International Public Relations Research Paper

Archeologists have found evidence of public relations activity in ancient Iraq, India, Greece, and Italy. Historians documented that kings in England several centuries ago had the Lord Chancellor to attend to their relationships with “the people.” The Catholic Church employed “propaganda” in the 17th century when it established the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for Propagating the Faith). U.S. historians have documented what was likely the first systematic fund-raising campaign by Harvard College in 1614, how the revolutionaries stirred public opinion to fight a war against England and to form a new government and promoted the expansion and settlement of the new country (Basham, 1954; Cutlip, 1995; Davidson, 1941; Nevins, 1962).

Much of contemporary practice, however, can be traced to early practitioners in the 20th century, with two “founding fathers” typically credited with much of the emerging profession’s “DNA” and its evolution from press agentry to public relations—Ivy Ledbetter Lee and Edward L. Bernays.

Origins of Modern Public Relations

Public relations today reflects the evolving roles of organizations in society, the growing power of the media and public opinion, the increasing interest in applying the findings of the social sciences, and the never-ending march of social and cultural change. Contemporary public relations developed during four eras: (1) public-be-damned, (2) publicbe-informed, (3) mutual understanding, and (4) mutual adjustment (Broom, 2009, pp. 92–93).

Public-Be-Damned Era

This era took its name from the infamous remark allegedly made by William Henry Vanderbilt, son of the wealthy shipping and railroad businessman “Commodore” Cornelius Vanderbilt: “The public be damned.” Although this was reported by a Chicago freelance writer in 1882, the young Vanderbilt denied having made the remark disparaging the public interest versus the rights and privileges of the wealthy titans of industry. Nevertheless, the words epitomized the tone of the time and the often abusive power of big business in the 19th century.

For example, Bank of the United States president Nicholas Biddle and his associates attempted to influence public opinion in their political battles with the popular President Andrew Jackson and his adviser, Amos Kendall. By making loans to editors and buying advertisements in their papers, banks were able to influence many newspapers and silence others in the public debate.

Biddle’s publicist, Mathew St. Clair Clarke, decided to promote “a brash, loud-talking Tennessee Congressman, the colorful Colonel Davy Crockett and to build him up as a frontier hero to counter Old Hickory’s [President Andrew Jackson’s] appeal to the frontiersmen” (Cutlip, 1995, p. 100). As Scott Cutlip reported, “The transmogrification of Davy Crockett from a boorish, backwoods boob into a colorful frontier statesman was the work of several ghostwriters and press agents,” when in fact Crocket “spent four years loafing and boasting at the Congressional bar” (p. 101).

The Crockett campaign included ghostwritten books, widely distributed ghostwritten speeches (not the words he actually spoke!), and ghostwritten letters to editors. The strategy failed, however, to keep Jackson from winning a second term as president and to prevent the election of his successor, Martin Van Buren, in 1836. After failing to get himself reelected, Crockett headed to Texas, where he was killed by Santa Ana’s troops in the siege of the Alamo. It was Walt Disney who revived the legend and polished the “Legend of Davy Crockett” to cash in on the creative work done by press agents more than 100 years earlier.

Press agents also introduced many practices to promote circuses and traveling road shows:

Today’s patterns of promotion and press agentry in the world of show business were drawn, cut, and stitched by the greatest showman and press agent of all time—that “Prince of Humbug,” that mightiest of mountebanks, Phineas Taylor Barnum. (Cutlip, 1995, p. 171)

Barnum employed his own press agent, Richard F. “Tody” Hamilton, whom he credited with much of the success of his circus (now known as the Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey Circus). Likewise, Colonel William F. Cody (“Buffalo Bill”) used press agentry and hyperbole to promote his “Wild West Show.” As a result of such successful promotions, press agentry spread from show business to closely related enterprises, including powerful business interests.

Westinghouse Electric Company created the first corporate department to engage in press agentry in 1889. George Westinghouse and his new electric corporation were promoting his revolutionary alternating-current (AC) system of electricity. The “battle of the currents” followed as Thomas A. Edison’s Edison General Electric Company, which used direct current, tried to prevent the adoption of Westinghouse’s AC technology (Cutlip, 1995, pp. 199–200).

Edison and his business associate, Samuel Insull, launched a propaganda scare campaign against the “lethal” AC, including the electrocution of stray cats and dogs:

Edison General Electric attempted to prevent the development of alternating current by unscrupulous political action and by even less savory promotional tactics. . . . The promotional activity was a series of spectacular stunts aimed at dramatizing the deadliness of high voltage alternating current, the most sensational being the development and promotion of the electric chair as a means of executing criminals. (McDonald, 1962, pp. 44–45)

Westinghouse recognized the need for specialized help to counter the scare campaign and to get his story to the public. He hired Pittsburgh journalist Ernest H. Heinrichs, who moved quickly to challenge the misrepresentations of AC. When Westinghouse’s system won public acceptance despite the Edison-Insull propaganda scare campaign, it demonstrated “that performance and merit are the foundation stones of effective public relations” (Cutlip, 1995, p. 203).

As press agents’ exploits became more outrageous, it was not surprising that they would arouse the hostility and suspicion of editors and an increasing skeptical public. Pressures for change led to changes in how public relations’ predecessors would deal with both the media and the public in the 20th century.

Public-Be-Informed Era

Powerful business interests in the early 1900s employed publicists to defend themselves and their monopolies against muckraking journalists and a growing push for change and regulation. Thus, the first public relations firms—actually publicity agencies—were established to serve such clients. The strategy was to tell their side of the story and to counterattack to influence public opinion. The goal was to prevent increased governmental regulation of business.

The nation’s first publicity agency—The Publicity Bureau—was founded in Boston in mid-1900. Although it would take on corporate clients later, Harvard University was the Publicity Bureau’s first client and was paid on what was surely the first fixed-fee-plus-expenses arrangement:

In the matter of payment, we understand that you are to pay the Bureau $200 a month for our professional services, and those of an artist where drawings seem to be required. That this sum is to include everything except the payment of mechanical work, such as printings and the making of cuts, and the postage necessary to send out the articles themselves to the various papers, which items are to be charged to the University. (Cutlip, 1994, p. 11)

The Publicity Bureau came into national prominence in 1906, when it was employed by the nation’s railroads to head off adverse regulatory legislation then being pushed in Congress by President Theodore Roosevelt. Operating in secret, the firm used the tools of fact-finding, publicity, and personal contact to saturate the nation’s weeklies with railroad propaganda. In spite of the Publicity Bureau’s effort, a moderately tough regulatory measure—The Hepburn Act—was passed in 1906, after President Roosevelt had used the press and his “bully pulpit” to argue a more persuasive case. The Publicity Bureau faded from the scene in 1911 (Cutlip, 1995, p. 16). Also early in the public-be-informed era, the former Buffalo reporter and veteran political publicist George F. Parker and a young Ivy Ledbetter Lee established Parker & Lee in New York in 1904. They worked together in the Democratic Party headquarters handling publicity for Judge Alton Parker’s unsuccessful presidential race against Theodore Roosevelt. The firm lasted less than 4 years, but the junior partner—Lee—was to become one of the most influential pioneers in the emerging craft of public relations.

The Princeton graduate and former New York newspaper business reporter, Ivy Ledbetter Lee, was among the first to recognize the potential of honest publicity and helping corporations tell their story. Even though this former journalist had difficulty labeling what he did for clients, he changed public relations forever.

Going against the prevailing feeling on Wall Street that “the public be damned,” Lee declared that the public was no longer to be ignored, in the traditional manner of business, or fooled, in the manner of the press agent. It was to be informed. Unlike the Publicity Bureau, which operated in secrecy, Lee sent a “declaration of principles” to all city editors in 1906 and introduced what would later become the “press release”:

This is not a secret press bureau. All our work is done in the open. We aim to supply news. This is not an advertising agency; if you think any of our matter ought properly to go to your business office, do not use it. Our matter is accurate. Further details on any subject treated will be supplied promptly, and any editor will be assisted most cheerfully in verifying directly any statement of fact. . . . In brief, our plan is, frankly and openly, on behalf of business concerns and public institutions, to supply to the press and public of the United States prompt and accurate information concerning subjects which it is of value and interest to the public to know about. (Morse, 1906, p. 460)

The oil and mining magnate John D. Rockefeller, then the world’s richest man and one of its most reviled, would become one of Lee’s clients. Ida Tarbell’s History of the Standard Oil Company (1904/1987), described at the time as “a fearless unmasking of moral criminality masquerading under the robes of respectability and Christianity,” exposed abusive practices and energized calls for breaking up the oil monopoly. In 1911, upholding the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 and trust-busting President William Howard Taft’s attempt to break up the Standard Oil Trust, the U.S. Supreme Court ordered the Trust to break with 33 affiliated companies and to distribute stock to each company’s shareholders.

The unpopular Rockefeller was finally persuaded to retain Ivy Lee in 1914 after a disastrous strike and killings at the Rockefeller-owned Colorado Fuel and Iron Company in Ludlow, Colorado. Rockefeller and his family were blamed for “Bloody Ludlow”—the massacre of women and children living in the tent city set up by the striking miners. In the years that followed, Lee used his journalistic skills and reputation for dealing with the press to highlight Rockefeller’s generosity and philanthropy. By the time Rockefeller died in 1934, 2 months short of age 98, he was known for his philanthropy and the many foundations, universities, and medical schools he had endowed.

Lee was still working for the Rockefeller family when he also died in 1934. He sometimes described what he did as “publicity,” but he also counseled his clients, thus establishing the principle that performance determines what is said in the publicity written by others. But the journalist publicity model was not the only approach.

Preparing the nation to enter World War I, President Woodrow Wilson appointed a presidential commission, the “Committee on Public Information.” George Creel headed a staff of young propagandists whose goal was to unite public opinion supporting the United States entering the war. During those early years, public relations took the form of one-way persuasive communication— “propaganda.” Some staff members, having learned new skills, formed public relations firms after the “Great War.” Even today, many practitioners work with managers and clients who think that public relations is simply one-way communication to persuade others.

Mutual-Understanding Era

One of the Creel staff members who did not subscribe to the one-way communication concept was Edward L. Bernays. Thus began what Bernays labeled the era of mutual understanding.

Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, had translated his uncle’s books on psychology and psychiatry into English, so he had background in early behavioral science that he had not acquired as a forestry major at Cornell University. He, like Lee, recognized that there was a business opportunity in what he called engineering public consent. Based on his propaganda work with the World War I Creed Committee, he was ready to apply the lessons learned to the needs of paying clients. Bernays also wrote the first public relations book, Crystallizing Public Opinion (1923/2004), and with his wife and business partner, Doris E. Fleischman, introduced the term public relations counsel. If Lee and Bernays are to be called the “fathers of public relations,” which they are, Fleischman surely deserves recognition as the “mother of public relations.”

Bernays saw public relations as an applied social science, drawing on the newly available findings of psychology, sociology, and political science. He was not a publicist. Rather, he sought ways to change public views of what was acceptable or desirable and to change public behavior. For example, he is credited with and was greatly remorseful in his last years for having helped make smoking in public acceptable behavior for women in the 1920s. He also is credited with introducing orange juice as a staple with breakfast, to help Florida growers have a market for their produce that otherwise was fed to pigs. During his long career until he retired from active practice in 1962, he counseled the heads of major corporations, U.S. presidents, and uncounted practitioners aspiring to his status and position in the field. Before he died in 1995 at age 103, Life Magazine included Bernays in its 1990 special issue as one of “The 100 Most Important Americans of the 20th Century.”

Doris Fleischman, an early feminist, also left her mark on the field and society. After marrying Bernays, she used her maiden name long before the feminist movement made that fashionable:

During the next three decades, Fleischman continued to sign into hotels—and twice into maternity hospitals—as “Miss Doris E. Fleischman,” and in 1925 she received the first U.S. passport granted to a married woman under her birth name. That was her name on the 1928 book she edited on careers for women and on the seven magazine articles and book chapters she published between 1930 and 1946. (Henry, 1998, p. 1)

Although Bernays credited her as being an equal partner in their firm, Fleischman struggled for professional equality during a time when women simply did not advise males in leadership positions. As she wrote in one of her books, written after she adopted her married name:

Many men resented having women tell them what to do in their business. They resented having men tell them, too, but advice from a woman was somewhat demeaning. I learned to withdraw from situations where the gender of public relations counsel was a factor or where suggestions had to be disassociated from gender. If ideas were considered first in terms of my sex, they might never get around to being judged on their own merits. (Fleischman Bernays, 1955, p. 171)

No list of the pioneers shaping today’s practice would be complete without the name Arthur W. Page. Page had three successful business careers yet found time to contribute his considerable talent to many public service efforts. He was a writer and editor at the publishing company he was being groomed to lead, Doubleday, Page and Company, from 1905 until 1927. Then, he accepted an offer to become vice president of American Telephone and Telegraph Co., from fellow Harvard graduate and AT&T president, Walter Gifford.

Page made it clear, however, that he would accept only on the conditions that he was not to serve as a publicity man, that he would have a voice in policy, and that the company’s performance would be the determinant of its public reputation. As a result, Page is widely recognized as having been the first corporate vice president of public relations. He was among the first to use systematic public opinion polling to probe public perceptions in order to help shape company policy. He later summarized his philosophy in this statement:

All business in a democratic country begins with public permission and exists by public approval. If that be true, it follows that business should be cheerfully willing to tell the public what its policies are, what it is doing, and what it hopes to do. This seems practically a duty. (Griswold, 1967, p. 13)

Even while vice president ofAT&T during World War II, he devoted much of his time to the war effort. As Page’s biographer Noel Griese reported, Page’s most widely distributed news release, written for President Harry S. Truman, was issued in Washington, D.C., at 11:00 a.m., Monday, August 6, 1945:

Sixteen hours ago an American airplane dropped one bomb on Hiroshima, an important Japanese Army base. That bomb had more power than 20,000 tons of TNT. It had more than two thousand times the blast power of the British “Grand Slam” which is the largest bomb ever yet used in the history of warfare. The Japanese began the war from the air at Pearl Harbor. They have been repaid manyfold. . . . It is an atomic bomb. It is a harnessing of the basic power of the universe. The force from which the sun draws its powers has been loosed against those who brought war to the Far East. (Griese, 2001, pp. 229–230)

Page retired on January 1, 1947, after integrating public relations concepts and practices into the Bell System. He died in 1960 at age 77. However, Page’s precepts and principles not only endure in the companies that used to be part of AT&T (broken up in 1984 by court order to foster competition) but also are renewed and promoted by the Arthur W. Page Society, an association of senior corporate public relations executives and leaders.

