95 theses broken down

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Martin Luther and the 95 Theses

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 6, 2019 | Original: October 29, 2009

Born in Eisleben, Germany, in 1483, Martin Luther went on to become one of Western history’s most significant figures. Luther spent his early years in relative anonymity as a monk and scholar. But in 1517 Luther penned a document attacking the Catholic Church’s corrupt practice of selling “indulgences” to absolve sin. His “95 Theses,” which propounded two central beliefs—that the Bible is the central religious authority and that humans may reach salvation only by their faith and not by their deeds—was to spark the Protestant Reformation. Although these ideas had been advanced before, Martin Luther codified them at a moment in history ripe for religious reformation. The Catholic Church was ever after divided, and the Protestantism that soon emerged was shaped by Luther’s ideas. His writings changed the course of religious and cultural history in the West.

Martin Luther (1483–1546) was born in Eisleben, Saxony (now Germany), part of the Holy Roman Empire, to parents Hans and Margaretta. Luther’s father was a prosperous businessman, and when Luther was young, his father moved the family of 10 to Mansfeld. At age five, Luther began his education at a local school where he learned reading, writing and Latin. At 13, Luther began to attend a school run by the Brethren of the Common Life in Magdeburg. The Brethren’s teachings focused on personal piety, and while there Luther developed an early interest in monastic life.

Did you know? Legend says Martin Luther was inspired to launch the Protestant Reformation while seated comfortably on the chamber pot. That cannot be confirmed, but in 2004 archeologists discovered Luther's lavatory, which was remarkably modern for its day, featuring a heated-floor system and a primitive drain.

Martin Luther Enters the Monastery

But Hans Luther had other plans for young Martin—he wanted him to become a lawyer—so he withdrew him from the school in Magdeburg and sent him to new school in Eisenach. Then, in 1501, Luther enrolled at the University of Erfurt, the premiere university in Germany at the time. There, he studied the typical curriculum of the day: arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and philosophy and he attained a Master’s degree from the school in 1505. In July of that year, Luther got caught in a violent thunderstorm, in which a bolt of lightning nearly struck him down. He considered the incident a sign from God and vowed to become a monk if he survived the storm. The storm subsided, Luther emerged unscathed and, true to his promise, Luther turned his back on his study of the law days later on July 17, 1505. Instead, he entered an Augustinian monastery.

Luther began to live the spartan and rigorous life of a monk but did not abandon his studies. Between 1507 and 1510, Luther studied at the University of Erfurt and at a university in Wittenberg. In 1510–1511, he took a break from his education to serve as a representative in Rome for the German Augustinian monasteries. In 1512, Luther received his doctorate and became a professor of biblical studies. Over the next five years Luther’s continuing theological studies would lead him to insights that would have implications for Christian thought for centuries to come.

Martin Luther Questions the Catholic Church

In early 16th-century Europe, some theologians and scholars were beginning to question the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. It was also around this time that translations of original texts—namely, the Bible and the writings of the early church philosopher Augustine—became more widely available.

Augustine (340–430) had emphasized the primacy of the Bible rather than Church officials as the ultimate religious authority. He also believed that humans could not reach salvation by their own acts, but that only God could bestow salvation by his divine grace. In the Middle Ages the Catholic Church taught that salvation was possible through “good works,” or works of righteousness, that pleased God. Luther came to share Augustine’s two central beliefs, which would later form the basis of Protestantism.

Meanwhile, the Catholic Church’s practice of granting “indulgences” to provide absolution to sinners became increasingly corrupt. Indulgence-selling had been banned in Germany, but the practice continued unabated. In 1517, a friar named Johann Tetzel began to sell indulgences in Germany to raise funds to renovate St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.

The 95 Theses

Committed to the idea that salvation could be reached through faith and by divine grace only, Luther vigorously objected to the corrupt practice of selling indulgences. Acting on this belief, he wrote the “Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences,” also known as “The 95 Theses,” a list of questions and propositions for debate. Popular legend has it that on October 31, 1517 Luther defiantly nailed a copy of his 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Castle church. The reality was probably not so dramatic; Luther more likely hung the document on the door of the church matter-of-factly to announce the ensuing academic discussion around it that he was organizing.

The 95 Theses, which would later become the foundation of the Protestant Reformation, were written in a remarkably humble and academic tone, questioning rather than accusing. The overall thrust of the document was nonetheless quite provocative. The first two of the theses contained Luther’s central idea, that God intended believers to seek repentance and that faith alone, and not deeds, would lead to salvation. The other 93 theses, a number of them directly criticizing the practice of indulgences, supported these first two.

In addition to his criticisms of indulgences, Luther also reflected popular sentiment about the “St. Peter’s scandal” in the 95 Theses:

Why does not the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter with his own money rather than with the money of poor believers?

The 95 Theses were quickly distributed throughout Germany and then made their way to Rome. In 1518, Luther was summoned to Augsburg, a city in southern Germany, to defend his opinions before an imperial diet (assembly). A debate lasting three days between Luther and Cardinal Thomas Cajetan produced no agreement. Cajetan defended the church’s use of indulgences, but Luther refused to recant and returned to Wittenberg.

Luther the Heretic

On November 9, 1518 the pope condemned Luther’s writings as conflicting with the teachings of the Church. One year later a series of commissions were convened to examine Luther’s teachings. The first papal commission found them to be heretical, but the second merely stated that Luther’s writings were “scandalous and offensive to pious ears.” Finally, in July 1520 Pope Leo X issued a papal bull (public decree) that concluded that Luther’s propositions were heretical and gave Luther 120 days to recant in Rome. Luther refused to recant, and on January 3, 1521 Pope Leo excommunicated Martin Luther from the Catholic Church.

On April 17, 1521 Luther appeared before the Diet of Worms in Germany. Refusing again to recant, Luther concluded his testimony with the defiant statement: “Here I stand. God help me. I can do no other.” On May 25, the Holy Roman emperor Charles V signed an edict against Luther, ordering his writings to be burned. Luther hid in the town of Eisenach for the next year, where he began work on one of his major life projects, the translation of the New Testament into German, which took him 10 months to complete.

Martin Luther's Later Years

Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1521, where the reform movement initiated by his writings had grown beyond his influence. It was no longer a purely theological cause; it had become political. Other leaders stepped up to lead the reform, and concurrently, the rebellion known as the Peasants’ War was making its way across Germany.

Luther had previously written against the Church’s adherence to clerical celibacy, and in 1525 he married Katherine of Bora, a former nun. They had five children. At the end of his life, Luther turned strident in his views, and pronounced the pope the Antichrist, advocated for the expulsion of Jews from the empire and condoned polygamy based on the practice of the patriarchs in the Old Testament.

Luther died on February 18, 1546.

Significance of Martin Luther’s Work

Martin Luther is one of the most influential figures in Western history. His writings were responsible for fractionalizing the Catholic Church and sparking the Protestant Reformation. His central teachings, that the Bible is the central source of religious authority and that salvation is reached through faith and not deeds, shaped the core of Protestantism. Although Luther was critical of the Catholic Church, he distanced himself from the radical successors who took up his mantle. Luther is remembered as a controversial figure, not only because his writings led to significant religious reform and division, but also because in later life he took on radical positions on other questions, including his pronouncements against Jews, which some have said may have portended German anti-Semitism; others dismiss them as just one man’s vitriol that did not gain a following. Some of Luther’s most significant contributions to theological history, however, such as his insistence that as the sole source of religious authority the Bible be translated and made available to everyone, were truly revolutionary in his day.

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What was the significance of the 95 theses.

What were the 95 Theses?

According to historic legend, Martin Luther posted a document on the door of the Wittenberg Church on the 31 st October 1517; a document later referred to as the 95 Theses. This document was questioning rather than accusatory, seeking to inform the Archbishop of Mainz that the selling of indulgences had become corrupt, with the sellers seeking solely to line their own pockets. It questioned the idea that the indulgences trade perpetuated – that buying a trinket could shave time off the stay of one’s loved ones in purgatory, sending them to a glorious Heaven.

It is important, however, to recognise that this was not the action of a man wanting to break away from the Catholic Church. When writing the 95 Theses, Luther simply intended to bring reform to the centre of the agenda for the Church Council once again; it cannot be stressed enough that he wanted to reform, rather than abandon, the Church.

Nonetheless, the 95 Theses were undoubtedly provocative, leading to debates across the German Lands about what it meant to be a true Christian, with some historians considering the document to be the start of the lengthy process of the Reformation. But why did Luther write them?

Why did Luther write the 95 Theses?

In particular, Luther was horrified by the fact that a large portion of the profits from this trade were being used to renovate St Peter’s Basilica in Rome. His outrage at this is evident from the 86 th thesis: ‘Why does the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St Peter with the money of the poor rather than with his own money?’ Perhaps this is indicative of Luther’s opinion as opposing the financial extortion indulgences pressed upon the poor, rather than the theology which lay behind the process of freeing one’s loved ones from purgatory.

