virtual leadership thesis

Bringing in Trust into Global Virtual Leadership

• First Online: 21 June 2023

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• Lili Jassemi 2  

Part of the book series: Gabler Theses ((GT))

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The objective of chapter 3 is to merge current GVT literature from the previous chapter 2 with business ethical concepts regarding trust, GVTs, and GVL. Chapter 3 is structured based on the heuristical tool of the practical syllogism, which will be further explained in the following paragraph. Section 3.1 will answer why trust is a fundamental condition for successful interactions in GVTs and show how business ethical concepts can shed light on this matter. Furthermore, section 3.2. summarizes the challenges to trust-building in GVTs concerning different trust expectations and the importance for GVL to role model trustworthiness. Finally, section 3.3 will answer the research question by showing how GVL can realize trust in GVTs by applying the business ethical tool of the good leadership model. Chapter 3 closes with section 3.4, the case illustration of this thesis.

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Given the diversity of peoples’ interests, goals and values, there is a potential for inconsistency. The practical syllogism helps to prioritize these on focusing on ‘why’ certain priorities should be set (Suchanek, 2015, p. 42).

Empirical conditions in terms of psychological, biological or neurological factors that refer to our human nature like lack of will power, lack of reflection, habits, conflicting emotions and so forth are also to be considered here (Suchanek, 2015, p. 43).

This thesis deals with interpersonal trust in comparison to system-based trust.

The trustor is the person granting trust.

The trustee is the person receiving trust.

Acronym for volatile, uncertain, complex, ambiguous.

This point will be further elaborated on in cf. 3.2.1 .

This point will find further explanation in 3.2.1 .

The term trustor refers to the person that decides to grant or not trust.

The term trustee refers to the person to whom trust is granted or not. This person has the power to decide whether or not to honor the granted trust.

The obvious aim is to cooperate and thus to gain maximum output for trustor and trustee.

In the context of GVTs this translate into how can GVT members and especially GVL signal trustworthiness in order to win GVT members for cooperation?

In the context of GVTs this translates into how can GVT members trust each other and their leader?

It is assumed that the value of not honoring trust is bigger than the value of honouring trust

It is assumed that granting and honoring trust is the best option for both parties for long-term social cooperation.

A leap of faith cannot be reduced to rational calculation or rules. It is always a question of the trustor’s freedom (Suchanek, 2015, p. 75).

Trust is thus only possible between two free actors and can never be forced (Suchanek, 2015, p. 75).

There are three levels of the game. The understanding of the game refers to the 1 st level of the game; the two other levels refer to rules, and action (Suchanek, 2015, pp. 39–41).

It is assumed that the trustor is aware that the trustee has strengths and weaknesses as an empirical human being, who follows her own interests which may vary significantly. The trustor will generally not assume that the trustee will act against her own interests or incentives in the given situation. The question is how well the trustor knows and/or can judge the situational incentives and pay-offs. Disappointed expectations on behalf of the trustor may result from the fact that the trustor simply knows every little about the incentives and conflicts faced by the respective trustee (De Biasi, 2019; Suchanek, 2015, p. 77).

Socio-cultural differences go beyond national differences. There are various subcultures within a nation and the national culture may not be entirely shared by all (B. Kirkman & Shapiro, 2005).

The original theory proposes four dimensions alongside cultural values can be analysed: individualism-collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance (strength of social hierarchy) and masculinity-femininity (task-orientation versus person-orientation). Later the dimensions of long-term orientation and the dimension of indulgence versus self-restraint were added and all dimensions were further deconstructed into sub domains.

It is possible to have low socio-cultural distance between two actors from different national and cultural backgrounds who share a common organisational culture, but a high distance between two co-nationals from very different company backgrounds (Holmstrom et al., 2006, p. 2).

Research suggests that teams have multiple MMs with the two most common types being task-related and teamwork-related MMs (Klimoski & Mohammed, 1994). However, as many team functions require significant mixing between the two this MMs this differentiation has become obsolete in contemporary organisations (Schmidtke & Cummings, 2017, p. 664).