Although sophisticated opinion measurement methods were not introduced until the 1930s, the postwar work of social scientists contributed much to advance behavioral research and communication science. Page was among the first to apply the new skills and knowledge to public relations practice.

Mutual-Adjustment Era

Even before World War II, research on media effects did not appear to support assumptions about powerful media effects, instead suggesting a limited-effects model with more active and more resistant audiences. More realistic concepts of public relations evolved to include notions of two-way communication and relationships. Definitions began to include words such as reciprocal, mutual, and between, indicating a maturing view. For example, an interactive concept appeared in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary ’s definition: “The art or science of developing reciprocal understanding and goodwill.” The British Institute of Public Relations defined the practice as an effort to establish and maintain “mutual understanding between an organization and its publics.”

Early editions of the field’s leading text also defined public relations as an interactive concept—“the planned effort to influence opinion through good character and responsible performance, based on mutually satisfactory two-way communications” (Cutlip & Center, 1952/1984). Another influential text published in 1984 presented yet another version of the interactive concept—“the management of communication between an organization and its publics” (Grunig & Hunt, 1984, p. 6).

Ahead of his time, Yale professor and Public Opinion Quarterly founder Harwood L. Childs introduced an even more advanced concept in the late 1930s. Childs concluded that the goal of public relations “is not the presentation of a point of view, not the art of tempering mental attitudes, nor the development of cordial and profitable relations.” Instead, he said the basic function “is to reconcile or adjust in the public interest those aspects of our personal and corporate behavior which have a social significance” (Childs, 1940, pp. 3, 13). Childs saw the function of public relations as helping organizations adjust to their social environments, a concept that reemerged many decades later in contemporary public relations. “Consumerism,” “environmentalism,” “racism,” and “sexism” became serious issues on the public agenda beginning in the 1960s. Add to those “isms,” “peace.” A new breed of investigative muckrakers and powerful new advocacy groups pushed for social change, new social safety nets, and increased government oversight of business and industry. Protecting the environment and securing civil rights became the flagship causes of this era.

Reminiscent of the early part of the 20th century, books led the charge against “big business.” For example, many credit Rachel Carson’s 1962 book, Silent Spring, with beginning the environmental movement. President John F. Kennedy directed his science advisory committee to study the book’s documented charges that DDT indiscriminately killed all manner of insects and animals when applied to crops as a pesticide and that DDT had contaminated the entire food chain. Public apathy soon changed to public demand to regulate the pesticide industry and to protect the environment.

General Motors also became a target of protest and public scrutiny, opening the door to greater corporate accountability. Ralph Nader gave birth to the consumer movement in 1965, when he wrote Unsafe at Any Speed: The Designed-In Dangers of the American Automobile. Nader charged that the Chevrolet Corvair’s suspension system made the car subject to rolling over. GM’s legal department responded by investigating Nader’s private life. Subsequently, the company’s president had to appear before a Senate subcommittee and apologize to Nader for resorting to intimidation. In addition, the company settled lawsuits out of court for invading Nader’s privacy and agreed to change the Corvair suspension system. Nader used the cash settlement and his book royalties to establish the Project on Corporate Responsibility, staffed by young lawyers and investigators. Corporations suffered many setbacks as “Nader’s Raiders” continued to press for corporate accountability for decades. For example, the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966 spelled out safety standards for all vehicles. Congress also mandated safety in the workplace when it passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) in 1970.

However, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is the icon of this era of social change and empowerment. His rise to national leadership began in 1955, when he stood up for Rosa Parks, who was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, to a white passenger. He gave his famous “I Have a Dream” speech on August 28, 1963, at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. Dr. King gave his prophetic last speech, “I’ve Been to the Mountain Top,” in Memphis, Tennessee, the day before he was assassinated on April 4, 1968. He became the martyr and symbol of the Civil Rights Movement, which produced, among many other changes, the 1965 Voting Rights Act and the Open Housing Law of 1968. Dr. King and the Civil Rights Movement played a major role in defining this as the era of change and empowerment.

Surely the Vietnam War protests were the most divisive of this era, contributing to the “generation gap,” “hippies,” the “sexual revolution,” and—ultimately—Watergate and the impeachment of President Richard Nixon. A popular saying of the time “Power to the People” surely captured the essence of this era.

Public relations textbooks written during this era also reflected a major change in public relations practice from the “journalist-in-residence” model based on telling our story. The changed balance of power in society required a new role for public relations in organizations responding to the heightened change pressures. For example, the sixth edition of Effective Public Relations by Cutlip, Center, and Broom (1985) introduced “adjustment and adaptation” as the basis of contemporary practice. Research courses became part of the public relations curriculum on many campuses, and practitioners who engaged in information gathering joined the management decision-making teams in many organizations.

Contemporary public relations deals with adaptation and adjustment both inside and outside organizations, whereas the one-way concept of public relations relies almost entirely on propaganda and persuasive communication. Typically in the form of publicity, the two-way concept emphasizes communication exchange, reciprocity, and mutual understanding. Additionally, the two-way concept includes counseling management on changes needed within the organization. Although old concepts still dominate in many settings, contemporary practice is increasingly a management-level function that has a major role in determining both corrective action and two-way communication strategy. As the Burson-Marsteller cofounder Harold Burson (1990) observed, early in his firm’s history, clients’ questions changed from “ How do I say it?” to “What should I say?” Beginning in the 1980s, however, clients began asking, “What should I do?” That question is a fitting transition to defining contemporary practice.

Concept and Definition of Contemporary Practice

People enter into relationships with others to satisfy mutual wants and needs. The continuum of social systems formed by these relationships runs from the smallest—the dyad, two people—to the largest—the global community of nations. Because these relationships are essential to meeting common needs, establishing and maintaining relationships at all levels of social systems are important areas of scholarly study and professional practice.

For example, human relations, marital relations, and interpersonal relations describe the study and management of relationships between individuals. Professionals specialize in counseling individuals and couples to resolve relational problems and improve relationships. At the other extreme, international relations deals with relationships among nations in the largest social system. Likewise, there are specialists and political leaders who practice the art and science of helping nations deal with their ever-changing and sometimes threatening relationships. Courses and books are devoted to the study of all these relationships, as well as relationships in families, work teams, groups, organizations, and other social entities.

Public relations deals with the relationships between organizations and their stakeholder publics —people who are somehow mutually involved or interdependent with particular organizations. The social system of interest comprises organization-public relationships, and public relations deals with establishing and maintaining those relationships. It is one of the fastest-growing fields of professional practice worldwide.

Elements of the Concept

Hundreds have attempted to capture the essence of public relations by listing the activities that make up the practice— what public relations does. Such lists provide little guidance to help define public relations conceptually. A blue-ribbon panel of Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) leaders in 1982 wrote a definition that stresses public relations’ contributions to society—the “Official Statement on Public Relations.” The many definitions suggest elements common to the underlying concept. Public relations

holds membership on an organization’s management team;
focuses on the organization’s relationships with its stakeholder publics;
monitors knowledge, opinions, attitudes, and behavior inside and outside the organization;
assesses the impact of the organization’s policies, procedures, and actions on stakeholder publics;
counsels management on the establishment of new policies, procedures, and actions that benefit both the organization and its stakeholders;
facilitates two-way communication between the organization and its stakeholder publics to change knowledge, opinions, attitudes, and behavior both inside and outside the organization; and
produces new and/or maintains relationships between the organization and its publics.

Public Relations Defined

Definitions help us understand the world around us and to argue for a particular worldview of how one concept relates to other concepts (Gordon, 1997, p. 58). Consequently, the following definition of public relations describes what public relations is and does, as well as sets parameters for deciding what is not public relations. “Public relations is the management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on whom its success or failure depends” (Broom, 2009, p. 7). This definition positions the practice of public relations as a management function and implies that management in all organizations must attend to public relations. It also identifies building and maintaining mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics as the moral and ethical basis of the profession. And finally, it suggests criteria for determining what is and what is not public relations.

Relationship to Marketing

Marketing is the management function most often confused with public relations. Whereas public relations is charged with taking into account all of an organization’s stakeholders, marketing typically focuses on customers or clients. It is as if marketing uses a telephoto lens to zero in on the target customers, while public relations uses a wide-angle lens to scan the scene for all the stakeholders.

Confusion is common, however, as job openings for “public relations representatives” turn out to be positions as sales representatives or telephone solicitors. In many small organizations, the same person does both public relations and marketing, often without distinguishing between the two. Practitioners add to the confusion themselves when their business cards say that they do “marketing communications” (often referred to as “marcom”) or “integrated marketing communications.” Some public relations firms have “marketing communications” or “marketing public relations” in their titles and on their letterheads.

Although the two are not always clearly defined in practice, public relations and marketing can be distinguished conceptually and their relationship clarified. Fundamental to the concept of marketing is the marketer delivering a product or service to a customer in exchange for something of value. According to the marketing scholars Philip Kotler and Gary Armstrong (2008), “Exchange is the act of obtaining a desired object from someone by offering something in return. . . . Marketing consists of actions taken to build and maintain desirable exchange relationships . . .” (p. 7).

Successful marketing attracts and satisfies customers on a sustained basis to secure “market share” and to achieve an organization’s economic objectives. It is the special relationship—two parties exchanging something of value with each other— that creates quid pro quo relationships in which ownership changes hands that distinguishes marketing from public relations: “Marketing is the management function that identifies human needs and wants, offers products and services to satisfy those demands, and causes transactions that deliver products and services in exchange for something of value to the provider” (Broom, 2009, p. 6). Product publicity and media relations are among the tactics used to support marketing. Because public relations specialists typically know how to write for the news media, how to work with journalists, and how to plan and implement internal communication programs for sales staff, marketers call on them to help in the marketing effort. Apple Computer, for example, capitalized on the news value of their new products by using publicity to launch new models and new products—even getting CEO Steve Jobs on the cover of Time magazine and in the lead stories of television news programs. Mattel used press conferences and other publicity to defend the company and to announce product recalls during the marketing crisis associated with lead paint on toys made in China as toy sales plummeted during the holiday shopping season.

Effective public relations contributes to the marketing effort by maintaining a hospitable social and political environment and by dealing with the news media. For example, a hospital that maintains good relationships with volunteers, nurses, physicians, local employers, local government, and community groups will likely enjoy success in the marketing effort to attract patients, physicians, and referrals. Likewise, successful marketing and satisfied customers help build and maintain good relations with employees, investors, government regulatory agencies, and community leaders.

On the other hand, misguided marketing strategies and gimmicks illustrate how these efforts can backfire and create public relations problems. “Joe Camel” may have been an effective marketing tactic for reaching children and teenagers, but it may have been the straw that broke the camel’s back for the tobacco industry as it defended itself in numerous court cases. Nestlé’s marketing of the Nan baby formula—ignoring the World Health Organization’s Code of Marketing Milk Substitutes—prompted the National Alliance for Breastfeeding Advocacy to charge Nestlé with “using a vulnerable population for a grab at market share” (Jordan, 2004, n.p.).

Confusion With the Parts

The contemporary concept and practice of public relations includes many activities and specialties. Some practitioners, for example, focus on relations with employees—the “number one public” or “the organization’s most important asset.” They work in departments called “employee communication,” “employee relations,” or “internal relations.” They plan and implement communication programs to keep employees informed and motivated and to promote the organization’s culture. “Internal relations is the specialized part of public relations that builds and maintains mutually beneficial relationship between managers and the employees on whom an organization’s success depends” (Broom, 2009, p. 10).

Much news and information in the media originates as publicity. But because sources do not pay for the placement, they have little or no control over whether the information is used; when it is used; and how it is used, or misused, by the media. Media gatekeepers may or may not use the information, based on their judgment of its news value and interest to their audiences. From the perspective of readers, listeners, or viewers, the medium carrying the information is the source.

Publicity is information provided by an outside source that is used by the media because the information has news value. This is an uncontrolled method of placing messages in the media because the source does not pay the media for placement. (Broom, 2009, p. 11)

Events also generate publicity by attracting media coverage. Groundbreaking ceremonies, ribbon cuttings, open houses, reunions, dedications, telethons, marathons, ceremonial appointments, honorary degrees, contract and legislation signings, protest demonstrations, press conferences, and other “media events” are designed to be “news.” Successful publicity events have real news value; appeal to media gatekeepers; offer photo, video, or sound opportunities; and communicate the source’s intended message.

Unlike when using publicity, advertising gives the source control of content, placement, and timing by paying for media advertising time and space. “Advertising is information placed in the media by an identified sponsor that pays for the time or space. It is a controlled method of placing messages in the media” (Broom, 2009, p. 13). Organizations use advertising for public relations purposes when they want to address criticism in the media—over which they have no control, when they feel that their point of view is not being reported fairly, when they feel that their publics do not understand the issues or are apathetic, or when they are trying to add their voices to a cause. For example, when Andersen Consulting changed its name to Accenture, the company placed advertisements in business publications announcing the new name. Kuwait’s embassy in the United States purchased full-page advertisements in major U.S. newspapers announcing “America is our ally” and supporting “the international effort to eradicate terrorism.” Merck & Company used advertising to announce its

withdrawal of VIOXX™ from the market. The American Cancer Society has long relied on advertising to achieve its public awareness goals:

The society was the first traditional health charity to engage in paid advertising and, to be sure, for years our ad budget, which is less than 2% of our revenues, was spent raising awareness of things such as colorectal cancer and breast cancer screenings and tobacco prevention. (Wender, 2007, p. A17)

In Walking the Tightrope, the late Hollywood publicist Henry Rogers (1980) summarized his view of press agentry: “When I first started, I was in the publicity business. I was a press agent. Very simply, my job was to get the client’s name in the paper” (p. 14). In other words, the goal of press agentry is to create the perception that the subject of the publicity is a newsworthy subject deserving public attention. Press agentry is creating newsworthy stories and events to attract media attention in order to gain public notice.