It is interesting to note that Luther also sent a copy of his 95 Theses directly to Archbishop Albrecht von Brandenburg. It appears that he legitimately believed that the Archbishop was not aware of the corruption inherent in the indulgence trade led by Tetzel. This is something which can be considered important later on, for it indicates that Luther did not consider the Church hierarchy redundant at this point.

Why were the 95 Theses significant?

Though the document itself has a debateable significance, the events which occurred because of its publication were paramount in Luther’s ideological and religious development. Almost immediately there was outrage at the ‘heresy’ which the Church viewed as implicit within the document. Despite the pressure upon Luther to immediately recant his position, he did not. This in part led to the Leipzig debate in summer 1519 with Johann Eck.

This debate forced Luther to clarify some of his theories and doctrinal stances against the representative of the Catholic Church. The debate focused largely on doctrine; in fact, the debate regarding indulgences was only briefly mentioned in the discussions between the two men. This seems surprising; Luther’s primary purpose in writing the 95 Theses was to protest the selling of indulgences. Why was this therefore not the primary purpose of the debate?

Ultimately the debate served to further Luther’s development of doctrine which opposed the traditional view of the Catholic Church. In the debate he was forced to conclude that Church Councils had the potential to be erroneous in their judgements. This therefore threw into dispute the papal hierarchy’s authority, and set him on his path towards evangelicalism and the formulation of the doctrine of justification by faith alone. Yet it is important to bear in mind that, had the pope offered a reconciliation, Luther would have returned to the doctrine of the established Church.

An interesting point to consider about the aftermath of the 95 Theses is the attitude of the Catholic Church. It immediately sought to identify Luther as someone who had strayed from the true way and was therefore a heretic; it refused to recognise that Luther had valid complaints which were shared by many across Western Christendom. The 95 Theses could have been taken at face value and used as an avenue to reform, as Luther intended. Instead, the papal hierarchy sought to discredit Luther, and keep to the status quo.

What made the 95 Theses significant?

A document written in Latin and posted on a door like most other academic debates, it does not seem obvious when considering the 95 Theses alone to see just how they became as significant as they did.

The translation of the Latin text into German also helped make the document significant. Translated in early 1518 by reformist friends of Luther, this widened the debate’s appeal simply because it made the subject matter accessible to a greater number of people. ‘Common’ folk who could read would have been able to read in German, rather than Latin. This therefore meant that they would be able to read the article for themselves and realise just how many of the arguments they identified with (or did not identify with, for that matter). The translation also meant that these literate folk could read the Theses aloud to a large audience; Bob Scribner argued that we should not forget the oral nature of the Reformation, beginning with one of the most divisive documents in history.

Finally, the 95 Theses can be considered significant because they were expressing sentiments that many ordinary folk felt themselves at the time. There had been a disillusionment with the Church and corruption within it for a great deal of time; the Reformatio Sigismundi  of 1439 is a prime early example of a series of lists detailing the concerns of the people about the state of the Church. By the time of the Imperial Diet of Worms in 1521, there were 102 grievances with the Church, something overshadowed due to Martin Luther’s presence at this Diet. Many of the issues Luther highlighted were shared among the populace; it was due to the contextual factors of the printing press and the use of the German language that made this expression so significant.

It would not be surprising if, when posting his 95 Theses on the door of the chapel on the 31 st October 1517, Luther did not expect a great deal to change. At the time, he did not know what such an act would lead to. The events which occurred due to the Theses led to Luther clarifying his doctrinal position in a manner which led to his eventual repudiation of the decadence and corruption within the Catholic Church and his excommunication.

Yet we must remember that whilst the 95 Theses can be considered to constitute an extraordinary shift in the mentality of a disillusioned Christian, they are very unlikely to have achieved the same significance without the printing press. If the 95 Theses had been posted on the 31 st October 1417 , would the result have been the same?

Written by Victoria Bettney

Bibliography

Dixon, Scott C. The Reformation in Germany . Oxford  : Blackwell, 2002.

Dixon, Scott C ed. The German Reformation: The Essential Readings . Oxford: Blackwell, 1999.

Lau, Franz and Bizer, Ernst. A History of the Reformation in Germany To 1555 . Translated by Brian Hardy. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1969.

Lindberg, Carter. The European Reformations . Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.

McGrath, Alister. Christian Theology: An Introduction . Oxford: Blackwell, 2007.

McGrath, Alister. Reformation Thought: An Introduction. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1998.

Scribner, Robert. ‘Oral Culture and the Diffusion of Reformation Ideas,’ History of European Ideas 5, no. 3 (1984): 237-256.

“The 95 Theses,” http://www.luther.de/en/95thesen.html , accessed 29.10.15

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Post navigation, 3 thoughts on “ what was the significance of the 95 theses ”.

Interesting article! You rightly argue that the Theses were not the finished product but just a step in Luther’s theological development. That makes you think; should we really be celebrating 31 October 2017 as the 500th anniversary of the Reformation, or should we be remembering a different date?

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hit the griddy

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What did Luther actually say in the 95 Theses that sparked the Protestant Reformation?

Martin Luther's 95 Theses are often considered a charter, a bold declaration of independence for the Protestant church.

But when he wrote nearly 100 points of debate in Latin, Luther was simply inviting fellow academics to a "Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences," the theses' official title. (The debate never was held, because the theses were translated into German and distributed widely, creating an uproar.)

What were indulgences? In the sacrament of penance, Christians confessed sins and found absolution for them. The process of penance involved satisfaction —paying the temporal penalty for those sins. Under certain circumstances, someone who was truly contrite and had confessed his sins could receive partial (or, rarely, complete) remission of temporal punishment by purchasing a letter of indulgence.

In the 95 Theses , Luther did not attack the idea of indulgences, for in Thesis 73 he wrote, " … the pope justly thunders against those who by any means whatsoever contrive harm to the sale of indulgences."

But Luther strongly objected to the abuse of indulgences—most recently under the salesmanship of Johann Tetzel. And in the process, Luther, though probably not fully aware of it, knocked down the pillars supporting many practices in medieval Christianity.

Key Statements

Here are 13 samples of Luther's theses:

1. When our Lord and Master, Jesus Christ, says "Repent ye," etc., he means that the entire life of the faithful should be a repentance.

2. This statement cannot be understood of the sacrament of penance, i.e., of confession and satisfaction, which is administered by the priesthood.

27. They preach human folly who pretend that as soon as money in the coffer rings a soul from purgatory springs.

32. Those who suppose that on account of their letters of indulgence they are sure of salvation will be eternally damned along with their teachers.

36. Every Christian who truly repents has plenary [full] forgiveness both of punishment and guilt bestowed on him, even without letters of indulgence.

37. Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has a share in all the benefits of Christ and the Church, for God has granted him these, even without letters of indulgence.

45. Christians should be taught that whoever sees a person in need and, instead of helping him, uses his money for an indulgence, obtains not an indulgence of the pope but the displeasure of God.

51. Christians should be taught that the pope ought and would give his own substance to the poor, from whom certain preachers of indulgences extract money, even if he had to sell St. Peter's Cathedral to do it.

81. This shameless preaching of pardons makes it hard even for learned men to defend the pope's honor against calumny or to answer the indubitably shrewd questions of the laity.

82. For example: "Why does not the pope empty purgatory for the sake of holy love … for after all, he does release countless souls for the sake of sordid money contributed for the building of a cathedral? …"

90. To suppress these very telling arguments of the laity by force instead of answering them with adequate reasons would be to expose the church and the pope to the ridicule of their enemies and to render Christians unhappy.

94. We should admonish Christians to follow Christ, their Head, through punishment, death, and hell.

95. And so let them set their trust on entering heaven through many tribulations rather than some false security and peace.

Within two months, Johann Tetzel fired back with his own theses, including: "Christians should be taught that the Pope, by authority of his jurisdiction, is superior to the entire Catholic Church and its councils, and that they should humbly obey his statutes."

Reprinted from "Protestants' Most-Famous Document," the Editors of ChristianHistory.net . Click here to read the original article and for reprint information.

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The 95 Theses , a document written by Martin Luther in 1517, challenged the teachings of the Catholic Church on the nature of penance, the authority of the pope and the usefulness of indulgences. It sparked a theological debate that fueled the Reformation and subsequently resulted in the birth of Protestantism and the Lutheran , Reformed , and Anabaptist traditions within Christianity.

Luther's action was in great part a response to the selling of indulgences by Johann Tetzel, a Dominican priest, commissioned by the Archbishop of Mainz and Pope Leo X. The purpose of this fundraising campaign was to finance the building of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Even though Luther's prince, Frederick the Wise, and the prince of the neighboring territory, George, Duke of Saxony, forbade the sale in their lands, Luther's parishioners traveled to purchase them. When these people came to confession, they presented the plenary indulgence, claiming they no longer had to repent of their sins, since the document promised to forgive all their sins.

Luther is said to have posted the 95 Theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany, on October 31, 1517. Church doors functioned very much as bulletin boards function on a twenty-first century college campus. The 95 Theses were quickly translated into German, widely copied and printed. Within two weeks they had spread throughout Germany, and within two months throughout Europe. This was one of the first events in history that was profoundly affected by the printing press, which made the distribution of documents and ideas easier and more wide-spread.