Marks, Mathieu, and Zaccaro (2001) term qualities or “properties of the team that are typically dynamic in nature and vary,” as “emergent states” (p. 357) that reflect the cognitive, affective and motivational states in teams. (p. 358).

SMMs can also be coined as working schemas (Maynard & Gilson, 2014).

DeChurch and Mesmer-Magnus (2010) performed a meta-analysis of team shared cognition, including team mental models, and found a significant positive relation between the quality of teams' cognitive structures reflected in their mental models and team performance.

In their research the authors found that teams involved in a flight-combat simulation that possessed convergent SMMs performed at higher levels than those that did not (Mathieu et al., 2000)

Virtual collaboration may require teams to develop new types of MMs relating to communication tools for certain interactions (Schmidtke & Cummings, 2017, p. 661).

See 2.1.3 , definition of virtuality and dimensions of dispersion in GVTs.

Team MMs are part of group cognitive structures and are the result of individuals interacting in some social context (D'Andrade, 1981; Thompson & Fine, 1999; Wegner, 1987).

This relates to the fact that conflicts in GVTs often remain unidentified and unaddressed for long periods of time (Morrison-Smith & Ruiz, 2020).

These conflicts between morality and self-interest can also be referred to as “inconsistencies” which will find further explanation in the following paragraphs (Suchanek, 2013).

GVL needs to develop a sense for the personalities present in the team, for example for introverts and extroverts, and their respective skills.

However, given the countless challenges of everyday business life like budget restrictions, time, competitive pressures, multiple conflicts of interest, uncertainties, complex and fragmented value-added structures this is a highly demanding task (Suchanek, 2015).

Differences between communication and action can also cause relevant inconsistencies.

Certain demands do not stand the test of everyday due to a lack of incentive compatibility as no one will at least not systematically and permanently act against their own self-interest (Suchanek, 2013, p. 341).

These include budget restrictions, time and competitive pressures, misunderstandings and lack of information, conflicts of interest amongst others.

Various stakeholders of a company have heterogeneous and partly incompatible interests and expectations, some of which are also considered justified and thus non-negotiable by the respective stakeholder (Suchanek, 2013, p. 341).

Trust expectations arise from individual understandings and interpretations of harm which are related to socio-cultural concepts (cf. 3.2.1 ).

Not all inconsistencies can be resolved. Many conditions that lead to these inconsistencies cannot be shaped or can only be shaped to a limited extent due to costs or other contingencies (Suchanek, 2013, 2015).

Subsection 3.3.3 offers more examples with regards to framework conditions for trust.

It is important to note that self-commitment comes with costs. On the one hand, there are opportunity costs in the sense that self-restraint also excludes individual options for action that would have brought advantages for oneself without having disadvantages for others (Suchanek, 2013, pp. 340–341). On the other hand, the organisation of self-restraint entails costs e.g. the establishment of a compliance system to check compliance with standards, the establishment and, if necessary, implementation of sanction mechanisms, the corresponding training of employees and others (Suchanek, 2013, pp. 340–341).

To do this, they must create an incentive system adapted to the global virtual context, consisting of monetary and non-monetary incentives (Fajen, 2018).

This chapter will answer this question by merging the previous subchapters with regards to the specific roles and competencies of leadership for trust, trust as the condition for successful leadership in GVTs (cf. 2.3.3 ) as elaborated previously by VT literature, as well as business ethical reflections as laid out and explicitly elucidated in the context of GVTs with regards to the first order ( 3.1 ) and the second-order ( 3.2 ).

The definition of an e-trust promoter based on Fajen’s (2018) research is given in cf. 2.3.2 .

These four points of orientation have already been individually elaborated on in the previous chapters and further underpinned by VT literature findings and are summarized in this chapter.

It is important to distinguish between respect for a person’s performance and respect for the person her/himself. The latter is the form of respect which is needed for trustful cooperation in the sense of this dissertation.