Negative publicity seldom has positive outcomes, however. Press coverage featuring the antics of Britney Spears, Michael Vick, and one-time presidential candidate John Edwards may bring public notice—even celebrity—but surely will not positively affect their respective lives and careers. Confusion results when press agents describe what they do as “public relations” or use that term to give their agencies more prestigious titles. As a result, many journalists still mistakenly refer to all public relations practitioners as “flacks,” even though the Associated Press Stylebook defines “flack” as “slang for press agent.”

The armed services, many governmental agencies, and some corporations use public affairs as a surrogate title for public relations. This title is part of a name game dating back to the 1913 Gillett Amendment to an appropriation bill in the U.S. House of Representatives. The amendment stipulated that federal funds could not be spent for publicity unless specifically authorized by Congress. The historian J. A. R. Pimlott (1951/1972) concluded that limitations imposed on government public relations “springs from the fear lest programs undertaken in the name of administrative efficiency should result in an excessive concentration of power in the Executive” (p. 76).

In fact, the 1913 amendment did not refer to public relations. Many federal, state, and local governmental officials nevertheless confuse publicity with the larger concept of public relations. As a result, governmental agencies typically use titles such as “public affairs,” “public information,” “communications,” “constituent relations,” and “liaison.”

In corporations, public affairs often refers to public relations efforts related to public policy and “corporate citizenship.” Corporate public affairs specialists serve as liaisons with governmental units; implement community improvement programs; encourage political activism, campaign contributions, and voting; and volunteer their services in charitable and community development organizations.

Public affairs is the specialized part of public relations that builds and maintains relationships with governmental agencies and community stakeholder groups to influence public policy.

An even more specialized and often criticized part of public affairs, lobbying, attempts to influence legislative and regulatory decisions in government. The U.S. Senate (2008) defines lobbying as “the practice of trying to persuade legislators to propose, pass, or defeat legislation or to change existing laws.” Registration laws and their enforcement vary from state to state, but all who engage in lobbying the U.S. Congress must register with the Clerk of the House and Secretary of the Senate. Twice a year, lobbyists also are required to report their clients, expenditures, and issue-related activities.

News stories sometimes report illegal or questionable cash contributions to legislators, lavish fund-raising parties, and weekends at exotic golf resorts. However, lobbying more often takes the form of open advocacy and discussion on matters of public policy.

Lobbying is a specialized part of public relations that builds and maintains relations with government primarily to influence legislation and regulation.

Issues management requires early identification of issues with potential impact on an organization and a strategic response designed to mitigate or capitalize on their consequences. As originally conceived, issues management included identifying issues, analyzing issues, setting priorities, selecting program strategies, implementing programs of action and communication, and evaluating effectiveness (Chase, 1977). Conceptually, if not always administratively, issues management is part of the public relations function.

Issues management is the proactive process of anticipating, identifying, evaluating, and responding to public policy issues that affect an organization’s relationships with its publics.

Another specialized part of public relations practice is also the highest paid. Sometimes referred to as “IR” or “financial relations,” investor relations is part of public relations in publicly held corporations. Investor relations specialists work to enhance the value of a company’s stock. This reduces the cost of capital by increasing shareholder confidence and by making the stock attractive to individual investors, financial analysts, and institutional investors.

Investor relations is a specialized part of corporate public relations that builds and maintains mutually beneficial relationships with shareholders and others in the financial community to maximize market value.

Investor relations specialists keep shareholders informed and loyal to a company in order to maintain a fair valuation of a company’s stock. They track market trends, provide information to financial publics, counsel management, and respond to requests for financial information. Those aspiring to careers in investor relations typically combine studies in public relations with coursework in finance and business law. An MBA degree is often necessary preparation.

If investor relations helps finance publicly held corporations, fund-raising and membership drives provide the financial support needed to operate charitable and nonprofit organizations. Development specialists work for charities, public broadcasting stations, disease research foundations, hospitals, community arts groups, museums, zoos, youth clubs, universities, and religious organizations. Organizations that rely on donations, membership fees, and volunteers often have a “director of member services and development.”

Development is a specialized part of public relations in nonprofit organizations that builds and maintains relationships with donors and members to secure financial and volunteer support.

Toward Recognition and Maturity

Whatever name is used, the basic concept and motivation of public relations are similar from one organization to the next—large or small, local or global. All organizations strive to establish and maintain relationships with those identified as important to their survival and growth.

Some scholars credit public relations for the heightened attention to public accountability and social responsibility among government administrators and business executives. Others emphasize the function’s role in making organizations more responsive to public interests and more accepting of their corporate social responsibility. As one business leader long ago said,

We know perfectly well that business does not function by divine right, but, like any other part of society, exists with the sanction of the community as a whole. . . . Today’s public opinion, though it may appear as light as air, may become tomorrow’s legislation for better or worse. (Cutlip & Center, 1958, p. 6)

So public relations also helps organizations anticipate and respond to public perceptions and opinions, to new values and lifestyles, to power shifts among the electorate and within legislative bodies, and to other changes in the social and political environment. Public relations also makes information available through the public information system that is essential to both democratic society and organizational survival. Finally, the practice serves society by mediating conflict and by building the consensus needed to maintain social order. In summary, public relations’ social mission is to facilitate adjustment and maintenance in the social systems that provide us with our physical and social needs.

Bibliography:

Basham, A. L. (1954). The wonder that was India. London: Sidgwick & Jackson.
Bernays, E. L. (2004). Crystallizing public opinion. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger. (Original work published 1923)
Broom, G. M. (2009). Cutlip and Center’s effective public relations (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Burson, H. (1990, October 2). Beyond “PR”: Redefining the role of public relations. Annual Distinguished Lecture to the Institute for Public Relations Research and Education, Inc., New York.
Carson, R. (1962). Silent spring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Chase, W. H. (1977). Public issue management: The new science. Public Relations Journal, 33 (10), 25–26.
Childs, H. L. (1940). An introduction to public opinion. New York: Wiley.
Cripps, K. H. (2007, January 9). Wanted: More of the best examples of the best in PR. PR Week, 5.
Cutlip, S. M. (1994). Public relations: The unseen power. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cutlip, S. M. (1995). Public relations history: From the 17th to the 20th century. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cutlip, S. M., & Center, A. H. (1984). Effective public relations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. (Original work published 1952)
Cutlip, S. M., Center,A. H., & Broom, G. M. (1985). Effective public relations (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Davidson, P. (1941). Propaganda and the American revolution, 1763–1783. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Fleischman Bernays, D. (1955). A wife is many women. NewYork: Crown. ( Note: Beginning in 1955 on the title page of this book, she began identifying herself as “Fleischman Bernays.”)
Gordon, J. C. (1997). Interpreting definitions of public relations: Self-assessment and a symbolic interactionism-based alternative. Public Relations Review, 23 (1), 57–66.
Griese, N. L. (2001). Arthur W. Page: Publisher, public relations pioneer, patriot. Atlanta, GA: Anvil.
Griswold, G. H., Jr. (1967). How AT&T public relations policies developed. Public Relations Quarterly, 12, 7–16.
Grunig, J. E., & Hunt, T. (1984). Managing public relations. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Henry, S. (1998). Dissonant notes of a retiring feminist: Doris E. Fleischman’s later years. Journal of Public Relations Research, 10 (1), 1–33.
Jordan, M. (2004, March 4). Nestlé markets baby formula to Hispanic mothers in U.S. [Electronic version]. TheWall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB107835935754646000
Kotler, P., & Armstrong, G. (2008). Principles of marketing (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
McDonald, F. (1962). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Morse, S. (1906, September). An awakening on Wall Street. American Magazine, 62, 457–463.
Nader, R. (1965). Unsafe at any speed: The designed-in dangers of the American automobile. New York: Grossman.
Nevins, A. (1962, November 13). The Constitution makers and the public, 1785–1790. Lecture delivered to the Public Relations Society of America. https://instituteforpr.org/wp-content/uploads/Nevins_1962_Address.pdf
Pimlott, J. A. R. (1951/1972). Public relations and American democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Public Relations Society of America. (1982). About public relations. https://www.prsa.org/about/all-about-pr
Rogers, H. C. (1980). Walking the tightrope: The private confessions of a public relations man. NewYork: William Morrow.
Tarbell, I. (1987). History of the Standard Oil Company. Manchester, NH: Ayer. (Original work published 1904)
United States Senate, Virtual Reference Desk. (n.d.). https://www.senate.gov/reference/virtual.htm
Wender, R. C. (2007, September 24). Cancer Society was first to issue awareness ads. The Wall Street Journal, A17.

More Public Relations Research Paper Examples:

Order high quality custom paper.

How It Works
PhD thesis writing
Master thesis writing
Bachelor thesis writing
Dissertation writing service
Dissertation abstract writing
Thesis proposal writing
Thesis editing service
Thesis proofreading service
Thesis formatting service
Coursework writing service
Research paper writing service
Architecture thesis writing
Computer science thesis writing
Engineering thesis writing
History thesis writing
MBA thesis writing
Nursing dissertation writing
Psychology dissertation writing
Sociology thesis writing
Statistics dissertation writing
Buy dissertation online
Write my dissertation
Cheap thesis
Cheap dissertation
Custom dissertation
Dissertation help
Pay for thesis
Pay for dissertation
Senior thesis
Write my thesis

168 Current International Relations Research Topics For Any Level

Are you a student looking for intriguing international relations research topics? Look no further! In this blog post, we have created a list of 168 unique and thought-provoking research topics in the field of international relations that should help students get an A+ on their next paper.

Whether you’re studying political science, international affairs or related disciplines, this comprehensive list covers a wide range of fascinating subjects. From global governance to security issues, diplomacy, human rights, and more, these topics are designed to inspire your research and help you delve deeper into the complexities of international relations. So, grab your notepad and get ready to explore these captivating research ideas!

A Word On International Relations Theses

International relations is the study of interactions between nations and global actors. It examines politics, economics, security, and culture, exploring how countries cooperate, conflict and shape global dynamics. If you’re about to start working on a thesis in international relations and you are wondering what to include in your paper, here is a short explanation of each of the mandatory chapters:

Introduction: The opening section that presents the research problem, objectives, and significance of the study. Literature Review: A comprehensive review of existing scholarly works related to the research topic, providing a context for the study. Methodology: Describes the research design, data collection methods, and analytical techniques used to address the research questions or hypotheses. Findings: Presents the empirical results or outcomes of the research, often supported by data, analysis, and interpretation. Discussion: Analyzes and interprets the findings in relation to the research objectives, drawing connections to existing literature and providing insights. Conclusion: Summarizes the main findings, highlights the contributions to the field, and suggests avenues for future research. References: Lists all the sources cited in the thesis following a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA).

Now, it’s time to deliver on our promise and give you the list of international relations research paper topics. Choose the one you like the most:

Easy International Relations Research Topics

Explore our list of easy international relations research topics that will help you understand global politics and analyze the dynamics of international relations with ease

The impact of globalization on state sovereignty and international relations
Analyzing the role of non-state actors in global governance structures
The influence of soft power in shaping international relations and diplomacy
Exploring the relationship between human rights and international relations
Examining the dynamics of economic interdependence in international relations
The role of international organizations in promoting peace and security
Assessing the impact of climate change on international relations and cooperation
Analyzing the role of regional integration in shaping global politics
The implications of cyber warfare for international relations and national security
Examining the challenges and opportunities of humanitarian intervention in international relations
Analyzing the role of ideology in shaping state behavior in international relations
Exploring the impact of migration and refugee crises on international relations
Assessing the role of international law in resolving conflicts and promoting peace
Investigating the role of intelligence agencies in shaping international relations

International Relations Thesis Topics

Our wide range of international relations thesis topics will guide you towards developing a strong research question, conducting in-depth analysis, and contributing to the field with your original research:

Power dynamics and the balance of power in international relations
Exploring the role of diplomacy in conflict resolution and peacebuilding
The impact of nuclear proliferation on international security and non-proliferation regimes
Analyzing the role of international institutions in managing global crises
The influence of nationalism on interstate relations and regional cooperation
Examining the role of international norms and human rights in shaping foreign policy
Assessing the impact of economic globalization on state sovereignty in international relations
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and international relations
Exploring the concept of hegemony and its implications for international relations
The role of gender in international relations and its impact on policy-making
Analyzing the role of intelligence agencies in shaping international relations
The implications of emerging technologies on international security and arms control
Examining the role of media and propaganda in international conflicts and public opinion
The impact of regional integration on state behavior and international cooperation

Advanced International Relations Topics For Research

Dive into complex issues, explore cutting-edge theories, and unravel the intricate dynamics of global affairs with our advanced international relations topics for research:

China’s global rise and its power dynamics
Non-traditional security threats in international relations
AI and warfare: Implications for international security
Climate change, conflict, and forced migration in international relations
Religion and politics in international relations
Populism’s impact on global governance and international relations
Social movements and civil society in shaping international relations
Pandemics and international cooperation: Implications for global governance
Cultural diplomacy and soft power in international relations
Information warfare and disinformation in international relations
Regional powers shaping global security dynamics
Responsibility to protect and humanitarian interventions in international relations
Resource scarcity and environmental degradation in international relations
Migration and refugee crises’ impact on global stability

International Relations Research Questions

Our carefully curated list of international relations research questions will inspire critical thinking and promote meaningful discussions:

How does power transition theory explain shifts in global power dynamics?
What are the implications of the rise of non-state actors on traditional state-centric international relations theories?
How do identity politics and nationalism shape interstate conflicts?
What are the factors influencing state compliance with international human rights norms?
How does globalization impact state sovereignty?
What are the challenges of multilateralism in addressing global issues?
How does public opinion influence state behavior in international relations?
What are the causes and consequences of failed states in international relations?
How does the distribution of power in international institutions affect their legitimacy?
What are the implications of emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence, on international security?
How do regional conflicts and security dilemmas impact regional integration efforts?
What are the root causes of terrorism?
How does economic interdependence shape interstate relations and global governance structures?
What are the challenges of global environmental governance in addressing climate change?