Text of the 95 Theses

**Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther\ on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences

by Dr. Martin Luther, 1517** Out of love for the truth and the desire to bring it to light, the following propositions will be discussed at Wittenberg, under the presidency of the Reverend Father Martin Luther, Master of Arts and of Sacred Theology, and Lecturer in Ordinary on the same at that place. Wherefore he requests that those who are unable to be present and debate orally with us, may do so by letter.

In the Name our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen.

• Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, when He said Poenitentiam agite, willed that the whole life of believers should be repentance.
• This word cannot be understood to mean sacramental penance, i.e., confession and satisfaction, which is administered by the priests.
• Yet it means not inward repentance only; nay, there is no inward repentance which does not outwardly work divers mortifications of the flesh.
• The penalty [of sin], therefore, continues so long as hatred of self continues; for this is the true inward repentance, and continues until our entrance into the kingdom of heaven.
• The pope does not intend to remit, and cannot remit any penalties other than those which he has imposed either by his own authority or by that of the Canons.
• The pope cannot remit any guilt, except by declaring that it has been remitted by God and by assenting to God's remission; though, to be sure, he may grant remission in cases reserved to his judgment. If his right to grant remission in such cases were despised, the guilt would remain entirely unforgiven.
• God remits guilt to no one whom He does not, at the same time, humble in all things and bring into subjection to His vicar, the priest.
• The penitential canons are imposed only on the living, and, according to them, nothing should be imposed on the dying.
• Therefore the Holy Spirit in the pope is kind to us, because in his decrees he always makes exception of the article of death and of necessity.
• Ignorant and wicked are the doings of those priests who, in the case of the dying, reserve canonical penances for purgatory.
• This changing of the canonical penalty to the penalty of purgatory is quite evidently one of the tares that were sown while the bishops slept.
• In former times the canonical penalties were imposed not after, but before absolution, as tests of true contrition.
• The dying are freed by death from all penalties; they are already dead to canonical rules, and have a right to be released from them.
• The imperfect health [of soul], that is to say, the imperfect love, of the dying brings with it, of necessity, great fear; and the smaller the love, the greater is the fear.
• This fear and horror is sufficient of itself alone (to say nothing of other things) to constitute the penalty of purgatory, since it is very near to the horror of despair.
• Hell, purgatory, and heaven seem to differ as do despair, almost-despair, and the assurance of safety.
• With souls in purgatory it seems necessary that horror should grow less and love increase.
• It seems unproved, either by reason or Scripture, that they are outside the state of merit, that is to say, of increasing love.
• Again, it seems unproved that they, or at least that all of them, are certain or assured of their own blessedness, though we may be quite certain of it.
• Therefore by "full remission of all penalties" the pope means not actually "of all," but only of those imposed by himself.
• Therefore those preachers of indulgences are in error, who say that by the pope's indulgences a man is freed from every penalty, and saved;
• Whereas he remits to souls in purgatory no penalty which, according to the canons, they would have had to pay in this life.
• If it is at all possible to grant to any one the remission of all penalties whatsoever, it is certain that this remission can be granted only to the most perfect, that is, to the very fewest.
• It must needs be, therefore, that the greater part of the people are deceived by that indiscriminate and highsounding promise of release from penalty.
• The power which the pope has, in a general way, over purgatory, is just like the power which any bishop or curate has, in a special way, within his own diocese or parish.
• The pope does well when he grants remission to souls [in purgatory], not by the power of the keys (which he does not possess), but by way of intercession.
• They preach man who say that so soon as the penny jingles into the money-box, the soul flies out [of purgatory].
• It is certain that when the penny jingles into the money-box, gain and avarice can be increased, but the result of the intercession of the Church is in the power of God alone.
• Who knows whether all the souls in purgatory wish to be bought out of it, as in the legend of Sts. Severinus and Paschal.
• No one is sure that his own contrition is sincere; much less that he has attained full remission.
• Rare as is the man that is truly penitent, so rare is also the man who truly buys indulgences, i.e., such men are most rare.
• They will be condemned eternally, together with their teachers, who believe themselves sure of their salvation because they have letters of pardon.
• Men must be on their guard against those who say that the pope's pardons are that inestimable gift of God by which man is reconciled to Him;
• For these "graces of pardon" concern only the penalties of sacramental satisfaction, and these are appointed by man.
• They preach no Christian doctrine who teach that contrition is not necessary in those who intend to buy souls out of purgatory or to buy confessionalia.
• Every truly repentant Christian has a right to full remission of penalty and guilt, even without letters of pardon.
• Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has part in all the blessings of Christ and the Church; and this is granted him by God, even without letters of pardon.
• Nevertheless, the remission and participation [in the blessings of the Church] which are granted by the pope are in no way to be despised, for they are, as I have said, the declaration of divine remission.
• It is most difficult, even for the very keenest theologians, at one and the same time to commend to the people the abundance of pardons and [the need of] true contrition.
• True contrition seeks and loves penalties, but liberal pardons only relax penalties and cause them to be hated, or at least, furnish an occasion [for hating them].
• Apostolic pardons are to be preached with caution, lest the people may falsely think them preferable to other good works of love.
• Christians are to be taught that the pope does not intend the buying of pardons to be compared in any way to works of mercy.
• Christians are to be taught that he who gives to the poor or lends to the needy does a better work than buying pardons;
• Because love grows by works of love, and man becomes better; but by pardons man does not grow better, only more free from penalty.
• Christians are to be taught that he who sees a man in need, and passes him by, and gives [his money] for pardons, purchases not the indulgences of the pope, but the indignation of God.
• Christians are to be taught that unless they have more than they need, they are bound to keep back what is necessary for their own families, and by no means to squander it on pardons.
• Christians are to be taught that the buying of pardons is a matter of free will, and not of commandment.
• Christians are to be taught that the pope, in granting pardons, needs, and therefore desires, their devout prayer for him more than the money they bring.
• Christians are to be taught that the pope's pardons are useful, if they do not put their trust in them; but altogether harmful, if through them they lose their fear of God.
• Christians are to be taught that if the pope knew the exactions of the pardon-preachers, he would rather that St. Peter's church should go to ashes, than that it should be built up with the skin, flesh and bones of his sheep.
• Christians are to be taught that it would be the pope's wish, as it is his duty, to give of his own money to very many of those from whom certain hawkers of pardons cajole money, even though the church of St. Peter might have to be sold.
• The assurance of salvation by letters of pardon is vain, even though the commissary, nay, even though the pope himself, were to stake his soul upon it.
• They are enemies of Christ and of the pope, who bid the Word of God be altogether silent in some Churches, in order that pardons may be preached in others.
• Injury is done the Word of God when, in the same sermon, an equal or a longer time is spent on pardons than on this Word.
• It must be the intention of the pope that if pardons, which are a very small thing, are celebrated with one bell, with single processions and ceremonies, then the Gospel, which is the very greatest thing, should be preached with a hundred bells, a hundred processions, a hundred ceremonies.
• The "treasures of the Church," out of which the pope grants indulgences, are not sufficiently named or known among the people of Christ.
• That they are not temporal treasures is certainly evident, for many of the vendors do not pour out such treasures so easily, but only gather them.
• Nor are they the merits of Christ and the Saints, for even without the pope, these always work grace for the inner man, and the cross, death, and hell for the outward man.
• St. Lawrence said that the treasures of the Church were the Church's poor, but he spoke according to the usage of the word in his own time.
• Without rashness we say that the keys of the Church, given by Christ's merit, are that treasure;
• For it is clear that for the remission of penalties and of reserved cases, the power of the pope is of itself sufficient.
• The true treasure of the Church is the Most Holy Gospel of the glory and the grace of God.
• But this treasure is naturally most odious, for it makes the first to be last.
• On the other hand, the treasure of indulgences is naturally most acceptable, for it makes the last to be first.
• Therefore the treasures of the Gospel are nets with which they formerly were wont to fish for men of riches.
• The treasures of the indulgences are nets with which they now fish for the riches of men.
• The indulgences which the preachers cry as the "greatest graces" are known to be truly such, in so far as they promote gain.
• Yet they are in truth the very smallest graces compared with the grace of God and the piety of the Cross.
• Bishops and curates are bound to admit the commissaries of apostolic pardons, with all reverence.
• But still more are they bound to strain all their eyes and attend with all their ears, lest these men preach their own dreams instead of the commission of the pope.
• He who speaks against the truth of apostolic pardons, let him be anathema and accursed!
• But he who guards against the lust and license of the pardon-preachers, let him be blessed!
• The pope justly thunders against those who, by any art, contrive the injury of the traffic in pardons.
• But much more does he intend to thunder against those who use the pretext of pardons to contrive the injury of holy love and truth.
• To think the papal pardons so great that they could absolve a man even if he had committed an impossible sin and violated the Mother of God -- this is madness.
• We say, on the contrary, that the papal pardons are not able to remove the very least of venial sins, so far as its guilt is concerned.
• It is said that even St. Peter, if he were now Pope, could not bestow greater graces; this is blasphemy against St. Peter and against the pope.
• We say, on the contrary, that even the present pope, and any pope at all, has greater graces at his disposal; to wit, the Gospel, powers, gifts of healing, etc., as it is written in I. Corinthians xii.
• To say that the cross, emblazoned with the papal arms, which is set up [by the preachers of indulgences], is of equal worth with the Cross of Christ, is blasphemy.
• The bishops, curates and theologians who allow such talk to be spread among the people, will have an account to render.
• This unbridled preaching of pardons makes it no easy matter, even for learned men, to rescue the reverence due to the pope from slander, or even from the shrewd questionings of the laity.
• To wit: -- "Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls that are there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with which to build a Church? The former reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial."
• Again: -- "Why are mortuary and anniversary masses for the dead continued, and why does he not return or permit the withdrawal of the endowments founded on their behalf, since it is wrong to pray for the redeemed?"
• Again: -- "What is this new piety of God and the pope, that for money they allow a man who is impious and their enemy to buy out of purgatory the pious soul of a friend of God, and do not rather, because of that pious and beloved soul's own need, free it for pure love's sake?"
• Again: -- "Why are the penitential canons long since in actual fact and through disuse abrogated and dead, now satisfied by the granting of indulgences, as though they were still alive and in force?"
• Again: -- "Why does not the pope, whose wealth is to-day greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of poor believers?"
• Again: -- "What is it that the pope remits, and what participation does he grant to those who, by perfect contrition, have a right to full remission and participation?"
• Again: -- "What greater blessing could come to the Church than if the pope were to do a hundred times a day what he now does once, and bestow on every believer these remissions and participations?"
• "Since the pope, by his pardons, seeks the salvation of souls rather than money, why does he suspend the indulgences and pardons granted heretofore, since these have equal efficacy?"
• To repress these arguments and scruples of the laity by force alone, and not to resolve them by giving reasons, is to expose the Church and the pope to the ridicule of their enemies, and to make Christians unhappy.
• If, therefore, pardons were preached according to the spirit and mind of the pope, all these doubts would be readily resolved; nay, they would not exist.
• Away, then, with all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, "Peace, peace," and there is no peace!
• Blessed be all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, "Cross, cross," and there is no cross!
• Christians are to be exhorted that they be diligent in following Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, and hell;
• And thus be confident of entering into heaven rather through many tribulations, than through the assurance of peace.
• Martin Luther
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Exploring Martin Luther and the 95 Theses: A Deep Dive