Based on Bass and Avolio’s (1993) theory on transformational leadership. It should be noted that GVL is equally encouraged to exercise a transactional leadership style, depending on the situation and circumstance.

Schelling defined focal points as elements “of each person’s expectation of what the other expects him to expect to be expected to do” (Schelling, 1980, p. 57).

The trust relationship between two interacting parties is based on the trust game (Kreps, 1990).

Rules however depend on their proper understanding. They need to be understood and accepted by those who comply to them to develop an effect (Suchanek, 2015, p. 152).

Communication in co-located teams often takes place unconsciously, whereas digital communication must be consciously initiated using the most suitable communication medium for the current occasion (Fajen, 2018, p. 324)(cf. 2.3.3 .).

Refers to Think-it’s team members.

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Jassemi, L. (2023). Bringing in Trust into Global Virtual Leadership. In: Global Virtual Teams & Trust. Gabler Theses. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-41852-6_3

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Gina Ellerbee (left), Administrative Director of Nursing Practice, and Summer Blackerby, Chief Nursing Information Officer, stand in CoxHealth’s virtual nursing command center.

Nursing Leadership Is Crucial to Using Virtual Care Effectively

Amy Burroughs is an award-winning writer specializing in journalism, content marketing and business communications.

The pandemic may have spotlighted nurses as unsung heroes, but it also led to a mass exodus of senior nursing staff, exacerbating the existing staffing shortage. To fill these gaps, providers are using virtual care and artificial intelligence to support bedside teams, reduce burnout and give veteran nurses a new way to continue the work they love .

In Springfield, Mo., the pandemic left CoxHealth in need of experienced nurses to mentor younger colleagues. With six hospitals and 80 clinics to support, Chief Nursing Information Officer Summer Blackerby and Administrative Director of Nursing Practice Gina Ellerbee saw virtual nursing as a promising solution.

In 2022, as CoxHealth was about to start its annual budget planning, Blackerby and Ellerbee seized the opportunity to begin a virtual nursing pilot as a proof of concept before requesting funding for a virtual care program. They launched the pilot on two acute care floors at Cox Medical Center South, later expanding to a third floor in a community hospital in Branson.

Click the banner  to create connected care workflows that improve healthcare experiences.

They had just enough staff to run a virtual team three days a week, but they moved forward with a 90-day pilot, tracking metrics that they had identified at the outset. Using both in-room cameras and a cart model, they wanted to connect bedside nurses with virtual nurses who could provide an extra set of eyes. The pilot went so well that CoxHealth extended it for a year before embarking on a phased rollout across the system.

Nurses’ input was integral to the process and helped to secure buy-in. “Our nurses came up with a lot of the plans, and they came up with the workflows,” Ellerbee says. 

Changing Clinical Workflows for the Better

Today, a 5,000-square-foot virtual command center provides support for nearly 650 medical-surgical and intensive care unit (ICU) rooms. To join the virtual team, nurses must demonstrate excellent communication, clinical judgment and critical thinking skills. “It really is an elite place for them to be,” Ellerbee says.

IT solutions include Philips eCareManager enterprise telehealth software, Capsule Surveillance software, the Caregility platform and a centralized database of patient information.

LEARN MORE: Why integrating AI with virtual care transforms workflows and care delivery.

Electronic health record (EHR) system integration and AI predictive models in the Philips software pull in data that helps virtual nurses prioritize tasks. The command center provides early warnings so that nurses can attend to patient needs sooner. That has paid off with a reduction in falls, hospital-acquired infections and other issues.

Virtual care has been equally powerful for nurses, Blackerby says. “It’s great to see them excited about nursing again,” she says. “It’s really revived their overall outlook.”

Collaboration is the heart of the program. For example, if a medical-surgical nurse identifies a patient who needs extra attention, they can pull in an ICU virtual nurse, who may also tap an early intervention team on the floor. All work together to determine the best course of action.