International Relations Paper Topics

Choose one of our international relations paper topics that resonate with your interests and embark on an enriching research journey:

The role of ideology in shaping state behavior in international relations
Analyzing the impact of economic sanctions on diplomatic relations between countries
The role of media and propaganda in influencing public opinion in international conflicts
Exploring the relationship between globalization and cultural identity in international relations
The implications of cybersecurity threats on national security and international relations
Assessing the role of intelligence agencies in gathering and analyzing international intelligence
Analyzing the impact of regional organizations on regional conflicts and cooperation in international relations
The influence of international trade agreements on global economic and political relations
Exploring the dynamics of nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation in international relations
The role of international law in resolving territorial disputes and promoting peace
Non-state actors in international relations: Influence and challenges
Conflict resolution mechanisms: Negotiation, mediation, and peacebuilding approaches
Diplomatic immunity: Balancing immunity with accountability in international relations
The impact of global pandemics on international cooperation and security

Engaging Topic Ideas About International Relations

Are you seeking engaging and captivating topic ideas for your international relations research? Choose one of these engaging topic ideas about international relations:

Global governance and international organizations in addressing global challenges.
Nationalism’s impact on international relations and global cooperation.
Soft power in shaping international perceptions and relations.
Regional conflicts’ implications for global stability and security.
Cyber warfare: Assessing evolving cyber threats in international relations.
Media’s role in international relations: Influence, propaganda, and disinformation.
Economic interdependence: Opportunities and risks in global relations.
Diplomacy in the digital age: Challenges of virtual diplomacy.
Global migration and refugee crises: Humanitarian and political dimensions.
Human rights in international relations: Promoting universal rights.
Terrorism’s impact on global security and counterterrorism efforts.
Environmental diplomacy: Addressing global environmental challenges.
Religion’s role in international relations.
Regional power dynamics: Influence of major powers in different regions

Interesting International Relations Research Paper Topics

Uncover fascinating research paper topics in international relations that will captivate your readers and showcase your analytical skills. Use one of these interesting international relations research paper topics:

Populism’s rise and its impact on international relations and global governance
Climate change’s geopolitical implications: Conflicts, migrations, and resource competition
Hybrid warfare: Analyzing blurred lines between conventional and unconventional threats
Technology’s impact on diplomacy and the future of diplomatic practices
Nuclear energy diplomacy: Balancing peaceful uses and proliferation concerns
Soft power and cultural industries’ influence in international relations
Politics of humanitarian aid: Challenges and ethical considerations
Media framing’s impact on public opinion in international conflicts
International cooperation in space exploration and its geopolitical implications
Diaspora communities’ role in shaping international relations and global politics
Migration policies and human rights: Balancing border control and human dignity
Global health governance: Cooperation, challenges, and pandemic responses
Environmental peacebuilding: Addressing conflicts over natural resources and degradation
Economic sanctions: Effectiveness and ethical implications in international relations

Political Science Dissertation Topics

Our list of political science dissertation topics will provide you with a solid foundation for developing a unique research proposal and making a significant contribution to the field:

The role of political ideologies in foreign policy and international relations.
National security strategies and state behavior in international relations.
Global governance and collective decision-making challenges in international institutions.
Public opinion’s influence on foreign policy and international relations.
Identity politics and intergroup relations in international contexts.
Humanitarian interventions and the responsibility to protect.
Geopolitics and resource conflicts: Strategic importance of natural resources.
International law’s role in shaping state behavior and resolving conflicts.
Comparative political systems in international relations.
Political leadership’s impact on diplomatic relations and cooperation.
International development assistance: Aid effectiveness and challenges.
Non-state actors in global politics: Influence, networks, power dynamics.
Intelligence agencies in international intelligence gathering and analysis.
Political parties and foreign policy shaping

Current International Relations Topics For Research Paper

Stay up to date with the latest developments in global politics by exploring our selection of current international relations topics for research paper writing :

Emerging technologies’ impact on global security and power dynamics.
Transnational threats: Terrorism, crime, and cyber challenges in focus.
Regional integration in globalization: Achievements, limitations, and prospects.
Trade wars: Implications for global economy and cooperation.
Disinformation and fake news: Influence on international politics and public opinion.
Climate change negotiations: Progress and challenges in combating global warming
Cybersecurity and emerging threats in international relations.
Regional power dynamics in the Middle East: Implications for global security
Global responses to the COVID-19 pandemic: Cooperation and challenges
Climate change mitigation and adaptation in international policy
Rising nationalism and its impact on international cooperation
Humanitarian crisis in Yemen: International responses and challenges
Technology and the future of warfare: Implications for global security
The Belt and Road Initiative: Assessing its impact on international relations

Awesome Research Topics For International Relations

Our awesome research topics for international relations allow you to explore diverse areas of global politics and contribute to the field with your exceptional research:

NGOs’ role in shaping international policies and agendas
Humanitarian interventions and the responsibility to protect: Effectiveness and ethics
Cybersecurity challenges in international relations: Risks and responses
Global migration governance: Policies and implications
Globalization vs national sovereignty: Impacts on state behavior
China’s Belt and Road Initiative: Geopolitical influence and challenges
Nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation: Effectiveness of treaties
Gender in international relations: Impact of norms and policies
Post-colonial perspectives in international relations: Power dynamics and legacies
Climate justice and international cooperation: Addressing climate change
Regional organizations in global governance and international relations
Politics of humanitarian intervention: Strategies and outcomes
Political economy of international trade: Impact of policies and agreements
Populism’s impact on democracy and international relations

Controversial International Relations Topics

Delve into the realm of controversy and discourse with our thought-provoking controversial international relations topics:

Drones in targeted killings: Legal and ethical implications
Nuclear energy and non-proliferation: Benefits and risks
Intervention in state sovereignty: Legitimacy and consequences
Ethics of economic sanctions: Effectiveness and impact on civilians
Cyber warfare and international norms: Regulating cyber conflicts
Climate change’s impact on national security and conflicts
Intelligence agencies in covert operations and international relations
Politics of humanitarian aid: Motivations and challenges
Ethics of military intervention: Justifications and consequences
Politics of regime change: Motivations and implications
Media bias’s impact on international perceptions and diplomacy
Private military companies: Challenges and accountability
Politics of disarmament and arms control: Progress and challenges
Corporate interests’ influence on foreign policy and relations

Best International Relations Topics For 2023

Stay ahead of the curve with our selection of the best international relations topics for 2023. These carefully curated topics reflect the current trends, emerging challenges and pressing issues:

COVID-19 pandemic’s implications on global politics and international relations
Rise of populism and its impact on democracy and international cooperation
Cybersecurity challenges in a hyper-connected world: Risks and responses
Future of international cooperation in addressing global challenges and conflicts
Climate change and security: Implications for international relations and stability
Evolving role of regional powers in shaping global politics and relations
Technological advancements’ impact on state power and international relations
Global governance reform: Restructuring international institutions
Social media’s role in shaping international perceptions and political movements
Challenges and prospects of nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation
Intersection of artificial intelligence and international relations
Impact of trade wars on global economic relations and cooperation
Geopolitical tensions in the Arctic: Resource competition and influence
Future of multilateralism: Relevance and effectiveness in a changing world

Get Affordable Help Today

Are you struggling with your international relations research paper or stuck writing a coursework ? Need some help during your next test? Don’t worry, our academic writing company is here to help. We offer professional thesis writing help with a team of highly educated and experienced writers. Our dedicated professionals ensure our high quality work is delivered in a rapid and efficient manner. We understand the importance of affordability, which is why we provide our services at affordable rates.

With our safe and reliable service, you can trust that your paper is in good hands. Whether you’re a college student or in any class, our custom online assistance will ensure that you receive top marks on your international relations research paper. Don’t stress, let our professional service assist you and help you get an A+ on your next international relations research paper!

We have also prepared a list of best topics on the following disciplines:

122 Best Ecology Topics To Sparkle Your Writing
150 Original Accounting Research Paper Topics
233 Marketing Research Topics To Come Up With An Impressive Paper
Leadership Topics For Academic Research Papers
222 Best Anatomy Research Paper Topics To Discuss
101 Best Computer Science Topics
50+ Excellent Economics Paper Topics You Should Not Miss
100 Gender Research Topics For Academic Papers
60+ History Research Paper Topics From Our Top Writers
110 Impressive Nursing Research Topics To Use

How do I choose a research topic in international relations?

Consider your interests, current events, and gaps in existing literature to identify an area of focus. Brainstorm potential topics and ensure they align with your research objectives.

What makes a strong international relations research paper?

A strong research paper includes a well-defined research question, solid theoretical framework, rigorous analysis, credible sources, and logical structure. It should also contribute to the existing body of knowledge.

How can I narrow down my international relations research topic?

Consider specific regions, actors, theories, or policy areas within international relations. Narrowing down your topic will allow for a more focused and manageable research paper.

Can I use case studies in my international relations research paper?

Yes, case studies can be valuable in providing empirical evidence and in-depth analysis. They help illustrate theoretical concepts and offer real-world examples to support your arguments.

Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

Article sidebar.

Main Article Content

There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4] Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I. Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a. US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b. Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole . Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus. [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF. Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c. Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d. Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e. Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45] Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II. Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III. A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders. This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV. Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

[1] Poliwoda, S., Noor, N., Downs, E., Schaaf, A., Cantwell, A., Ganti, L., Kaye, A. D., Mosel, L. I., Carroll, C. B., Viswanath, O., & Urits, I. (2022). Stem cells: a comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice. Orthopedic reviews , 14 (3), 37498. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37498

[2] Poliwoda, S., Noor, N., Downs, E., Schaaf, A., Cantwell, A., Ganti, L., Kaye, A. D., Mosel, L. I., Carroll, C. B., Viswanath, O., & Urits, I. (2022). Stem cells: a comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice. Orthopedic reviews , 14 (3), 37498. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37498

[3] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2023). Laboratory-based human embryonic stem cell research, embryo research, and related research activities . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/blog-post-title-one-ed2td-6fcdk ; Kimmelman, J., Hyun, I., Benvenisty, N. et al. Policy: Global standards for stem-cell research. Nature 533 , 311–313 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/533311a

[4] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2023). Laboratory-based human embryonic stem cell research, embryo research, and related research activities . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/blog-post-title-one-ed2td-6fcdk

[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

Sandel M. J. (2004). Embryo ethics--the moral logic of stem-cell research. The New England journal of medicine , 351 (3), 207–209. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048145 ; George, R. P., & Lee, P. (2020, September 26). Acorns and Embryos . The New Atlantis. https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/acorns-and-embryos ; Sagan, A., & Singer, P. (2007). The moral status of stem cells. Metaphilosophy , 38 (2/3), 264–284. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24439776 ; McHugh P. R. (2004). Zygote and "clonote"--the ethical use of embryonic stem cells. The New England journal of medicine , 351 (3), 209–211. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048147 ; Kurjak, A., & Tripalo, A. (2004). The facts and doubts about beginning of the human life and personality. Bosnian journal of basic medical sciences , 4 (1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.17305/bjbms.2004.3453

[6] Vazin, T., & Freed, W. J. (2010). Human embryonic stem cells: derivation, culture, and differentiation: a review. Restorative neurology and neuroscience , 28 (4), 589–603. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-2010-0543

[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

[8] Sherley v. Sebelius , 644 F.3d 388 (D.C. Cir. 2011), citing 45 C.F.R. 46.204(b) and [42 U.S.C. § 289g(b)]. https://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/6c690438a9b43dd685257a64004ebf99/$file/11-5241-1391178.pdf

[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

[11] Hurlbut, W. B. (2006). Science, Religion, and the Politics of Stem Cells. Social Research , 73 (3), 819–834. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971854

[12] Akpa-Inyang, Francis & Chima, Sylvester. (2021). South African traditional values and beliefs regarding informed consent and limitations of the principle of respect for autonomy in African communities: a cross-cultural qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics . 22. 10.1186/s12910-021-00678-4.

[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa. Stem Cell Res Ther 4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

[20] Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries. Middle East Fertil Soc J 24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction. Frontiers in pharmacology , 13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

[25] Li, X.-T., & Zhao, J. (2012). Chapter 4: An Approach to the Nature of Qi in TCM- Qi and Bioenergy. In Recent Advances in Theories and Practice of Chinese Medicine (p. 79). InTech.

[26] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students. Stem cells international , 2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[27] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students. Stem cells international , 2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H. et al. Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017. BMC Public Health 22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan. Curr Stem Cell Rep 1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work. Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned. Accountability in research , 13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies. https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics. Research Ethics , 17 (2), 228-241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics. Research Ethics , 17 (2), 228-241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East. Nature 510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East. Nature 510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France. Biotechnology Law Report , 32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ... Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes , 41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights. Cultura (Iasi, Romania) , 14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent? Research Ethics , 13 (1), 23-41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52. https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.), Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press. https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation. Journal of Religion and Health , 30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.), Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press. https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law). Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics , 25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.), Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press. https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979). The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes. Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics , 35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

[71] Klitzman, R., & Sauer, M. V. (2009). Payment of egg donors in stem cell research in the USA. Reproductive biomedicine online , 18 (5), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60002-8

[72] Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., & Ranney, M. L. (2006). Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa. Clinical trials (London, England) , 3 (3), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1191/1740774506cn150oa

[73] Veatch, Robert M. Hippocratic, Religious, and Secular Medical Ethics: The Points of Conflict . Georgetown University Press, 2012.