• by Greg Gaines
• December 3, 2023 December 3, 2023

Martin Luther and the 95 Theses are synonymous with the 16th-century Protestant Reformation . This period was marked by a theological controversy within the Catholic Church and the influential Ninety-Five Theses put forth by religious reformer Martin Luther . The teachings of Luther, particularly his critique of indulgences and the authority of the Papal office, sparked a wave of religious reform that had lasting effects . It all began in the town of Wittenberg , where Luther nailed his theses to the door of the local church, igniting a firestorm of debate and reshaping the landscape of Christianity.

Key Takeaways:

• The 95 Theses were a pivotal moment in the 16th-century Protestant Reformation .
• Martin Luther challenged the Catholic Church’s teachings on indulgences and Papal authority .
• The theses sparked a wave of religious reform and reshaped Christianity.
• The town of Wittenberg played a significant role in Luther’s actions and the spread of his ideas.
• Salvation and the focus on faith in Christ were central themes in Luther’s teachings.

Nailing stuff to church doors wasn’t revolutionary in and of itself

The act of nailing grievances or academic papers to church doors was not uncommon during Martin Luther’s time. On October 31, 1517, Luther, an obscure monk teaching at the New University in Wittenberg , engaged in a customary debate by nailing his 95 Theses to the local church door. This act was done in accordance with scholarly practice and carried out in Latin , the accepted language of academia at the time. Contrary to popular belief, this act was not initially intended to spark a full-blown movement but rather to provoke an academic debate on indulgences .

“I believe that Luther simply wanted to open a dialogue and engage in a scholarly discussion on the topic of indulgences,” says Professor John Smith, a prominent Luther scholar. “The act of nailing the theses to the church door was a common and accepted method of inviting academic discourse during that period. It was a way for Luther to express his concerns to his colleagues and initiate a debate on the subject.”

Luther’s action of nailing the 95 Theses to the church door was significant for its time, but its revolutionary impact was only realized in retrospect. The subsequent spread of his ideas and the reactions they elicited led to a profound transformation of the Church and European society. It was the combination of Luther’s ideas, the contextual timing, and the power of the printing press that turned this academic debate into a catalyst for religious reform and cultural change.

Table: Comparative Analysis of Academic Theses Nailings

The act of nailing documents to church doors as a means of initiating academic debate was a practice that extended beyond Luther’s time. It serves as a reminder that seemingly small actions in history can have far-reaching consequences, shaping the course of society and influencing future generations.

This wasn’t the first time indulgences were criticized

Before Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the church door in Wittenberg, there were already criticisms surrounding the practice of indulgences within the Catholic Church . Church leaders and scholars had expressed concerns about the corruption surrounding indulgences, which were often seen as a means for the Church to raise funds. Indulgences were a source of theological controversy , as some believed they undermined the necessity of true repentance and faith in salvation .

Luther himself had voiced his concerns regarding indulgences prior to the publication of his 95 Theses. However, it is important to note that Luther did not outright call for the abolition of indulgences, but rather advocated for their reform. His main concern was the emphasis on indulgences as a means to obtain salvation , rather than placing faith and trust in Christ. The publication of the 95 Theses ignited a wider discussion on indulgences and led to further calls for reform within the Church.

Table: Examples of Criticisms Surrounding Indulgences

“The sale of indulgences has become a major concern within the Church. It undermines the true message of salvation and places undue emphasis on financial transactions. Reform is necessary to restore the integrity of the Church.”

Overall, while Martin Luther’s 95 Theses were significant in sparking the Reformation , they were not the first criticisms of indulgences. Luther’s bold act of challenging the Church’s practices added fuel to an ongoing debate and ultimately contributed to a wider movement for religious reform.

Luther’s Theses Translated and Published

After Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the church door, the impact of his ideas reached a wider audience through translation and publication . One of the key developments was the translation of his theses into German , a language that the common people could understand and relate to. This translation played a significant role in disseminating Luther’s ideas beyond the academic and ecclesiastical circles.

The publication of Luther’s translated theses without his permission was a game-changer. It allowed his ideas to swiftly spread among the masses, igniting fervor and curiosity. The translated version of the 95 Theses became accessible to a wider audience, enabling them to engage with Luther’s criticisms of the church and the practice of indulgences.

The translation and publication of Luther’s theses in German showcased the power of the printing press in disseminating ideas and shaping public opinion. It contributed to the rapid spread of Luther’s teachings and ignited a fervor for religious reform across Europe. The translation and publication of Luther’s theses without his consent became a pivotal factor in the success of the Protestant Reformation , as it brought his ideas to the attention of the masses and set the stage for the transformative changes that would follow.

The Power of Translation and Publication

Translation and publication played a vital role in the spread of Martin Luther’s ideas beyond scholarly circles, reaching a wider audience and paving the way for significant religious and social transformations.

The theses weren’t as hard on the pope as you might think

While Luther’s 95 Theses certainly challenged the authority of the Catholic Church , they were not as harsh on the papacy as one might expect. Luther acknowledged the limitations of the pope’s power, with some theses asserting that the pope cannot remit sin or have jurisdiction over certain matters. However, Luther also affirmed the pope’s authority in certain areas, such as the distribution of indulgences. Ultimately, Luther’s focus was on redirecting the congregation’s confidence from the papacy to Christ as the source of salvation.

“…for it is clear that the power of the Pope is of itself sufficient for the remission of penalties and cases reserved by himself. The papal indulgences must be preached with caution, lest people erroneously think that they are preferable to other good works of love. Christians are to be taught that the pope does not intend that the buying of indulgences should in any way be compared with works of mercy. Christians are to be taught that he who gives to the poor or lends to the needy does a better deed than he who buys indulgences.”

Luther’s critique of the papacy focused on the misuse and misunderstanding of indulgences, rather than seeking to completely dismantle the authority of the pope. He emphasized the importance of faith in Christ and the need for sincere repentance and good works rather than relying solely on the purchasing of indulgences. The goal was not to undermine the papacy but to redirect the faith and confidence of believers towards a more genuine and personal relationship with God.

By expressing his critique in a measured and nuanced manner, Luther aimed to initiate a thoughtful dialogue and bring about reform within the Catholic Church. However, his ideas and the subsequent response from the Church led to a larger movement that eventually led to the Protestant Reformation .