“I knew it would happen a little bit, but it has surprised me how much they collaborate,” Ellerbee says.

For CoxHealth, the program has been transformative. The command center is located in the tower where nurses spent two years caring for COVID-19 patients. After the crisis, the space held painful memories for many nurses. Today, it represents a positive new chapter.

“When they walk out the door at the end of the day, they feel good about what they did,” Ellerbee says. “They feel like, ‘I did everything I was supposed to do for my patients. I did a great job today.’”

Adapting to Staffing Challenges and New Technologies

Guthrie Clinic also struggled after the pandemic to recruit enough nurses for its 10,000-square-mile service area in Pennsylvania and New York. It adopted telesitting in 2022, but paying nonlicensed staff to sit with patients was costly and still didn’t meet the need, says Terri Couts, senior vice president and chief digital information officer.

The next iteration – a telesitting platform with built-in AI – had an immediate ROI, enabling one telesitter to monitor 16 people.

DIVE DEEPER: Remote patient monitoring enhances nurse workflows.

“That was the introduction of our virtual care model redesign,” Couts says. “We started thinking, ‘How can we do this differently, and what are the avenues we can impact?’”

Increasing senior nursing support was a priority, especially in the ICU. In early 2023, Guthrie began to expand its virtual care capabilities. First, it data-mined the safety event system to identify focus areas and success measures.

Guthrie then designed a program to support those metrics and began hiring nurses. Virtual care nurses need a different skill set to sit on the other side of the camera, Couts says — not only a substantial amount of experience, but also the ability to teach and mentor.

The percentage of nurses who plan to leave the profession, citing unmanageable workloads as a reason

Today, more than 500 of Guthrie’s medical-surgical and ICU rooms are equipped with cameras and two-way speakers. Virtual nurses attend rounds, advise on certain procedures and provide double-checks for high-risk medications.

That means that instead of having to leave the bedside to ask for a double-check — a process that used to take about 33 minutes — an ICU nurse can call a virtual nurse, who can complete the process in about 90 seconds.

READ MORE: Learn three keys to success with a generative AI platform.

Retaining nurses and nursing expertise is one of the most significant workforce outcomes of virtual care, says Oriana Beaudet, vice president of nursing innovation for the American Nurses Association . “Some nurses who were educated during the pandemic had to supplement traditional clinical experiences with simulated care. To have a highly experienced nurse resource, even if virtual, for newer nurses to learn from— as a care resource, to discuss coordination, to impart knowledge around techniques and procedures, or to navigate organizational nuances— is absolutely priceless,” she adds.

Building the Role of AI in Workflows

SSM Health , which serves Illinois, Missouri, Oklahoma and Wisconsin, is easing clinicians’ burdens by leveraging AI to prevent burnout. SSM Health has used Nuance for natural language processing since 2020, adapting its use over time as the technology has improved, says Chief Medical Information Officer Ann Cappellari.

When the pandemic resulted in a significant staffing shortage, the need for efficiencies became even more pressing. Patient documentation was an obvious place to start, Cappellari says. At first, SSM Health used NLP to record patient visits so that the recordings could be transcribed, but the process was clunky and required a good deal of training.

Click the banner to discover how health IT solutions create an integrated care experience.

All of that changed when the most recent versions of generative AI arrived, particularly in the form of Nuance DAX (Dragon Ambient eXperience) Copilot, amplified by Microsoft Cloud for Healthcare. Integrating this technology with SSM Health’s EHR system enables clinicians to fire up the app to capture conversations and document patient visits automatically.

DISCOVER: How can healthcare balance the reward and risk of AI?

“Almost overnight, the output of the solution changed,” Cappellari says. “We don’t need to do any training at all, and this works 50 times better.”

Humans still review the final product, but the overall impact has been significant, she says. Patients like the increased face time with their clinicians, who no longer have to spend visits typing notes on the computer.

For now, SSM Health is using Nuance DAX with physicians, but Cappellari says that Chief Nursing Informatics Officer Cheryl Hager is developing workflows that will enable nurses to adopt the technology in the future. “It’s an absolute game changer for providers,” she says.