[74] Msoroka, M. S., & Amundsen, D. (2018). One size fits not quite all: Universal research ethics with diversity. Research Ethics , 14 (3), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117739939

[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry. Voices in Bioethics , 8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis. Voices in Bioethics , 3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation, New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI: 10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East. Nature 510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

Article Details

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

Open access
Published: 13 May 2024

What are the strengths and limitations to utilising creative methods in public and patient involvement in health and social care research? A qualitative systematic review

Olivia R. Phillips 1 , 2 na1 ,
Cerian Harries 2 , 3 na1 ,
Jo Leonardi-Bee 1 , 2 , 4 na1 ,
Holly Knight 1 , 2 ,
Lauren B. Sherar 2 , 3 ,
Veronica Varela-Mato 2 , 3 &
Joanne R. Morling 1 , 2 , 5

Research Involvement and Engagement volume 10 , Article number: 48 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

103 Accesses

2 Altmetric

Metrics details

There is increasing interest in using patient and public involvement (PPI) in research to improve the quality of healthcare. Ordinarily, traditional methods have been used such as interviews or focus groups. However, these methods tend to engage a similar demographic of people. Thus, creative methods are being developed to involve patients for whom traditional methods are inaccessible or non-engaging.

To determine the strengths and limitations to using creative PPI methods in health and social care research.

Electronic searches were conducted over five databases on 14th April 2023 (Web of Science, PubMed, ASSIA, CINAHL, Cochrane Library). Studies that involved traditional, non-creative PPI methods were excluded. Creative PPI methods were used to engage with people as research advisors, rather than study participants. Only primary data published in English from 2009 were accepted. Title, abstract and full text screening was undertaken by two independent reviewers before inductive thematic analysis was used to generate themes.

Twelve papers met the inclusion criteria. The creative methods used included songs, poems, drawings, photograph elicitation, drama performance, visualisations, social media, photography, prototype development, cultural animation, card sorting and persona development. Analysis identified four limitations and five strengths to the creative approaches. Limitations included the time and resource intensive nature of creative PPI, the lack of generalisation to wider populations and ethical issues. External factors, such as the lack of infrastructure to support creative PPI, also affected their implementation. Strengths included the disruption of power hierarchies and the creation of a safe space for people to express mundane or “taboo” topics. Creative methods are also engaging, inclusive of people who struggle to participate in traditional PPI and can also be cost and time efficient.

‘Creative PPI’ is an umbrella term encapsulating many different methods of engagement and there are strengths and limitations to each. The choice of which should be determined by the aims and requirements of the research, as well as the characteristics of the PPI group and practical limitations. Creative PPI can be advantageous over more traditional methods, however a hybrid approach could be considered to reap the benefits of both. Creative PPI methods are not widely used; however, this could change over time as PPI becomes embedded even more into research.

Plain English Summary

It is important that patients and public are included in the research process from initial brainstorming, through design to delivery. This is known as public and patient involvement (PPI). Their input means that research closely aligns with their wants and needs. Traditionally to get this input, interviews and group discussions are held, but this can exclude people who find these activities non-engaging or inaccessible, for example those with language challenges, learning disabilities or memory issues. Creative methods of PPI can overcome this. This is a broad term describing different (non-traditional) ways of engaging patients and public in research, such as through the use or art, animation or performance. This review investigated the reasons why creative approaches to PPI could be difficult (limitations) or helpful (strengths) in health and social care research. After searching 5 online databases, 12 studies were included in the review. PPI groups included adults, children and people with language and memory impairments. Creative methods included songs, poems, drawings, the use of photos and drama, visualisations, Facebook, creating prototypes, personas and card sorting. Limitations included the time, cost and effort associated with creative methods, the lack of application to other populations, ethical issues and buy-in from the wider research community. Strengths included the feeling of equality between academics and the public, creation of a safe space for people to express themselves, inclusivity, and that creative PPI can be cost and time efficient. Overall, this review suggests that creative PPI is worthwhile, however each method has its own strengths and limitations and the choice of which will depend on the research project, PPI group characteristics and other practical limitations, such as time and financial constraints.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Patient and public involvement (PPI) is the term used to describe the partnership between patients (including caregivers, potential patients, healthcare users etc.) or the public (a community member with no known interest in the topic) with researchers. It describes research that is done “‘with’ or ‘by’ the public, rather than ‘to,’ ‘about’ or ‘for’ them” [ 1 ]. In 2009, it became a legislative requirement for certain health and social care organisations to include patients, families, carers and communities in not only the planning of health and social care services, but the commissioning, delivery and evaluation of them too [ 2 ]. For example, funding applications for the National Institute of Health and Care Research (NIHR), a UK funding body, mandates a demonstration of how researchers plan to include patients/service users, the public and carers at each stage of the project [ 3 ]. However, this should not simply be a tokenistic, tick-box exercise. PPI should help formulate initial ideas and should be an instrumental, continuous part of the research process. Input from PPI can provide unique insights not yet considered and can ensure that research and health services are closely aligned to the needs and requirements of service users PPI also generally makes research more relevant with clearer outcomes and impacts [ 4 ]. Although this review refers to both patients and the public using the umbrella term ‘PPI’, it is important to acknowledge that these are two different groups with different motivations, needs and interests when it comes to health research and service delivery [ 5 ].

Despite continuing recognition of the need of PPI to improve quality of healthcare, researchers have also recognised that there is no ‘one size fits all’ method for involving patients [ 4 ]. Traditionally, PPI methods invite people to take part in interviews or focus groups to facilitate discussion, or surveys and questionnaires. However, these can sometimes be inaccessible or non-engaging for certain populations. For example, someone with communication difficulties may find it difficult to engage in focus groups or interviews. If individuals lack the appropriate skills to interact in these types of scenarios, they cannot take advantage of the participation opportunities it can provide [ 6 ]. Creative methods, however, aim to resolve these issues. These are a relatively new concept whereby researchers use creative methods (e.g., artwork, animations, Lego), to make PPI more accessible and engaging for those whose voices would otherwise go unheard. They ensure that all populations can engage in research, regardless of their background or skills. Seminal work has previously been conducted in this area, which brought to light the use of creative methodologies in research. Leavy (2008) [ 7 ] discussed how traditional interviews had limits on what could be expressed due to their sterile, jargon-filled and formulaic structure, read by only a few specialised academics. It was this that called for more creative approaches, which included narrative enquiry, fiction-based research, poetry, music, dance, art, theatre, film and visual art. These practices, which can be used in any stage of the research cycle, supported greater empathy, self-reflection and longer-lasting learning experiences compared to interviews [ 7 ]. They also pushed traditional academic boundaries, which made the research accessible not only to researchers, but the public too. Leavy explains that there are similarities between arts-based approaches and scientific approaches: both attempts to investigate what it means to be human through exploration, and used together, these complimentary approaches can progress our understanding of the human experience [ 7 ]. Further, it is important to acknowledge the parallels and nuances between creative and inclusive methods of PPI. Although creative methods aim to be inclusive (this should underlie any PPI activity, whether creative or not), they do not incorporate all types of accessible, inclusive methodologies e.g., using sign language for people with hearing impairments or audio recordings for people who cannot read. Given that there was not enough scope to include an evaluation of all possible inclusive methodologies, this review will focus on creative methods of PPI only.

We aimed to conduct a qualitative systematic review to highlight the strengths of creative PPI in health and social care research, as well as the limitations, which might act as a barrier to their implementation. A qualitative systematic review “brings together research on a topic, systematically searching for research evidence from primary qualitative studies and drawing the findings together” [ 8 ]. This review can then advise researchers of the best practices when designing PPI.

Public involvement

The PHIRST-LIGHT Public Advisory Group (PAG) consists of a team of experienced public contributors with a diverse range of characteristics from across the UK. The PAG was involved in the initial question setting and study design for this review.

Search strategy

For the purpose of this review, the JBI approach for conducting qualitative systematic reviews was followed [ 9 ]. The search terms were (“creativ*” OR “innovat*” OR “authentic” OR “original” OR “inclu*”) AND (“public and patient involvement” OR “patient and public involvement” OR “public and patient involvement and engagement” OR “patient and public involvement and engagement” OR “PPI” OR “PPIE” OR “co-produc*” OR “co-creat*” OR “co-design*” OR “cooperat*” OR “co-operat*”). This search string was modified according to the requirements of each database. Papers were filtered by title, abstract and keywords (see Additional file 1 for search strings). The databases searched included Web of Science (WoS), PubMed, ASSIA and CINAHL. The Cochrane Library was also searched to identify relevant reviews which could lead to the identification of primary research. The search was conducted on 14/04/23. As our aim was to report on the use of creative PPI in research, rather than more generic public engagement, we used electronic databases of scholarly peer-reviewed literature, which represent a wide range of recognised databases. These identified studies published in general international journals (WoS, PubMed), those in social sciences journals (ASSIA), those in nursing and allied health journals (CINAHL), and trials of interventions (Cochrane Library).

Inclusion criteria

Only full-text, English language, primary research papers from 2009 to 2023 were included. This was the chosen timeframe as in 2009 the Health and Social Reform Act made it mandatory for certain Health and Social Care organisations to involve the public and patients in planning, delivering, and evaluating services [ 2 ]. Only creative methods of PPI were accepted, rather than traditional methods, such as interviews or focus groups. For the purposes of this paper, creative PPI included creative art or arts-based approaches (e.g., e.g. stories, songs, drama, drawing, painting, poetry, photography) to enhance engagement. Titles were related to health and social care and the creative PPI was used to engage with people as research advisors, not as study participants. Meta-analyses, conference abstracts, book chapters, commentaries and reviews were excluded. There were no limits concerning study location or the demographic characteristics of the PPI groups. Only qualitative data were accepted.

Quality appraisal

Quality appraisal using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist [ 10 ] was conducted by the primary authors (ORP and CH). This was done independently, and discrepancies were discussed and resolved. If a consensus could not be reached, a third independent reviewer was consulted (JRM). The full list of quality appraisal questions can be found in Additional file 2 .

Data extraction

ORP extracted the study characteristics and a subset of these were checked by CH. Discrepancies were discussed and amendments made. Extracted data included author, title, location, year of publication, year study was carried out, research question/aim, creative methods used, number of participants, mean age, gender, ethnicity of participants, setting, limitations and strengths of creative PPI and main findings.

Data analysis

The included studies were analysed using inductive thematic analysis [ 11 ], where themes were determined by the data. The familiarisation stage took place during full-text reading of the included articles. Anything identified as a strength or limitation to creative PPI methods was extracted verbatim as an initial code and inputted into the data extraction Excel sheet. Similar codes were sorted into broader themes, either under ‘strengths’ or ‘limitations’ and reviewed. Themes were then assigned a name according to the codes.

The search yielded 9978 titles across the 5 databases: Web of Science (1480 results), PubMed (94 results), ASSIA (2454 results), CINAHL (5948 results) and Cochrane Library (2 results), resulting in 8553 different studies after deduplication. ORP and CH independently screened their titles and abstracts, excluding those that did not meet the criteria. After assessment, 12 studies were included (see Fig. 1 ).

PRISMA flowchart of the study selection process

Study characteristics

The included studies were published between 2018 and 2022. Seven were conducted in the UK [ 12 , 14 , 15 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 23 ], two in Canada [ 21 , 22 ], one in Australia [ 13 ], one in Norway [ 16 ] and one in Ireland [ 20 ]. The PPI activities occurred across various settings, including a school [ 12 ], social club [ 12 ], hospital [ 17 ], university [ 22 ], theatre [ 19 ], hotel [ 20 ], or online [ 15 , 21 ], however this information was omitted in 5 studies [ 13 , 14 , 16 , 18 , 23 ]. The number of people attending the PPI sessions varied, ranging from 6 to 289, however the majority (ten studies) had less than 70 participants [ 13 , 14 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Seven studies did not provide information on the age or gender of the PPI groups. Of those that did, ages ranged from 8 to 76 and were mostly female. The ethnicities of the PPI group members were also rarely recorded (see Additional file 3 for data extraction table).

Types of creative methods

The type of creative methods used to engage the PPI groups were varied. These included songs, poems, drawings, photograph elicitation, drama performance, visualisations, Facebook, photography, prototype development, cultural animation, card sorting and creating personas (see Table 1 ). These were sometimes accompanied by traditional methods of PPI such as interviews and focus group discussions.

The 12 included studies were all deemed to be of good methodological quality, with scores ranging from 6/10 to 10/10 with the CASP critical appraisal tool [ 10 ] (Table 2 ).

Thematic analysis

Analysis identified four limitations and five strengths to creative PPI (see Fig. 2 ). Limitations included the time and resource intensity of creative PPI methods, its lack of generalisation, ethical issues and external factors. Strengths included the disruption of power hierarchies, the engaging and inclusive nature of the methods and their long-term cost and time efficiency. Creative PPI methods also allowed mundane and “taboo” topics to be discussed within a safe space.

Theme map of strengths and limitations

Limitations of creative PPI

Creative ppi methods are time and resource intensive.

The time and resource intensive nature of creative PPI methods is a limitation, most notably for the persona-scenario methodology. Valaitis et al. [ 22 ] used 14 persona-scenario workshops with 70 participants to co-design a healthcare intervention, which aimed to promote optimal aging in Canada. Using the persona method, pairs composed of patients, healthcare providers, community service providers and volunteers developed a fictional character which they believed represented an ‘end-user’ of the healthcare intervention. Due to the depth and richness of the data produced the authors reported that it was time consuming to analyse. Further, they commented that the amount of information was difficult to disseminate to scientific leads and present at team meetings. Additionally, to ensure the production of high-quality data, to probe for details and lead group discussion there was a need for highly skilled facilitators. The resource intensive nature of the creative co-production was also noted in a study using the persona scenario and creative worksheets to develop a prototype decision support tool for individuals with malignant pleural effusion [ 17 ]. With approximately 50 people, this was also likely to yield a high volume of data to consider.

To prepare materials for populations who cannot engage in traditional methods of PPI was also timely. Kearns et al. [ 18 ] developed a feedback questionnaire for people with aphasia to evaluate ICT-delivered rehabilitation. To ensure people could participate effectively, the resources used during the workshops, such as PowerPoints, online images and photographs, had to be aphasia-accessible, which was labour and time intensive. The author warned that this time commitment should not be underestimated.

There are further practical limitations to implementing creative PPI, such as the costs of materials for activities as well as hiring a space for workshops. For example, the included studies in this review utilised pens, paper, worksheets, laptops, arts and craft supplies and magazines and took place in venues such as universities, a social club, and a hotel. Further, although not limited to creative PPI methods exclusively but rather most studies involving the public, a financial incentive was often offered for participation, as well as food, parking, transport and accommodation [ 21 , 22 ].