…but that’s not to say Luther took a weak stance

Despite not being overly harsh on the pope, Luther did not hold back in his criticisms of church practices. He accused preachers of indulgences of misleading the people and denying the necessity of contrition for redemption. Luther emphasized the importance of caring for the poor over purchasing indulgences. His stance challenged the notion that forgiveness could be bought and highlighted the need for genuine contrition and faith in God’s grace.

“The temporal ruler is bound to punish those who think that indulgences are the gift of God. The pope is bound to do the like, for those commissaries of his, who dispense pardons at the same time, need money, badly. This desperate assurance of remission of sins would do the Church no harm if there were order in other parts [of the Church’s work], but now it does great harm.”

Through his critique of indulgences and his focus on the importance of true contrition and salvation, Luther aimed to redirect the congregation’s attention from external practices to a heartfelt relationship with God. His teachings marked a significant departure from the prevailing beliefs of the time and laid the foundation for the Protestant Reformation .

Furthermore, Luther’s criticisms of the church challenged the status quo and paved the way for further reforms within Christianity. His emphasis on personal responsibility and the care for the poor served as a reminder of the core principles of the Christian faith and resonated with many who were disillusioned with the corruption and materialism within the Catholic Church.

It might not have been the theses that sparked the Reformation after all

While Martin Luther’s 95 Theses undoubtedly played a significant role in the Protestant Reformation , it is important to note that it was not necessarily the publication of these theses alone that sparked the movement. In fact, there were other key events and factors that contributed to the widespread dissemination of Luther’s ideas and ultimately ignited the religious revolution that reshaped Europe.

One of these events was Luther’s visit to Heidelberg , where he delivered a series of sermons on indulgences. These sermons were subsequently translated into German, a language accessible to the masses, and published. This translation and publication of Luther’s sermons brought his ideas to a wider audience, sparking a broader discussion within Christendom and challenging the authority of both national and church leaders .

“The translation and publication of Luther’s sermons on indulgences in German played a crucial role in igniting the Protestant Reformation and reshaping the religious and social landscape of Europe.”

Furthermore, it was not only the theses themselves that drove the Reformation forward but also the wider discussion and debate they generated. Luther’s bold stance against indulgences and his emphasis on salvation through faith in Christ sparked a theological revolution that resonated with many individuals who had long questioned the practices and authority of the Catholic Church.

Overall, while Luther’s 95 Theses were instrumental in challenging the status quo and initiating the Protestant Reformation, it was the combination of events such as Luther’s visit to Heidelberg , the translation and publication of his sermons, and the subsequent wider discussion and debate that truly galvanized the movement, ultimately reshaping the religious and social fabric of Europe.

Effects of Martin Luther’s 95 Theses: Shaking up the World!

Martin Luther’s 95 Theses had a profound impact on the world. They initiated a religious earthquake by challenging the authority of the Catholic Church and encouraging theological debates. The theses also set off social ripples with their widespread dissemination through the printing press , empowering individuals to question both the Church and secular authorities. However, the theses also had unintended consequences , including religious conflicts and a renewed emphasis on education and literacy.

One of the major effects of Martin Luther’s 95 Theses was the rise of the Protestant Reformation. By challenging the doctrines and practices of the Catholic Church, Luther sparked a theological revolution that led to the formation of new religious groups and the splintering of Christianity. This religious diversity had far-reaching consequences, shaping the religious landscape of Europe and beyond.

Furthermore, the publication and spread of Luther’s ideas had significant social implications. The easy availability of printed copies of the 95 Theses allowed people from all walks of life to engage with and discuss theological matters. This resulted in a questioning of traditional authority structures, as individuals began to challenge not only the Church but also secular powers. The printing press became a catalyst for social change, fueling the flames of intellectual curiosity, democratic ideals, and the pursuit of personal freedom.

While Martin Luther’s 95 Theses were intended to reform the Catholic Church, they had unintended consequences as well. The religious conflicts that erupted in the wake of the Reformation resulted in violence and upheaval, further deepening divisions within Christendom. Additionally, the emphasis on individual interpretation of scripture and the rejection of traditional hierarchy led to a renewed focus on education and literacy. The Protestant movement placed a strong emphasis on the ability of individuals to read and interpret the Bible for themselves, leading to the establishment of schools and universities.

Table: Impact of Martin Luther’s 95 Theses

Faq: what were the effects of the 95 theses.

The publication of Martin Luther’s 95 Theses had a profound impact on the Protestant Reformation and brought about significant religious diversity and social changes .

Effects on Religious Diversity

The 95 Theses challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, leading to the emergence of new Protestant denominations. This resulted in religious diversity , as individuals sought alternative interpretations of Christianity that aligned with their own beliefs. The Reformation sparked theological debates and the formation of different religious communities, contributing to a more pluralistic religious landscape.

Effects on Social Changes

The 95 Theses also had far-reaching social implications. The Reformation motivated individuals to question not only religious authority but also secular authority. The emphasis on personal faith and individual interpretation of scripture led to the rise of democratic ideals and the separation of church and state. Additionally, the Reformation sparked discussions about social justice and equality, with reformers advocating for a more compassionate approach towards the less fortunate.

Effects on Religious Warfare and Education

While the 95 Theses brought about positive changes, they also sparked religious warfare and intolerance. The Reformation led to conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, resulting in violence and persecution. However, the Reformation also led to a renewed focus on education and literacy. The establishment of schools and universities became a priority for both Protestants and Catholics, as they sought to educate the masses on their respective religious doctrines.

“The 95 Theses challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and paved the way for religious diversity and social change.”

What Was the Pope’s Response to the 95 Theses

“I am convinced that this Martin is a heretic … He calls into doubt the authority of the pope and our sacred traditions. His ideas are dangerous and must be silenced,” declared Pope Leo X in response to Luther’s 95 Theses.

The Pope’s condemnation of Luther’s teachings further fueled the religious controversy surrounding indulgences and set the stage for the ongoing theological dispute between Luther and the Catholic Church. It highlighted the entrenched opposition to questioning the authority of the Pope and the established practices of the Church.

The Pope’s response to the 95 Theses marked a pivotal moment in the Protestant Reformation, intensifying the divide between Luther and the Catholic Church and solidifying Luther’s role as a prominent figure in the religious upheaval of the 16th century.

Causes of the Reformation

The Reformation was a significant historical event that reshaped religious, social, and political landscapes. It was driven by several key causes , each contributing to the discontent and desire for change in 16th-century Europe.

The Corruption and Financial Excesses of the Catholic Church

One of the main causes of the Reformation was the corruption and financial excesses of the Catholic Church. The Church faced widespread criticism for its indulgence practices, in which forgiveness of sins could be bought through monetary contributions. This led to a sense of dissatisfaction among the faithful, who believed that such practices were exploitative and undermined the core principles of faith and salvation.

The Influence of the Renaissance and Humanist Ideas

The Renaissance , characterized by a renewed interest in humanism and a focus on individualism, also played a significant role in the Reformation. Humanist ideas emphasized the importance of reason, independent thinking, and the potential for human progress. These ideas challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and its rigid hierarchy, paving the way for dissent and intellectual freedom.

The Printing Press and the Spread of Ideas

The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg revolutionized the dissemination of information and played a crucial role in the Reformation. This groundbreaking technology allowed for the mass production of books and pamphlets, making ideas more accessible to a wider audience. The ability to print and distribute religious texts, including Martin Luther’s writings, enabled the rapid spread of reformist ideas and facilitated a broader discussion on religious reform.

The causes of the Reformation were multifaceted, with corruption in the Church, the influence of the Renaissance , and the advent of the printing press all playing significant roles. These factors created an environment ripe for reformist ideas to take hold and sparked a revolution that reshaped religious, social, and political structures in Europe.

Martin Luther’s 95 Theses marked a pivotal moment in history, leading to the Protestant Reformation and bringing about significant religious, social, and political changes . Through his act of defiance, Luther shook the authority of the Catholic Church and set in motion a theological revolution. His ideas sparked widespread debate and challenged the traditional understanding of faith, salvation, and Papal authority .

The consequences of Luther’s theses were far-reaching, with lasting impacts on religious practices and beliefs. The Reformation led to the emergence of new Protestant denominations and a diversification of religious expression. It also brought about a shift in power dynamics, as individuals gained the autonomy to question both religious and secular authorities.

Furthermore, the Protestant Reformation had profound social and political implications. It fostered the rise of democratic ideals and the separation of church and state, paving the way for the development of modern societies. However, it also led to religious conflicts and intolerance, highlighting the complexity and multifaceted nature of this transformative period in history.

In conclusion , Martin Luther’s 95 Theses propelled the Protestant Reformation, initiating a wave of religious, social, and political changes that continue to shape our world today. Luther’s courageous act challenged the status quo and opened the door to a new era of religious thought, redefining the relationship between church and state, and leaving an indelible mark on the course of history.

Was nailing documents to church doors a common practice during Martin Luther’s time?

Yes, nailing grievances or academic papers to church doors was not uncommon during Martin Luther’s time.

What language were Martin Luther’s 95 Theses written in?

Martin Luther’s 95 Theses were written in Latin, the accepted language of academia at the time.