How to Involve Nurses in Operational Changes

Virtual care programs can be viewed with skepticism by bedside staff, who may wonder if in-room cameras will have a Big Brother effect. When CoxHealth launched its virtual nursing initiative, it addressed these concerns by giving nurses ownership of the process and emphasizing that virtual care was intended to support nurses, not monitor them.

Guthrie Clinic took a similar approach, getting nurses’ input to develop workflows for various scenarios in which bedside and virtual teams would collaborate. “That worked out really well because they helped to design it,” says Terri Couts, senior vice president and chief digital information officer.

“Involving nurses is essential,” says Oriana Beaudet, vice president of nursing innovation for the American Nurses Association. “Organizations want to make sure the technologies they purchase will be utilized by staff, so make sure to include nursing expertise when planning technology solutions and choosing vendors. Nurses will tell you what makes sense and what doesn’t.”

Couts also made sure to communicate the reasons behind the change. “Some organizations start with the technology instead of trying to start with the problem you’re trying to solve. What’s success going to mean?”

She also made a point of sharing quick wins, inviting feedback and creating a committee to ensure that virtual nurses’ contributions continued to add value. Together, these steps helped to generate excitement about the program. “Now, we’re trying to figure out how we can support all of the things they’re asking us to do,” Couts says.

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Overworked and time-starved? Maybe you need a virtual assistant

Bobbie Racette, CEO of Calgary-based Virtual Gurus, matches virtual assistants who work remotely with entrepreneurs needing extra help. Supplied

For much of her career, Lori Kennedy thrived on independence. She was a personal trainer at 19 years old, then ran a nutrition practice. In 2015, she launched a business helping health and wellness practitioners and coaches go digital. But somewhere along the way, she realized, “I need help.”

During her time as a nutritionist, Ms. Kennedy saw clients from 9 a.m. until 6 p.m., but it didn’t stop there. “I would see client after client after client, and I had a one-year-old,” she says. “So I would be staying up late at night and waking up at 5 a.m. to do all sorts of back-end admin work. I only got paid when I saw clients, so I wasn’t about to give up client time to answer emails.”

Feeling less joy and motivation due to the overload, Ms. Kennedy hired her very first employee: her aunt, who answered emails and did invoicing and billing. Today, the Vaughan, Ont.-based entrepreneur has 47 employees serving clients from all over the world. And – no offence to Aunt Kennedy – she also has an executive assistant who handles both business and personal tasks.

“It lessens my mental load,” explains Ms. Kennedy, who is a single mom. “Juggling motherhood, the home, the business – it was too much. It’s a 24/7, 365-day thing, even when you’re on vacation. Especially as women, we balance a lot.”

The rise of the virtual, or remote, assistant

For decades now, women have struggled with the challenges of balancing a demanding work schedule with caregiving and other household duties. For women in busy leadership roles, having it all often means doing it all. As Ms. Kennedy puts it, social conditioning has led many women to believe that it’s “our role and responsibility” to do it all, “because nice girls don’t say no.”

Women entrepreneurs confront many inequities when attempting to expand their businesses, from financing to networking, says Kim de Laat, assistant professor of organization and human behaviour at University of Waterloo.

“Much of this is caused by negative stereotypes of women as less committed ‘mompreneurs’ unwilling to invest the time and effort to grow their companies,” she says. “This is simply not true.”

Hiring an assistant can help women entrepreneurs level the playing field. And, because women-led companies are more likely than men-led firms to be home-based, “having a remote assistant means women can hold off on investing in office space until they are financially ready to do so,” says Dr. de Laat.

Bobbie Racette is CEO of Virtual Gurus, a Calgary-based company that matches virtual assistants who work remotely with entrepreneurs. She says the demand for her service has grown 300 per cent, year-over-year, since the pandemic began in 2020 and many entrepreneurs moved their businesses online.