Creative PPI lacks generalisation

Another barrier to the use of creative PPI methods in health and social care research was the individual nature of its output. Those who participate, usually small in number, produce unique creative outputs specific to their own experiences, opinions and location. Craven et al. [ 13 ], used arts-based visualisations to develop a toolbox for adults with mental health difficulties. They commented, “such an approach might still not be worthwhile”, as the visualisations were individualised and highly personal. This indicates that the output may fail to meet the needs of its end-users. Further, these creative PPI groups were based in certain geographical regions such as Stoke-on-Trent [ 19 ] Sheffield [ 23 ], South Wales [ 12 ] or Ireland [ 20 ], which limits the extent the findings can be applied to wider populations, even within the same area due to individual nuances. Further, the study by Galler et al. [ 16 ], is specific to the Norwegian context and even then, maybe only a sub-group of the Norwegian population as the sample used was of higher socioeconomic status.

However, Grindell et al. [ 17 ], who used persona scenarios, creative worksheets and prototype development, pointed out that the purpose of this type of research is to improve a certain place, rather than apply findings across other populations and locations. Individualised output may, therefore, only be a limitation to research wanting to conduct PPI on a large scale.

If, however, greater generalisation within PPI is deemed necessary, then social media may offer a resolution. Fedorowicz et al. [ 15 ], used Facebook to gain feedback from the public on the use of video-recording methodology for an upcoming project. This had the benefit of including a more diverse range of people (289 people joined the closed group), who were spread geographically around the UK, as well as seven people from overseas.

Creative PPI has ethical issues

As with other research, ethical issues must be taken into consideration. Due to the nature of creative approaches, as well as the personal effort put into them, people often want to be recognised for their work. However, this compromises principles so heavily instilled in research such as anonymity and confidentiality. With the aim of exploring issues related to health and well-being in a town in South Wales, Byrne et al. [ 12 ], asked year 4/5 and year 10 pupils to create poems, songs, drawings and photographs. Community members also created a performance, mainly of monologues, to explore how poverty and inequalities are dealt with. Byrne noted the risks of these arts-based approaches, that being the possibility of over-disclosure and consequent emotional distress, as well as people’s desire to be named for their work. On one hand, the anonymity reduces the sense of ownership of the output as it does not portray a particular individual’s lived experience anymore. On the other hand, however, it could promote a more honest account of lived experience. Supporting this, Webber et al. [ 23 ], who used the persona method to co-design a back pain educational resource prototype, claimed that the anonymity provided by this creative technique allowed individuals to externalise and anonymise their own personal experience, thus creating a more authentic and genuine resource for future users. This implies that anonymity can be both a limitation and strength here.

The use of creative PPI methods is impeded by external factors

Despite the above limitations influencing the implementation of creative PPI techniques, perhaps the most influential is that creative methodologies are simply not mainstream [ 19 ]. This could be linked to the issues above, like time and resource intensity, generalisation and ethical issues but it is also likely to involve more systemic factors within the research community. Micsinszki et al. [ 21 ], who co-designed a hub for the health and well-being of vulnerable populations, commented that there is insufficient infrastructure to conduct meaningful co-design as well as a dominant medical model. Through a more holistic lens, there are “sociopolitical environments that privilege individualism over collectivism, self-sufficiency over collaboration, and scientific expertise over other ways of knowing based on lived experience” [ 21 ]. This, it could be suggested, renders creative co-design methodologies, which are based on the foundations of collectivism, collaboration and imagination an invalid technique in the research field, which is heavily dominated by more scientific methods offering reproducibility, objectivity and reliability.

Although we acknowledge that creative PPI techniques are not always appropriate, it may be that their main limitation is the lack of awareness of these methods or lack of willingness to use them. Further, there is always the risk that PPI, despite being a mandatory part of research, is used in a tokenistic or tick-box fashion [ 20 ], without considering the contribution that meaningful PPI could make to enhancing the research. It may be that PPI, let alone creative PPI, is not at the forefront of researchers’ minds when planning research.

Strengths of creative PPI

Creative ppi disrupts power hierarchies.

One of the main strengths of creative PPI techniques, cited most frequently in the included literature, was that they disrupt traditional power hierarchies [ 12 , 13 , 17 , 19 , 23 ]. For example, the use of theatre performance blurred the lines between professional and lay roles between the community and policy makers [ 12 ]. Individuals created a monologue to portray how poverty and inequality impact daily life and presented this to representatives of the National Assembly of Wales, Welsh Government, the Local Authority, Arts Council and Westminster. Byrne et al. [ 12 ], states how this medium allowed the community to engage with the people who make decisions about their lives in an environment of respect and understanding, where the hierarchies are not as visible as in other settings, e.g., political surgeries. Creative PPI methods have also removed traditional power hierarchies between researchers and adolescents. Cook et al. [ 13 ], used arts-based approaches to explore adolescents’ ideas about the “perfect” condom. They utilised the “Life Happens” resource, where adolescents drew and then decorated a person with their thoughts about sexual relationships, not too dissimilar from the persona-scenario method. This was then combined with hypothetical scenarios about sexuality. A condom-mapping exercise was then implemented, where groups shared the characteristics that make a condom “perfect” on large pieces of paper. Cook et al. [ 13 ], noted that usually power imbalances make it difficult to elicit information from adolescents, however these power imbalances were reduced due to the use of creative co-design techniques.

The same reduction in power hierarchies was noted by Grindell et al. [ 17 ], who used the person-scenario method and creative worksheets with individuals with malignant pleural effusion. This was with the aim of developing a prototype of a decision support tool for patients to help with treatment options. Although this process involved a variety of stakeholders, such as patients, carers and healthcare professionals, creative co-design was cited as a mechanism that worked to reduce power imbalances – a limitation of more traditional methods of research. Creative co-design blurred boundaries between end-users and clinical staff and enabled the sharing of ideas from multiple, valuable perspectives, meaning the prototype was able to suit user needs whilst addressing clinical problems.

Similarly, a specific creative method named cultural animation was also cited to dissolve hierarchies and encourage equal contributions from participants. Within this arts-based approach, Keleman et al. [ 19 ], explored the concept of “good health” with individuals from Stoke-on Trent. Members of the group created art installations using ribbons, buttons, cardboard and straws to depict their idea of a “healthy community”, which was accompanied by a poem. They also created a 3D Facebook page and produced another poem or song addressing the government to communicate their version of a “picture of health”. Public participants said that they found the process empowering, honest, democratic, valuable and practical.

This dissolving of hierarchies and levelling of power is beneficial as it increases the sense of ownership experienced by the creators/producers of the output [ 12 , 17 , 23 ]. This is advantageous as it has been suggested to improve its quality [ 23 ].

Creative PPI allows the unsayable to be said

Creative PPI fosters a safe space for mundane or taboo topics to be shared, which may be difficult to communicate using traditional methods of PPI. For example, the hypothetical nature of condom mapping and persona-scenarios meant that adolescents could discuss a personal topic without fear of discrimination, judgement or personal disclosure [ 13 ]. The safe space allowed a greater volume of ideas to be generated amongst peers where they might not have otherwise. Similarly, Webber et al. [ 23 ], , who used the persona method to co-design the prototype back pain educational resource, also noted how this method creates anonymity whilst allowing people the opportunity to externalise personal experiences, thoughts and feelings. Other creative methods were also used, such as drawing, collaging, role play and creating mood boards. A cardboard cube (labelled a “magic box”) was used to symbolise a physical representation of their final prototype. These creative methods levelled the playing field and made personal experiences accessible in a safe, open environment that fostered trust, as well as understanding from the researchers.

It is not only sensitive subjects that were made easier to articulate through creative PPI. The communication of mundane everyday experiences were also facilitated, which were deemed typically ‘unsayable’. This was specifically given in the context of describing intangible aspects of everyday health and wellbeing [ 11 ]. Graphic designers can also be used to visually represent the outputs of creative PPI. These captured the movement and fluidity of people and well as the relationships between them - things that cannot be spoken but can be depicted [ 21 ].

Creative PPI methods are inclusive

Another strength of creative PPI was that it is inclusive and accessible [ 17 , 19 , 21 ]. The safe space it fosters, as well as the dismantling of hierarchies, welcomed people from a diverse range of backgrounds and provided equal opportunities [ 21 ], especially for those with communication and memory difficulties who might be otherwise excluded from PPI. Kelemen et al. [ 19 ], who used creative methods to explore health and well-being in Stoke-on-Trent, discussed how people from different backgrounds came together and connected, discussed and reached a consensus over a topic which evoked strong emotions, that they all have in common. Individuals said that the techniques used “sets people to open up as they are not overwhelmed by words”. Similarly, creative activities, such as the persona method, have been stated to allow people to express themselves in an inclusive environment using a common language. Kearns et al. [ 18 ], who used aphasia-accessible material to develop a questionnaire with aphasic individuals, described how they felt comfortable in contributing to workshops (although this material was time-consuming to make, see ‘Limitations of creative PPI’ ).

Despite the general inclusivity of creative PPI, it can also be exclusive, particularly if online mediums are used. Fedorowicz et al. [ 15 ], used Facebook to create a PPI group, and although this may rectify previous drawbacks about lack of generalisation of creative methods (as Facebook can reach a greater number of people, globally), it excluded those who are not digitally active or have limited internet access or knowledge of technology. Online methods have other issues too. Maintaining the online group was cited as challenging and the volume of responses required researchers to interact outside of their working hours. Despite this, online methods like Facebook are very accessible for people who are physically disabled.

Creative PPI methods are engaging

The process of creative PPI is typically more engaging and produces more colourful data than traditional methods [ 13 ]. Individuals are permitted and encouraged to explore a creative self [ 19 ], which can lead to the exploration of new ideas and an overall increased enjoyment of the process. This increased engagement is particularly beneficial for younger PPI groups. For example, to involve children in the development of health food products, Galler et al. [ 16 ] asked 9-12-year-olds to take photos of their food and present it to other children in a “show and tell” fashion. They then created a newspaper article describing a new healthy snack. In this creative focus group, children were given lab coats to further their identity as inventors. Galler et al. [ 16 ], notes that the methods were highly engaging and facilitated teamwork and group learning. This collaborative nature of problem-solving was also observed in adults who used personas and creative worksheets to develop the resource for lower back pain [ 23 ]. Dementia patients too have been reported to enjoy the creative and informal approach to idea generation [ 20 ].

The use of cultural animation allowed people to connect with each other in a way that traditional methods do not [ 19 , 21 ]. These connections were held in place by boundary objects, such as ribbons, buttons, fabric and picture frames, which symbolised a shared meaning between people and an exchange of knowledge and emotion. Asking groups to create an art installation using these objects further fostered teamwork and collaboration, both at an individual and collective level. The exploration of a creative self increased energy levels and encouraged productive discussions and problem-solving [ 19 ]. Objects also encouraged a solution-focused approach and permitted people to think beyond their usual everyday scope [ 17 ]. They also allowed facilitators to probe deeper about the greater meanings carried by the object, which acted as a metaphor [ 21 ].

From the researcher’s point of view, co-creative methods gave rise to ideas they might not have initially considered. Valaitis et al. [ 22 ], found that over 40% of the creative outputs were novel ideas brought to light by patients, healthcare providers/community care providers, community service providers and volunteers. One researcher commented, “It [the creative methods] took me on a journey, in a way that when we do other pieces of research it can feel disconnected” [ 23 ]. Another researcher also stated they could not return to the way they used to do research, as they have learnt so much about their own health and community and how they are perceived [ 19 ]. This demonstrates that creative processes not only benefit the project outcomes and the PPI group, but also facilitators and researchers. However, although engaging, creative methods have been criticised for not demonstrating academic rigour [ 17 ]. Moreover, creative PPI may also be exclusive to people who do not like or enjoy creative activities.

Creative PPI methods are cost and time efficient

Creative PPI workshops can often produce output that is visible and tangible. This can save time and money in the long run as the output is either ready to be implemented in a healthcare setting or a first iteration has already been developed. This may also offset the time and costs it takes to implement creative PPI. For example, the prototype of the decision support tool for people with malignant pleural effusion was developed using personas and creative worksheets. The end result was two tangible prototypes to drive the initial idea forward as something to be used in practice [ 17 ]. The use of creative co-design in this case saved clinician time as well as the time it would take to develop this product without the help of its end-users. In the development of this particular prototype, analysis was iterative and informed the next stage of development, which again saved time. The same applies for the feedback questionnaire for the assessment of ICT delivered aphasia rehabilitation. The co-created questionnaire, designed with people with aphasia, was ready to be used in practice [ 18 ]. This suggests that to overcome time and resource barriers to creative PPI, researchers should aim for it to be engaging whilst also producing output.

That useable products are generated during creative workshops signals to participating patients and public members that they have been listened to and their thoughts and opinions acted upon [ 23 ]. For example, the development of the back pain resource based on patient experiences implies that their suggestions were valid and valuable. Further, those who participated in the cultural animation workshop reported that the process visualises change, and that it already feels as though the process of change has started [ 19 ].

The most cost and time efficient method of creative PPI in this review is most likely the use of Facebook to gather feedback on project methodology [ 15 ]. Although there were drawbacks to this, researchers could involve more people from a range of geographical areas at little to no cost. Feedback was instantaneous and no training was required. From the perspective of the PPI group, they could interact however much or little they wish with no time commitment.

This systematic review identified four limitations and five strengths to the use of creative PPI in health and social care research. Creative PPI is time and resource intensive, can raise ethical issues and lacks generalisability. It is also not accepted by the mainstream. These factors may act as barriers to the implementation of creative PPI. However, creative PPI disrupts traditional power hierarchies and creates a safe space for taboo or mundane topics. It is also engaging, inclusive and can be time and cost efficient in the long term.