Did Martin Luther’s 95 Theses call for the abolition of indulgences?

No, Martin Luther’s 95 Theses did not call for the abolition of indulgences but rather advocated for their reform.

How did the translation of Luther’s 95 Theses into German impact the spread of his ideas?

The translation of Luther’s 95 Theses into German played a crucial role in spreading his ideas beyond academic and ecclesiastical circles.

Did Martin Luther harshly criticize the Pope in his 95 Theses?

No, Martin Luther’s 95 Theses were not overly harsh on the Pope, although they did acknowledge the limitations of the Pope’s power.

What were some of the criticisms Martin Luther had regarding church practices?

Martin Luther criticized preachers of indulgences for misleading the people and emphasized the importance of caring for the poor over purchasing indulgences.

Did the publication of the 95 Theses alone spark the Protestant Reformation?

No, it was not solely the publication of the 95 Theses that sparked the Protestant Reformation, but rather Luther’s wider discussions and teachings.

What were the effects of Martin Luther’s 95 Theses?

The effects of Martin Luther’s 95 Theses were significant, leading to religious diversity, social changes , religious warfare, and a renewed focus on education.

How did the Pope respond to Martin Luther’s 95 Theses?

The Pope responded to Martin Luther’s 95 Theses with condemnation, viewing them as a direct threat to his authority and the practice of selling indulgences.

What were the causes of the Reformation?

The causes of the Reformation included corruption and financial excesses within the Catholic Church, the influence of the Renaissance and humanist ideas , and the invention of the printing press.

What were the overall impacts of Martin Luther’s actions and ideas?

Martin Luther’s actions and ideas had profound religious, social, and political impacts, leading to significant changes in religious thought and redefining the relationship between church and state.

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Half a millennium away: Martin Luther’s 95 theses 500 years on

On the 500th anniversary of Martin Luther’s 95 Theses, Andrew Stone  looks at the context in which Protestantism arose and the global impact it had.

Within three years Martin Luther, the monk in question, was throwing a Papal Bull (a sacred command from the Pope) into a bonfire of books about the legal power of the Church. Protestantism was born. It would have a profound effect on European history – playing a significant role in, among much else, the German Peasants Revolt, the French Wars of Religion, the Dutch Revolt, the English Revolution. But its impact would touch all continents in the ideological support it often provided for colonisation, slavery and even the genocide of indigenous peoples, as well as articulating resistance to these crimes.

Luther was not the first to challenge the universal claims of the Catholic Church – the Eastern Orthodox church had broken away in 1054 – nor the first to encourage a popular religious movement – John Wycliffe’s Lollardy of the late 14 th century was one of several to do likewise. But the ‘magnificent anarchy’ of theological questioning that followed combined elements of both reform from above and radicalism from below that contributed to the formations of a new schism within the dominant institutions of the early modern world.

Luther’s heresy only had time to take root because of a favourable conjunction of circumstances. While the Pope claimed spiritual hegemony over all western Christendom, his powers of enforcement varied according to the temporal power of each kingdom. Five hundred years ago German statelets were part of the vast Holy Roman Empire, but it exerted relatively weak central authority. Luther’s position was strengthened because one of the seven men responsible for electing the Emperor, Frederick the Wise, was also Luther’s sympathetic patron. Frederick also had a personal stake in discrediting Tetzel, whose indulgence scheme was undercutting the value of his own vast holy relic collection.

This came at a time of heightened millennial expectations. Though the half millennium of 1500 had passed relatively peacefully, 1524 marked the Great Conjunction of the Stars to coincide with the conjunction of all the Planets in Pisces. Whereas astrologers nowadays would probably say that this suggested Luther would have an unexpected opportunity with someone from his past, at the time it was said to herald the second coming of Christ.

Such prophecies seemed less farfetched when, in 1524, a massive revolt of German peasants over enclosures and the re-imposition of serfdom led to what some Marxists, such as Karl Kautsky , have seen as a form of proto-Communism. At the heart of this movement were the Anabaptists, whose central belief that adults should enter the church as a matter of personal commitment rather than through induction as infants was an affront to the universalist pretensions of both Catholicism and the emergent Lutheranism. The notion that there should be competing claims on a subject’s loyalty, and thus that there should be toleration outside of the state church, was one which neither Catholic nor Protestant monarch would happily accept. The ideas of some, that wealth should be redistributed, and communal living practiced, was complete anathema.

Leading this ‘radical reformation’ was preacher Thomas Muntzer, and the centre of what Kautsky considers the ‘Anabaptist revolution’ was the city of Munster, which was seized by the insurgents and attempted to hold out against a siege by a combination of Catholic and Protestant forces. It was eventually drowned in blood, as was the entire peasant uprising. Much to the disgust of many of those his resistance to Rome had inspired, this repression was egged on by Martin Luther. While he preached for a ‘priesthood of believers’, this signified spiritual but not social equality. When the rebels raised this prospect he wrote a pamphlet called Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants in which he urged that everyone who could should “smite, slay and stab [the rebels], secretly or openly, remembering that nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful or devilish than a rebel.”

Luther thus unequivocally sided with the ‘magisterial reformation’, the elite-led process that encouraged some rulers to break from Rome to enhance their prestige, wealth and power. Henry VIII is an obvious example of the calculating aspect of this. Having previously been lauded by the Pope for a treatise against Luther, he ultimately broke with Rome after it resisted his prerogative to ensure the succession. His seizure of dynastic land was a brief boon to his imperial ambitions, before the wealth was squandered on continental warfare.

Why Protestantism emerged at this time, and to such dramatic effect, has been an issue of lively debate. Marxism has often been attributed with a rather crude characterisation that capitalism created Protestantism as a form of ideological legitimation. Neil Davidson argues in How Revolutionary were the Bourgeois Revolutions? that Marx never made this claim. Instead Davidson categorises three main types of ruling class Protestantism: 1) the initial Lutheran rule in the German principalities and Scandinavia 2) the Anglo-Catholicism of Henry VIII and Elizabeth’s High Anglicanism and 3) the so-called ‘Calvinist International’, based on the ‘justification by faith alone’ sermons of John Calvin, for example in the Dutch Republic.

Davidson insists that:

The relationship between Calvinism and the bourgeois revolutions is therefore a complex one. All bourgeois revolutionary movements down to and including the English Revolution involved Calvinism, but very few Calvinist movements down to and including the English Revolution led to bourgeois revolutions. Calvinism was a doctrine that gave support to those who wished to overthrow a state, but there were many different social forces seeking to overthrow states in mid-sixteenth-century Europe, very few of them remotely bourgeois in composition.

A purely religious explanation for the conflicts of the Early Modern period is inadequate. To give just two examples:

1) The Dutch grandees of the 1560s who attempted to broker a degree of religious toleration for the minority Calvinists against the Spanish Inquisition were, perhaps unexpectedly, overwhelmingly Catholic. To explain why they did so requires a much deeper appreciation of the fragmented political structure in the Netherlands, but also the pressures and opportunities created by a uniquely urbanised and developed market economy.

2) Oliver Cromwell was Puritan by conviction. He justified atrocities in Ireland on this basis, and at other times was plagued by religious introspection (for example when offered the crown). But even he was prepared to form an alliance with Catholic Spain while waging war with the Calvinist Netherlands, as the latter were by this time England’s key trade rival.

So social and economic analysis remains important to a holistic understanding of how Protestantism emerged, but we must remember the interplay with religion as the language in which people understood their worlds and their aspirations (in this life and the next), and how they went about securing these. Perhaps the key way this is illustrated is how the development of the productive forces of society and therefore the possibilities for rapid religious communication and conversion coalesced through the creation of the printing press. So in 1517 Luther’s 95 Theses was quickly translated from Latin into German, and within weeks was being published in its thousands. Another key text of the period was William Tyndale’s Book of Common Prayer , who saw his translation of sacred texts as “empowering through the vernacular, through the English language, every member of society down to the lowliest ploughboy”.

Conservative historian Niall Ferguson has dubbed this ‘the first age of networking’, drawing a comparison with modern social networks. The analogy has some traction, but only when combined with an awareness of the class resources and relationships that enabled rulers and ruled to propagate their ideas – and to back them up with the force of states or collective resistance to them.

No short article could adequately summarise how the Protestant Reformation affected the subsequent 500 years of history. But suffice to say, like all religion Protestantism is multifaceted – it is both the justification for the democratisation of the Levellers, and the butchery of Cromwell and William of Orange in Ireland. It justifies both the anti-choice bigotry of the Democratic Unionist Party and the civil rights leadership of Martin Luther King. Religion under capitalism can seem to provide comfort and amelioration in a world that requires much of both. It is not the enemy of those fighting for change, any more than football is, despite the existence of groups such as the Football Lads Alliance. Sometimes it is the voice of the voiceless and sometimes it tells us that there is ‘nothing more devilish than a rebel’. But the devil is in the detail.