“There’s empowerment in getting help,” she says. “As we become more aware of the importance of mental health and well-being, more people are embracing this out-of-the-box approach.”

Ms. Racette adds that it’s important to view hiring an assistant as an investment in your business and yourself, as it can help enhance productivity, support mental health and reduce burnout. While the cost of a virtual assistant varies depending on the individual’s needs, virtual assistants (whether part-time or full-time) won’t run you as much as an assistant who is physically in your office, she notes.

Adrianna Crawford, a Toronto-based, full-time virtual assistant, works for several clients and says she finds joy in being a master of organization. She does everything from e-mail management to billing to scheduling to social media marketing.

“My job allows others to expand their businesses and give them more freedom to pursue other opportunities within their line of work,” she says. For example, her clients – who are largely health-care practitioners – are able to spend time focusing on expanding their businesses or taking courses to improve their skill set.

“I always tell a client when I work with them that I will be their boundary,” says Ms. Crawford, who works exclusively with mothers. “It is so important to have an off switch at work, because as mothers or partners, we don’t always get to turn off our brains. It’s the best feeling in the world to hear them feel relieved when I tell them ‘I got it.’”

Another form of ‘pink tax’

While hiring extra help can be a boon for professional women, Sharla Alegria, assistant professor of sociology at the University of Toronto, notes that it can also be a double-edged sword.

“If hiring an assistant is something women entrepreneurs do to balance work and home demands in ways that men do not, then it is another form of a ‘pink tax’ where the cost of many aspects of work and daily life is simply higher for women,” she says.

Dr. de Laat notes that virtual assistance could be a shorter-term investment only when it’s required. For example, entrepreneurs could utilize fractional executive support (such as outsourcing human resources) to bridge time- and labour-intensive periods of child care.

If you’re wondering whether you might benefit from some extra help, Ms. Kennedy suggests a simple exercise that helped her make the call. Grab a notepad, write out all your frustrations, then rank them from the toughest to less so. Those that come out on top are where you require help. For Ms. Kennedy, hiring an assistant resolved quite a few of those frustrations.

“[My assistant] complements me and I complement her because I’m allowing her to work in her zone of genius, which is details, and that allows me to work in my zone of genius, which is visioning and marketing,” she says. “It’s very liberating.”

Interested in more perspectives about women in the workplace? Find all stories on The Globe Women’s Collective hub here , and subscribe to the new Women and Work newsletter here . Have feedback? E-mail us at [email protected] .

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For current information about the demonstrations, see uva.nl/protests External link . 

Presentation Master's thesis - Nadine Planken - Work & Organisational Psychology

Roeterseilandcampus - Building G, Street: Nieuwe Achtergracht 129-b, Room: GS.05

Individuals in a follower role comprise the majority of the workforce and are essential to consider as active contributors in organizational processes, including leadership. In fact, the leadership identity construction theory states that leadership emerges through the process of claiming and granting leadership identities. This dynamic and relational view on leadership opens the possibility that leader identities develop independently of formal roles. Accordingly, the present study investigates a leadership emergence process with a focus on the role of the follower. I propose that followers‘ affective motivation to lead is associated with followers‘ leadership claiming through voice and subsequently followers‘ leadership behaviors, whereby this sequence is expected to be moderated by leaders‘ granting behavior. Adopting a multi-method approach, these expectations are examined by combining followers‘ self-rated questionnaires with behavioral interaction coding of N = 43 dyadic conversations between assigned followers and leaders (4262 behavioral units in total). Results showed that followers‘ affective motivation to lead was related to follower voice. However, neither followers‘ affective motivation to lead, followers‘ voice, nor the interaction of followers‘ voice and leaders‘ granting were related to followers‘ leadership behaviors. Accordingly, followers with high affective motivation to lead may claim leadership through voice but may be hesitant to engage in subsequent leadership behaviors. I discuss several theoretical implications based on theories of followership, leadership emergence, and leadership identity construction and provide practical implications for the active role of the follower in the workplace.

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