Something that became apparent during data analysis was that these are not blanket strengths and limitations of creative PPI as a whole. The umbrella term ‘creative PPI’ is broad and encapsulates a wide range of activities, ranging from music and poems to prototype development and persona-scenarios, to more simplistic things like the use of sticky notes and ordering cards. Many different activities can be deemed ‘creative’ and the strengths and limitations of one does not necessarily apply to another. For example, cultural animation takes greater effort to prepare than the use of sticky notes and sorting cards, and the use of Facebook is cheaper and wider reaching than persona development. Researchers should use their discretion and weigh up the benefits and drawbacks of each method to decide on a technique which suits the project. What might be a limitation to creative PPI in one project may not be in another. In some cases, creative PPI may not be suitable at all.

Furthermore, the choice of creative PPI method also depends on the needs and characteristics of the PPI group. Children, adults and people living with dementia or language difficulties all have different engagement needs and capabilities. This indicates that creative PPI is not one size fits all and that the most appropriate method will change depending on the composition of the group. The choice of method will also be determined by the constraints of the research project, namely time, money and the research aim. For example, if there are time constraints, then a method which yields a lot of data and requires a lot of preparation may not be appropriate. If generalisation is important, then an online method is more suitable. Together this indicates that the choice of creative PPI method is highly individualised and dependent on multiple factors.

Although the limitations discussed in this review apply to creative PPI, they are not exclusive to creative PPI. Ethical issues are a consideration within general PPI research, especially when working with more vulnerable populations, such as children or adults living with a disability. It can also be the case that traditional PPI methods lack generalisability, as people who volunteer to be part of such a group are more likely be older, middle class and retired [ 24 ]. Most research is vulnerable to this type of bias, however, it is worth noting that generalisation is not always a goal and research remains valid and meaningful in its absence. Although online methods may somewhat combat issues related to generalisability, these methods still exclude people who do not have access to the internet/technology or who choose not to use it, implying that online PPI methods may not be wholly representative of the general population. Saying this, however, the accessibility of creative PPI techniques differs from person to person, and for some, online mediums may be more accessible (for example for those with a physical disability), and for others, this might be face-to-face. To combat this, a range of methods should be implemented. Planning multiple focus group and interviews for traditional PPI is also time and resource intensive, however the extra resources required to make this creative may be even greater. Although, the rich data provided may be worth the preparation and analysis time, which is also likely to depend on the number of participants and workshop sessions required. PPI, not just creative PPI, often requires the provision of a financial incentive, refreshments, parking and accommodation, which increase costs. These, however, are imperative and non-negotiable, as they increase the accessibility of research, especially to minority and lower-income groups less likely to participate. Adequate funding is also important for co-design studies where repeated engagement is required. One barrier to implementation, which appears to be exclusive to creative methods, however, is that creative methods are not mainstream. This cannot be said for traditional PPI as this is often a mandatory part of research applications.

Regarding the strengths of creative PPI, it could be argued that most appear to be exclusive to creative methodologies. These are inclusive by nature as multiple approaches can be taken to evoke ideas from different populations - approaches that do not necessarily rely on verbal or written communication like interviews and focus groups do. Given the anonymity provided by some creative methods, such as personas, people may be more likely to discuss their personal experiences under the guise of a general end-user, which might be more difficult to maintain when an interviewer is asking an individual questions directly. Additionally, creative methods are by nature more engaging and interactive than traditional methods, although this is a blanket statement and there may be people who find the question-and-answer/group discussion format more engaging. Creative methods have also been cited to eliminate power imbalances which exist in traditional research [ 12 , 13 , 17 , 19 , 23 ]. These imbalances exist between researchers and policy makers and adolescents, adults and the community. Lastly, although this may occur to a greater extent in creative methods like prototype development, it could be suggested that PPI in general – regardless of whether it is creative - is more time and cost efficient in the long-term than not using any PPI to guide or refine the research process. It must be noted that these are observations based on the literature. To be certain these differences exist between creative and traditional methods of PPI, direct empirical evaluation of both should be conducted.

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review to identify the strengths and limitations to creative PPI, however, similar literature has identified barriers and facilitators to PPI in general. In the context of clinical trials, recruitment difficulties were cited as a barrier, as well as finding public contributors who were free during work/school hours. Trial managers reported finding group dynamics difficult to manage and the academic environment also made some public contributors feel nervous and lacking confidence to speak. Facilitators, however, included the shared ownership of the research – something that has been identified in the current review too. In addition, planning and the provision of knowledge, information and communication were also identified as facilitators [ 25 ]. Other research on the barriers to meaningful PPI in trial oversight committees included trialist confusion or scepticism over the PPI role and the difficulties in finding PPI members who had a basic understanding of research [ 26 ]. However, it could be argued that this is not representative of the average patient or public member. The formality of oversight meetings and the technical language used also acted as a barrier, which may imply that the informal nature of creative methods and its lack of dependency on literacy skills could overcome this. Further, a review of 42 reviews on PPI in health and social care identified financial compensation, resources, training and general support as necessary to conduct PPI, much like in the current review where the resource intensiveness of creative PPI was identified as a limitation. However, others were identified too, such as recruitment and representativeness of public contributors [ 27 ]. Like in the current review, power imbalances were also noted, however this was included as both a barrier and facilitator. Collaboration seemed to diminish hierarchies but not always, as sometimes these imbalances remained between public contributors and healthcare staff, described as a ‘them and us’ culture [ 27 ]. Although these studies compliment the findings of the current review, a direct comparison cannot be made as they do not concern creative methods. However, it does suggest that some strengths and weaknesses are shared between creative and traditional methods of PPI.

Strengths and limitations of this review

Although a general definition of creative PPI exists, it was up to our discretion to decide exactly which activities were deemed as such for this review. For example, we included sorting cards, the use of interactive whiteboards and sticky notes. Other researchers may have a more or less stringent criteria. However, two reviewers were involved in this decision which aids the reliability of the included articles. Further, it may be that some of the strengths and limitations cannot fully be attributed to the creative nature of the PPI process, but rather their co-created nature, however this is hard to disentangle as the included papers involved both these aspects.

During screening, it was difficult to decide whether the article was utilising creative qualitative methodology or creative PPI , as it was often not explicitly labelled as such. Regardless, both approaches involved the public/patients refining a healthcare product/service. This implies that if this review were to be replicated, others may do it differently. This may call for greater standardisation in the reporting of the public’s involvement in research. For example, the NIHR outlines different approaches to PPI, namely “consultation”, “collaboration”, “co-production” and “user-controlled”, which each signify an increased level of public power and influence [ 28 ]. Papers with elements of PPI could use these labels to clarify the extent of public involvement, or even explicitly state that there was no PPI. Further, given our decision to include only scholarly peer-reviewed literature, it is possible that data were missed within the grey literature. Similarly, the literature search will not have identified all papers relating to different types of accessible inclusion. However, the intent of the review was to focus solely on those within the definition of creative.

This review fills a gap in the literature and helps circulate and promote the concept of creative PPI. Each stage of this review, namely screening and quality appraisal, was conducted by two independent reviewers. However, four full texts could not be accessed during the full text reading stage, meaning there are missing data that could have altered or contributed to the findings of this review.

Research recommendations

Given that creative PPI can require effort to prepare, perform and analyse, sufficient time and funding should be allocated in the research protocol to enable meaningful and continuous PPI. This is worthwhile as PPI can significantly change the research output so that it aligns closely with the needs of the group it is to benefit. Researchers should also consider prototype development as a creative PPI activity as this might reduce future time/resource constraints. Shifting from a top-down approach within research to a bottom-up can be advantageous to all stakeholders and can help move creative PPI towards the mainstream. This, however, is the collective responsibility of funding bodies, universities and researchers, as well as committees who approve research bids.

A few of the included studies used creative techniques alongside traditional methods, such as interviews, which could also be used as a hybrid method of PPI, perhaps by researchers who are unfamiliar with creative techniques or to those who wish to reap the benefits of both. Often the characteristics of the PPI group were not included, including age, gender and ethnicity. It would be useful to include such information to assess how representative the PPI group is of the population of interest.

Creative PPI is a relatively novel approach of engaging the public and patients in research and it has both advantages and disadvantages compared to more traditional methods. There are many approaches to implementing creative PPI and the choice of technique will be unique to each piece of research and is reliant on several factors. These include the age and ability of the PPI group as well as the resource limitations of the project. Each method has benefits and drawbacks, which should be considered at the protocol-writing stage. However, given adequate funding, time and planning, creative PPI is a worthwhile and engaging method of generating ideas with end-users of research – ideas which may not be otherwise generated using traditional methods.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Abbreviations

Critical Appraisal Skills Programme

The Joanna Briggs Institute

National Institute of Health and Care Research

Public Advisory Group

Public and Patient Involvement

Web of Science

National Institute for Health and Care Research. What Is Patient and Public Involvement and Public Engagement? https://www.spcr.nihr.ac.uk/PPI/what-is-patient-and-public-involvement-and-engagement Accessed 01 Sept 2023.

Department of Health. Personal and Public Involvement (PPI) https://www.health-ni.gov.uk/topics/safety-and-quality-standards/personal-and-public-involvement-ppi#:~:text=The Health and Social Care Reform Act (NI) 2009 placed,delivery and evaluation of services . Accessed 01 Sept 2023.

National Institute for Health and Care Research. Policy Research Programme – Guidance for Stage 1 Applications https://www.nihr.ac.uk/documents/policy-research-programme-guidance-for-stage-1-applications-updated/26398 Accessed 01 Sept 2023.

Greenhalgh T, Hinton L, Finlay T, Macfarlane A, Fahy N, Clyde B, Chant A. Frameworks for supporting patient and public involvement in research: systematic review and co-design pilot. Health Expect. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.12888

Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Street JM, Stafinski T, Lopes E, Menon D. Defining the role of the public in health technology assessment (HTA) and HTA-informed decision-making processes. Int J Technol Assess Health Care. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266462320000094

Article PubMed Google Scholar

Morrison C, Dearden A. Beyond tokenistic participation: using representational artefacts to enable meaningful public participation in health service design. Health Policy. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthpol.2013.05.008

Leavy P. Method meets art: arts-Based Research Practice. New York: Guilford; 2020.

Google Scholar

Seers K. Qualitative systematic reviews: their importance for our understanding of research relevant to pain. Br J Pain. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1177/2049463714549777

Lockwood C, Porritt K, Munn Z, Rittenmeyer L, Salmond S, Bjerrum M, Loveday H, Carrier J, Stannard D. Chapter 2: Systematic reviews of qualitative evidence. Aromataris E, Munn Z, editors. JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis JBI. 2020. https://synthesismanual.jbi.global . https://doi.org/10.46658/JBIMES-20-03

CASP. CASP Checklists https://casp-uk.net/images/checklist/documents/CASP-Qualitative-Studies-Checklist/CASP-Qualitative-Checklist-2018_fillable_form.pdf (2022).

Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Res Psychol. 2006. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Article Google Scholar

Byrne E, Elliott E, Saltus R, Angharad J. The creative turn in evidence for public health: community and arts-based methodologies. J Public Health. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdx151

Cook S, Grozdanovski L, Renda G, Santoso D, Gorkin R, Senior K. Can you design the perfect condom? Engaging young people to inform safe sexual health practice and innovation. Sex Educ. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2021.1891040

Craven MP, Goodwin R, Rawsthorne M, Butler D, Waddingham P, Brown S, Jamieson M. Try to see it my way: exploring the co-design of visual presentations of wellbeing through a workshop process. Perspect Public Health. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1177/1757913919835231

Fedorowicz S, Riley V, Cowap L, Ellis NJ, Chambers R, Grogan S, Crone D, Cottrell E, Clark-Carter D, Roberts L, Gidlow CJ. Using social media for patient and public involvement and engagement in health research: the process and impact of a closed Facebook group. Health Expect. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.13515

Galler M, Myhrer K, Ares G, Varela P. Listening to children voices in early stages of new product development through co-creation – creative focus group and online platform. Food Res Int. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111000

Grindell C, Tod A, Bec R, Wolstenholme D, Bhatnagar R, Sivakumar P, Morley A, Holme J, Lyons J, Ahmed M, Jackson S, Wallace D, Noorzad F, Kamalanathan M, Ahmed L, Evison M. Using creative co-design to develop a decision support tool for people with malignant pleural effusion. BMC Med Inf Decis Mak. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-020-01200-3

Kearns Á, Kelly H, Pitt I. Rating experience of ICT-delivered aphasia rehabilitation: co-design of a feedback questionnaire. Aphasiology. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2019.1649913

Kelemen M, Surman E, Dikomitis L. Cultural animation in health research: an innovative methodology for patient and public involvement and engagement. Health Expect. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.12677

Keogh F, Carney P, O’Shea E. Innovative methods for involving people with dementia and carers in the policymaking process. Health Expect. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.13213

Micsinszki SK, Buettgen A, Mulvale G, Moll S, Wyndham-West M, Bruce E, Rogerson K, Murray-Leung L, Fleisig R, Park S, Phoenix M. Creative processes in co-designing a co-design hub: towards system change in health and social services in collaboration with structurally vulnerable populations. Evid Policy. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1332/174426421X16366319768599

Valaitis R, Longaphy J, Ploeg J, Agarwal G, Oliver D, Nair K, Kastner M, Avilla E, Dolovich L. Health TAPESTRY: co-designing interprofessional primary care programs for older adults using the persona-scenario method. BMC Fam Pract. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-019-1013-9

Webber R, Partridge R, Grindell C. The creative co-design of low back pain education resources. Evid Policy. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1332/174426421X16437342906266

National Institute for Health and Care Research. A Researcher’s Guide to Patient and Public Involvement. https://oxfordbrc.nihr.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/A-Researchers-Guide-to-PPI.pdf Accessed 01 Nov 2023.