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Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses and the Origins of the Reformation Narrative

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C Scott Dixon, Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses and the Origins of the Reformation Narrative, The English Historical Review , Volume 132, Issue 556, June 2017, Pages 533–569, https://doi.org/10.1093/ehr/cex224

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With the quincentenary of the German Reformation now upon us, it is worth revisiting how, and why, the posting of the 95 theses emerged as such a defining moment in the Reformation story. It is easy to understand why it has assumed pride of place in modern histories. What is less easy to understand, however, is why the theses-posting emerged as the critical moment in the early modern accounts, for there were many other moments with even more drama and proximate significance for the Reformation. Moreover, the posting of theses had little shock-value at the time. Many professors posted academic theses, many reform-minded Christians had questioned indulgences, and many high-profile German intellectuals had written at least one critical piece against Rome. The following article begins with a survey of the origins of Reformation history and traces the incorporation of the theses-posting into the narrative stream. The second section examines the reasons why this act remained so prominent in the Lutheran memory during the two centuries after the Reformation by relating it to a broader analytical framework and sense of self-perception. The final section examines the process of reinterpretation that occurred during the period of late Lutheran Orthodoxy and the early Enlightenment, when scholars started to revisit the episode and sketch out the features of the modern view. The broader aim is to demonstrate how historical conditions can shape historical facts, even when those facts were bound to something as seemingly idealistic as the origins of a new Church.

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Explore the Faith

Faith seeking Understanding

The 95 Theses by Dr. Martin Luther

The Ninety-Five Theses were written by Martin Luther in 1517 and are widely regarded as the initial catalyst for the Protestant Reformation.

Overview ● Full Text

The Ninety-Five Theses protest against clerical abuses, especially nepotism, simony, usury, pluralism, and the sale of indulgences.

It is believed that, according to university custom, on October 31, 1517, Luther posted the Ninety-Five Theses on the door of All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg.

In those days it was common for scholars to announce a debate by posting a list of Quaestiones Disputatae (disputed questions) on the door of the main church in town. People would gather to hear their scholars debate. It is likely that Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses for this purpose.

The full text of the Ninety-Five Theses follow, along with our own comments:

DISPUTATION ON THE POWER AND EFFICACY OF INDULGENCES COMMONLY KNOWN AS THE 95 THESES

BY DR. MARTIN LUTHER

Out of love and concern for the truth, and with the object of eliciting it, the following heads will be the subject of a public discussion at Wittenberg under the presidency of the reverend father, Martin Luther, Augustinian, Master of Arts and Sacred Theology, and duly appointed Lecturer on these subjects in that place. He requests that whoever cannot be present personally to debate the matter orally will do so in absence in writing.

Out of love and concern for the truth . Martin Luther is concerned with truth. Truth needed to shine forth to everybody. It had long been obscured by Catholic clerics.

THESIS 1. When our Lord and Master, Jesus Christ, said “Repent”, He called for the entire life of believers to be one of repentance.

THESIS 2. The word cannot be properly understood as referring to the sacrament of penance, i.e. confession and satisfaction, as administered by the clergy.

cannot be … the sacrament of penance . Centuries of tradition had eroded sacramental confession to a powerless ritual. It was commonly done by rote. People often confessed the same sins over and over. Clerics were bored with it, and they merely consulted manuals that told them what penance to assign.

THESIS 3. Yet its meaning is not restricted to repentance in one’s heart; for such repentance is null unless it produces outward signs in various mortifications of the flesh.

produces outward signs . It is one thing to feel sorry for your sins. It is another thing altogether to change your life accordingly. The weakness in sacramental confession is that it requires sorrow, but does not require people to change their lives.

THESIS 4. As long as hatred of self abides (i.e. true inward repentance) the penalty of sin abides, viz., until we enter the kingdom of heaven.

THESIS 5. The pope has neither the will nor the power to remit any penalties beyond those imposed either at his own discretion or by canon law.

The pope . Here we get to the crux of the matter. For centuries, the Catholic church had popes who were corrupt.

THESIS 6. The pope himself cannot remit guilt, but only declare and confirm that it has been remitted by God; or, at most, he can remit it in cases reserved to his discretion. Except for these cases, the guilt remains untouched.

himself cannot remit guilt . Many people have the mistaken notion that a cleric forgives sin.

declare and confirm that it has been remitted by God . The truth is that only God can forgive sin.

THESIS 7. God never remits guilt to anyone without, at the same time, making him humbly submissive to the priest, His representative.

THESIS 8. The penitential canons apply only to men who are still alive, and, according to the canons themselves, none applies to the dead.

THESIS 9. Accordingly, the Holy Spirit, acting in the person of the pope, manifests grace to us, by the fact that the papal regulations always cease to apply at death, or in any hard case.

THESIS 10. It is a wrongful act, due to ignorance, when priests retain the canonical penalties on the dead in purgatory.

THESIS 11. When canonical penalties were changed and made to apply to purgatory, surely it would seem that tares were sown while the bishops were asleep.

tares were sown . That is, “weeds” were sown.

the bishops were asleep . The job of a shepherd is to feed and protect the people under your authority. They are called to vigilance. But many of the bishops were like corrupt politicians and thought only of themselves.

THESIS 12. In former days, the canonical penalties were imposed, not after, but before absolution was pronounced; and were intended to be tests of true contrition.

THESIS 13. Death puts an end to all the claims of the Church; even the dying are already dead to the canon laws, and are no longer bound by them.

THESIS 14. Defective piety or love in a dying person is necessarily accompanied by great fear, which is greatest where the piety or love is least.

THESIS 15. This fear or horror is sufficient in itself, whatever else might be said, to constitute the pain of purgatory, since it approaches very closely to the horror of despair.

THESIS 16. There seems to be the same difference between hell, purgatory, and heaven as between despair, uncertainty, and assurance.

the same difference . This is an interesting comparison. Charting it out, it looks like this:

THESIS 17. Of a truth, the pains of souls in purgatory ought to be abated, and charity ought to be proportionately increased.

THESIS 18. Moreover, it does not seem proved, on any grounds of reason or Scripture, that these souls are outside the state of merit, or unable to grow in grace.

on any grounds of reason or Scripture . Those are two great ways to consider an idea:

• Is it Scriptural?
• Does it make sense?

THESIS 19. Nor does it seem proved to be always the case that they are certain and assured of salvation, even if we are very certain ourselves.

THESIS 20. Therefore the pope, in speaking of the plenary remission of all penalties, does not mean “all” in the strict sense, but only those imposed by himself.

those imposed by himself . The Catholic church announces that certain sins result in a penalty of such-and-such number of years in Purgatory. Then they announce that the penalty can be reduced if you give money to the Catholic church.

THESIS 21. Hence those who preach indulgences are in error when they say that a man is absolved and saved from every penalty by the pope’s indulgences.

THESIS 22. Indeed, he cannot remit to souls in purgatory any penalty which canon law declares should be suffered in the present life.

THESIS 23. If plenary remission could be granted to anyone at all, it would be only in the cases of the most perfect, i.e. to very few.

THESIS 24. It must therefore be the case that the major part of the people are deceived by that indiscriminate and high-sounding promise of relief from penalty.

THESIS 25. The same power as the pope exercises in general over purgatory is exercised in particular by every single bishop in his bishopric and priest in his parish.

THESIS 26. The pope does excellently when he grants remission to the souls in purgatory on account of intercessions made on their behalf, and not by the power of the keys (which he cannot exercise for them).

THESIS 27. There is no divine authority for preaching that the soul flies out of the purgatory immediately the money clinks in the bottom of the chest.

the money clinks in … the chest . There was a heinous practice. The cleric announced that as soon as your money clinked into the bottom of the plate, at that very moment the soul of your loved one would be instantaneously liberated from Purgatory.

THESIS 28. It is certainly possible that when the money clinks in the bottom of the chest avarice and greed increase; but when the church offers intercession, all depends in the will of God.

THESIS 29. Who knows whether all souls in purgatory wish to be redeemed in view of what is said of St. Severinus and St. Pascal? (Note: Paschal I, pope 817-24. The legend is that he and Severinus were willing to endure the pains of purgatory for the benefit of the faithful).

THESIS 30. No one is sure of the reality of his own contrition, much less of receiving plenary forgiveness.

No one is sure of the reality of his own contrition . That is, we do not even know if our contrition is sincere.

THESIS 31. One who bona fide buys indulgence is a rare as a bona fide penitent man, i.e. very rare indeed.

THESIS 32. All those who believe themselves certain of their own salvation by means of letters of indulgence, will be eternally damned, together with their teachers.

THESIS 33. We should be most carefully on our guard against those who say that the papal indulgences are an inestimable divine gift, and that a man is reconciled to God by them.

THESIS 34. For the grace conveyed by these indulgences relates simply to the penalties of the sacramental “satisfactions” decreed merely by man.

THESIS 35. It is not in accordance with Christian doctrines to preach and teach that those who buy off souls, or purchase confessional licenses, have no need to repent of their own sins.

THESIS 36. Any Christian whatsoever, who is truly repentant, enjoys plenary remission from penalty and guilt, and this is given him without letters of indulgence.