Selman L, Clement C, Douglas M, Douglas K, Taylor J, Metcalfe C, Lane J, Horwood J. Patient and public involvement in randomised clinical trials: a mixed-methods study of a clinical trials unit to identify good practice, barriers and facilitators. Trials. 2021 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-021-05701-y

Coulman K, Nicholson A, Shaw A, Daykin A, Selman L, Macefield R, Shorter G, Cramer H, Sydes M, Gamble C, Pick M, Taylor G, Lane J. Understanding and optimising patient and public involvement in trial oversight: an ethnographic study of eight clinical trials. Trials. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-020-04495-9

Ocloo J, Garfield S, Franklin B, Dawson S. Exploring the theory, barriers and enablers for patient and public involvement across health, social care and patient safety: a systematic review of reviews. Health Res Policy Sys. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-020-00644-3

National Institute for Health and Care Research. Briefing notes for researchers - public involvement in NHS, health and social care research. https://www.nihr.ac.uk/documents/briefing-notes-for-researchers-public-involvement-in-nhs-health-and-social-care-research/27371 Accessed 01 Nov 2023.

Download references

Acknowledgements

With thanks to the PHIRST-LIGHT public advisory group and consortium for their thoughts and contributions to the design of this work.

The research team is supported by a National Institute for Health and Care Research grant (PHIRST-LIGHT Reference NIHR 135190).

Author information

Olivia R. Phillips and Cerian Harries share joint first authorship.

Authors and Affiliations

Nottingham Centre for Public Health and Epidemiology, Lifespan and Population Health, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Clinical Sciences Building, City Hospital Campus, Hucknall Road, Nottingham, NG5 1PB, UK

Olivia R. Phillips, Jo Leonardi-Bee, Holly Knight & Joanne R. Morling

National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) PHIRST-LIGHT, Nottingham, UK

Olivia R. Phillips, Cerian Harries, Jo Leonardi-Bee, Holly Knight, Lauren B. Sherar, Veronica Varela-Mato & Joanne R. Morling

School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Epinal Way, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK

Cerian Harries, Lauren B. Sherar & Veronica Varela-Mato

Nottingham Centre for Evidence Based Healthcare, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Jo Leonardi-Bee

NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre (BRC), Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK

Joanne R. Morling

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Author contributions: study design: ORP, CH, JRM, JLB, HK, LBS, VVM, literature searching and screening: ORP, CH, JRM, data curation: ORP, CH, analysis: ORP, CH, JRM, manuscript draft: ORP, CH, JRM, Plain English Summary: ORP, manuscript critical review and editing: ORP, CH, JRM, JLB, HK, LBS, VVM.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Olivia R. Phillips .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

The Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Nottingham advised that approval from the ethics committee and consent to participate was not required for systematic review studies.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

40900_2024_580_MOESM1_ESM.docx

Additional file 1: Search strings: Description of data: the search strings and filters used in each of the 5 databases in this review

Additional file 2: Quality appraisal questions: Description of data: CASP quality appraisal questions

40900_2024_580_moesm3_esm.docx.

Additional file 3: Table 1: Description of data: elements of the data extraction table that are not in the main manuscript

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Phillips, O.R., Harries, C., Leonardi-Bee, J. et al. What are the strengths and limitations to utilising creative methods in public and patient involvement in health and social care research? A qualitative systematic review. Res Involv Engagem 10 , 48 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40900-024-00580-4

Download citation

Received : 28 November 2023

Accepted : 25 April 2024

Published : 13 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40900-024-00580-4

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Public and patient involvement
Creative PPI
Qualitative systematic review

Research Involvement and Engagement

ISSN: 2056-7529

General enquiries: [email protected]

Cities as Engines of Opportunities: Evidence from Brazil

Are developing-world cities engines of opportunities for low-wage earners? In this study, we track a cohort of young low-income workers in Brazil for thirteen years to explore the contribution of factors such as industrial structure and skill segregation on upward income mobility. We find that cities in the south of Brazil are more effective engines of upward mobility than cities in the north and that these differences appear to be primarily related to the exposure of unskilled workers to skilled co-workers, which in turn reflects industry composition and complexity. Our results suggest that the positive effects of urbanization depend on the skilled and unskilled working together, a form of integration that is more prevalent in the cities of southern Brazil than in northern cities. This segregation, which can decline with specialization and the division of labor, may hinder the ability of Brazil's northern cities to offer more opportunities for escaping poverty.

We acknowledge the support of Cristian Jara-Figueroa in the initial conceptualization of the empirical strategy. Barza and Viarengo gratefully acknowledges the financial support received from the Swiss National Science Foundation (Principal Investigator: Prof. Dr. Martina Viarengo; Research Grant n. 100018-176454). Hidalgo acknowledges the support of the Agence Nationale de la Recherche grant number ANR-19-P3IA-0004, the 101086712-LearnData-HORIZON-WIDERA-2022-TALENTS-01 financed by European Research Executive Agency (REA) (https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/101086712), IAST funding from the French National Research Agency (ANR) under grant ANR-17-EURE-0010 (Investissements d'Avenir program), and the European Lighthouse of AI for Sustainability [grant number 101120237-HOR-IZON-CL4-2022-HUMAN-02]. The usual caveats apply. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

I have received speaking fees from organizations that organize members that invest in real estate markets, including the National Association of Real Estate Investment Managers, the Pension Real Estate Association and the Association for International Real Estate Investors.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

Download Citation Data

Working Groups

Mentioned in the news, more from nber.

In addition to working papers , the NBER disseminates affiliates’ latest findings through a range of free periodicals — the NBER Reporter , the NBER Digest , the Bulletin on Retirement and Disability , the Bulletin on Health , and the Bulletin on Entrepreneurship — as well as online conference reports , video lectures , and interviews .

15th Annual Feldstein Lecture, Mario Draghi, "The Next Flight of the Bumblebee: The Path to Common Fiscal Policy in the Eurozone cover slide

IMAGES

How to Write a Public Relations Research Paper: Tips from Experts
a paper with the words marketing and public relations action plan
(PDF) Public Relations Research.pdf
11+ Public Relations Proposal Templates
Public relations Research Paper Example
38+ Research Paper Samples

VIDEO

Public relations 😱😱 #shortsvideo #viral #shortsfeed #shorts #short #reels #reaction
public question paper 2024-Tough
student research present on nonprofits using social media
Unveiling the Power of Public Relations Research: A Look at Different Methods
PR Writing Strategy and Style
Research Paper Ideas For Business Students

COMMENTS

118 Public Relations Topics & Interesting PR Project Ideas
118 Public Relations Topics. If you are writing a paper on public relations, you will need to explore the dynamic world of communication, reputation management, and strategic messaging. On this page, we've gathered an outstanding compilation of public relations topics that you can use for an essay, research paper, or project.
144 Public Relations Essay Topics & Examples
Looking for inspiring public relations topics? 🤝 We've gathered hot 144 PR topics on mass communication, media relations, & more. 🅰️ + public relations essay examples are a nice bonus! ... we've gathered hot PR topics that will be suitable for essays, research papers, presentations, theses, and other projects. A collection of public ...
Public Relations Research Paper Topics
See our list of public relations research paper topics.However old the practice of public relations is (Heath 2005a), in the identity we know today it became a serious professional practice in the latter part of the nineteenth century in the USA and in other democratized parts of the world, especially in Europe.
Public Relations Dissertation Topics
Topic 5: An investigation into the different ways paid PR is impacting the workforce and productivity of the UK-based SMEs. Topic 6: Impact of social media on public relations strategies. Topic 7: The relationship between public relations and inbound marketing. Topic 8: Can Public relations and advertising go hand in hand.
Public Relations Dissertation Topics (26 Examples) For Research
Undergraduate: £30 (250 Words) Master: £45 (400 Words) Doctoral: £70 (600 Words) Along with a topic, you will also get; An explanation why we choose this topic. 2-3 research questions. Key literature resources identification. Suitable methodology with identification of raw sample size, and data collection method.
PDF The Top 17 Public Relations Insights of 2021
focused on around the world. Some of these challenges and topics are spotlighted in this guide's research. At the end of this report is a list of IPR resources and IPR signature studies published in 2021. Thanks to our Board of Trustees, comprising senior-level executives and academic leaders in public relations, for driving the mission and ...
Public Relations Research Library
IPR RESEARCH PROGRAM. The Institute for Public Relations pursues an aggressive agenda of research studies and peer-reviewed white papers that demonstrate the value of public relations. IPR focuses on research that matters, delivering knowledge that ultimately helps business management to achieve their goals through more effective public relations.
Journal of Public Relations Research
Journal of Public Relations Research accepts two types of articles: (1) reports of original research and (2) reviews of major research programs. Original research papers are a maximum of 30 manuscript pages, including tables and figures but excluding references; reviews of major research programs are similarly capped at 45 manuscript pages.
Research Library
Research Library. This research library is a database of all the public relations research conducted by the Institute for Public Relations segmented by topic area. IPR research focuses on a number of key topics that matter to the profession. IPR's work is distinguished through its five IPR Commission/Centers of Excellence.
Public Relations Inquiry: Sage Journals
Public Relations Inquiry is an international, peer-reviewed forum for conceptual, reflexive and critical discussion on public relations. The journal aims to stimulate new research agendas in the field of public relations through interdisciplinary engagement and to encompass a broad range of theoretical, empirical and methodological issues in public and organizational communications in diverse ...
Public Relations Research: The Key to Strategy
Chapter 8 Public Relations Research: The Key to Strategy. If you previously ascribed to the common misconception that public relations is a simple use of communication to persuade publics, Bowen (2003), pp. 199-214. you might be surprised at the important role that research plays in public relations management. Bowen (2009a), pp. 402-410.
Journal of Public Relations Research: Vol 36, No 2 (Current issue)
Mitigating Organizational Conspiracy Beliefs Through Strategic Internal Communication and Employee-Organization Relationships (EOR) in the Workplace. Young Kim et al. Article | Published online: 23 Mar 2024. View all latest articles. Explore the current issue of Journal of Public Relations Research, Volume 36, Issue 2, 2024.
Theories in Public Relations: Reflections and Future Directions
Papers explored what might be considered as current theories of public relations and theories for public relations, as well as emerging bodies of work that are changing the shape of the field. The submissions dealt with reconceptualisations of existing, long-standing theories such as the idea of the public, dialogue and the public interest, as ...
Updated: Public relations dissertation topics
Avoid populist topics and go deep. The best dissertations are original and niche. They make a genuine contribution to the professional body of knowledge in public relations. Your research question needs to be one that can be answered in a few short months. It needs to be simple and focused.
When public relations meets social media: A systematic review of social
This study examines the patterns and trends of social media-related public relations research published in 14 journals from 2006 to 2020. It analyzes the theoretical trends (i.e., research topics, theories and theoretical models, hypotheses, and research questions), methodological trends (i.e., types of sample, sampling methods, and research methods), and social media platforms used in 445 ...
The Future of Public Relations: A view from 2020
This paper, drawing on the archive of the International Public Relations Association (IPRA),reviews early discussion and adoption of innovative technology by practitioners through the application ...
8.1: Importance of Research in Public Relations Management
Research is an essential part of public relations management. Here is a closer look at why scholars argued that conducting both formative and evaluative research is vital in modern public relations management: Research makes communication two-way by collecting information from publics rather than one-way, which is a simple dissemination of ...
PDF AN INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC RELATIONS CHAPTER 1
As practitioners, we have our own view of the field. The Public Relations Society of . America (PRSA), our largest professional organization, defines public relations as a "strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics" (Public Relations Society of America, 2020). Lewis, a
Public Relations Research Paper
This sample public relations research paper features: 7300 words (approx. 24 pages), an outline, and a bibliography with 30 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help.
(PDF) Public Relations
Public relations is better described than de ned. It is an applied professional practice. and an academic eld, and both o er communication cent ered and research based ways. to understand, inform ...
168 Free International Relations Research Topics For Top Grade
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and international relations; ... Use one of these interesting international relations research paper topics: Populism's rise and its impact on international relations and global governance; Climate change's geopolitical implications: Conflicts, migrations, and resource competition ...
Journal of Public Relations Research
Journal of Public Relations Research accepts two types of articles: (1) reports of original research and (2) reviews of major research programs. Original research papers are a maximum of 30 manuscript pages, including tables and figures but excluding references; reviews of major research programs are similarly capped at 45 manuscript pages.
The Streetlight Effect in Data-Driven Exploration
Founded in 1920, the NBER is a private, non-profit, non-partisan organization dedicated to conducting economic research and to disseminating research findings among academics, public policy makers, and business professionals.
Causal Effects in Matching Mechanisms with Strategically Reported
In this paper, we provide an approach for identifying the causal effects of school assignment on future outcomes that accounts for strategic misreporting. Misreporting may invalidate existing point-identification approaches, and we derive sharp bounds for causal effects that are robust to strategic behavior.
To Find Relative Earnings Gains After the China Shock, Look Outside
Founded in 1920, the NBER is a private, non-profit, non-partisan organization dedicated to conducting economic research and to disseminating research findings among academics, public policy makers, and business professionals.
PDF Public Relations Research for Planning and Evaluation
in Public Affairs, The Institute for Public Relations, University of Florida, P.O. Box 118400, Gainesville, Florida 32611-8400. (Also available at www.instituteforpr.com) Toward An Understanding of How News Coverage and Advertising Impact Consumer Perceptions, Attitudes and Behavior, The Institute for Public.
Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research
Voices in Bioethics is currently seeking submissions on philosophical and practical topics, both current and timeless. Papers addressing access to healthcare, the bioethical implications of recent Supreme Court rulings, environmental ethics, data privacy, cybersecurity, law and bioethics, economics and bioethics, reproductive ethics, research ethics, and pediatric bioethics are sought.
What are the strengths and limitations to utilising creative methods in
There is increasing interest in using patient and public involvement (PPI) in research to improve the quality of healthcare. Ordinarily, traditional methods have been used such as interviews or focus groups. However, these methods tend to engage a similar demographic of people. Thus, creative methods are being developed to involve patients for whom traditional methods are inaccessible or non ...
Cities as Engines of Opportunities: Evidence from Brazil
Founded in 1920, the NBER is a private, non-profit, non-partisan organization dedicated to conducting economic research and to disseminating research findings among academics, public policy makers, and business professionals.
Review of Education
Review of Education is an official BERA journal publishing educational research from throughout the world, and papers on topics of international interest. Abstract Despite the abundance of research linking leadership behaviours to organisational effectiveness in various sectors, there is a lack of empirical studies that investigate how ...