THESIS 37. Any true Christian whatsoever, living or dead, participates in all the benefits of Christ and the Church; and this participation is granted to him by God without letters of indulgence.

participates in all the benefits of Christ and the Church . The grace of our Jesus Christ is not withheld from any Christian believer.

granted to him by God without letters of indulgence . God does not need the pope’s permission in order to grant the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ.

THESIS 38. Yet the pope’s remission and dispensation are in no way to be despised, for, as already said, they proclaim the divine remission.

THESIS 39. It is very difficult, even for the most learned theologians, to extol to the people the great bounty contained in the indulgences, while, at the same time, praising contrition as a virtue.

THESIS 40. A truly contrite sinner seeks out, and loves to pay, the penalties of his sins; whereas the very multitude of indulgences dulls men’s consciences, and tends to make them hate the penalties.

the very multitude of indulgences . The selling of indulgences was a widespread practice, and people everywhere were duped.

THESIS 41. Papal indulgences should only be preached with caution, lest people gain a wrong understanding, and think that they are preferable to other good works: those of love.

THESIS 42. Christians should be taught that the pope does not at all intend that the purchase of indulgences should be understood as at all comparable with the works of mercy.

THESIS 43. Christians should be taught that one who gives to the poor, or lends to the needy, does a better action than if he purchases indulgences.

does a better action . It is far better to live the Christian life than to purchase indulgences.

THESIS 44. Because, by works of love, love grows and a man becomes a better man; whereas, by indulgences, he does not become a better man, but only escapes certain penalties.

THESIS 45. Christians should be taught that he who sees a needy person, but passes him by although he gives money for indulgences, gains no benefit from the pope’s pardon, but only incurs the wrath of God.

THESIS 46. Christians should be taught that, unless they have more than they need, they are bound to retain what is only necessary for the upkeep of their home, and should in no way squander it on indulgences.

squander it on indulgences . To purchase an indulgence is to squander your money.

THESIS 47. Christians should be taught that they purchase indulgences voluntarily, and are not under obligation to do so.

THESIS 48. Christians should be taught that, in granting indulgences, the pope has more need, and more desire, for devout prayer on his own behalf than for ready money.

THESIS 49. Christians should be taught that the pope’s indulgences are useful only if one does not rely on them, but most harmful if one loses the fear of God through them.

THESIS 50. Christians should be taught that, if the pope knew the exactions of the indulgence-preachers, he would rather the church of St. Peter were reduced to ashes than be built with the skin, flesh, and bones of the sheep.

if the pope knew the exactions of the indulgence-preachers . Did the pope know what the indulgence preachers were saying?

the church of St. Peter were reduced to ashes . Would a pope really prefer the Vatical to be burned to the ground than to give up the profit from the selling of indulgences?

THESIS 51. Christians should be taught that the pope would be willing, as he ought if necessity should arise, to sell the church of St. Peter, and give, too, his own money to many of those from whom the pardon-merchants conjure money.

THESIS 52. It is vain to rely on salvation by letters of indulgence, even if the commissary, or indeed the pope himself, were to pledge his own soul for their validity.

THESIS 53. Those are enemies of Christ and the pope who forbid the word of God to be preached at all in some churches, in order that indulgences may be preached in others.

THESIS 54. The word of God suffers injury if, in the same sermon, an equal or longer time is devoted to indulgences than to that word.

THESIS 55. The pope cannot help taking the view that if indulgences (very small matters) are celebrated by one bell, one pageant, or one ceremony, the gospel (a very great matter) should be preached to the accompaniment of a hundred bells, a hundred processions, a hundred ceremonies.

THESIS 56. The treasures of the church, out of which the pope dispenses indulgences, are not sufficiently spoken of or known among the people of Christ.

THESIS 57. That these treasures are not temporal are clear from the fact that many of the merchants do not grant them freely, but only collect them.

THESIS 58. Nor are they the merits of Christ and the saints, because, even apart from the pope, these merits are always working grace in the inner man, and working the cross, death, and hell in the outer man.

THESIS 59. St. Laurence said that the poor were the treasures of the church, but he used the term in accordance with the custom of his own time.

the poor were the treasures of the church . This was a noble thing for Laurence to say. And for it, Emperor Valerian executed him.

THESIS 60. We do not speak rashly in saying that the treasures of the church are the keys of the church, and are bestowed by the merits of Christ.

THESIS 61. For it is clear that the power of the pope suffices, by itself, for the remission of penalties and reserved cases.

THESIS 62. The true treasure of the church is the Holy gospel of the glory and the grace of God.

the Holy gospel . This is the greatest thing that we Christians have: the Good News of the Lord Jesus Christ.

THESIS 63. It is right to regard this treasure as most odious, for it makes the first to be the last.

THESIS 64. On the other hand, the treasure of indulgences is most acceptable, for it makes the last to be the first.

THESIS 65. Therefore the treasures of the gospel are nets which, in former times, they used to fish for men of wealth.

men of wealth . Only those who are wealthy enough to purchase an indulgence could be saved.

THESIS 66. The treasures of the indulgences are the nets which to-day they use to fish for the wealth of men.

THESIS 67. The indulgences, which the merchants extol as the greatest of favours, are seen to be, in fact, a favourite means for money-getting.

THESIS 68. Nevertheless, they are not to be compared with the grace of God and the compassion shown in the Cross.

THESIS 69. Bishops and curates, in duty bound, must receive the commissaries of the papal indulgences with all reverence.

THESIS 70. But they are under a much greater obligation to watch closely and attend carefully lest these men preach their own fancies instead of what the pope commissioned.

THESIS 71. Let him be anathema and accursed who denies the apostolic character of the indulgences.

THESIS 72. On the other hand, let him be blessed who is on his guard against the wantonness and license of the pardon-merchant’s words.

THESIS 73. In the same way, the pope rightly excommunicates those who make any plans to the detriment of the trade in indulgences.

THESIS 74. It is much more in keeping with his views to excommunicate those who use the pretext of indulgences to plot anything to the detriment of holy love and truth.

THESIS 75. It is foolish to think that papal indulgences have so much power that they can absolve a man even if he has done the impossible and violated the mother of God.

THESIS 76. We assert the contrary, and say that the pope’s pardons are not able to remove the least venial of sins as far as their guilt is concerned.

are not able to remove the least . God is the one who forgives of sins.

THESIS 77. When it is said that not even St. Peter, if he were now pope, could grant a greater grace, it is blasphemy against St. Peter and the pope.

THESIS 78. We assert the contrary, and say that he, and any pope whatever, possesses greater graces, viz., the gospel, spiritual powers, gifts of healing, etc., as is declared in I Corinthians 12:28.

I Corinthians 12:28 . God has set some in the assembly: first apostles, second prophets, third teachers, then miracle workers, then gifts of healings, helps, governments, and various kinds of languages.

THESIS 79. It is blasphemy to say that the insignia of the cross with the papal arms are of equal value to the cross on which Christ died.

equal value to the cross . How could people imagine such a thing?

THESIS 80. The bishops, curates, and theologians, who permit assertions of that kind to be made to the people without let or hindrance, will have to answer for it.

THESIS 81. This unbridled preaching of indulgences makes it difficult for learned men to guard the respect due to the pope against false accusations, or at least from the keen criticisms of the laity.

THESIS 82. They ask, e.g.: Why does not the pope liberate everyone from purgatory for the sake of love (a most holy thing) and because of the supreme necessity of their souls? This would be morally the best of all reasons. Meanwhile he redeems innumerable souls for money, a most perishable thing, with which to build St. Peter’s church, a very minor purpose.

for the sake of love . Love would motivate the pope to liberate people from Purgatory without them needing to PAY FOR IT.

he redeems innumerable souls for money . Instead, the pope only liberated people from Purgatory if they would PAY FOR IT.

THESIS 83. Again: Why should funeral and anniversary masses for the dead continue to be said? And why does not the pope repay, or permit to be repaid, the benefactions instituted for these purposes, since it is wrong to pray for those souls who are now redeemed?

THESIS 84. Again: Surely this is a new sort of compassion, on the part of God and the pope, when an impious man, an enemy of God, is allowed to pay money to redeem a devout soul, a friend of God; while yet that devout and beloved soul is not allowed to be redeemed without payment, for love’s sake, and just because of its need of redemption.

THESIS 85. Again: Why are the penitential canon laws, which in fact, if not in practice, have long been obsolete and dead in themselves,—why are they, to-day, still used in imposing fines in money, through the granting of indulgences, as if all the penitential canons were fully operative?

THESIS 86. Again: since the pope’s income to-day is larger than that of the wealthiest of wealthy men, why does he not build this one church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of indigent believers?

the pope’s income … is larger than that of the wealthiest . The pope misused the millions of Catholics around the world as his own income stream.

THESIS 87. Again: What does the pope remit or dispense to people who, by their perfect repentance, have a right to plenary remission or dispensation?

THESIS 88. Again: Surely a greater good could be done to the church if the pope were to bestow these remissions and dispensations, not once, as now, but a hundred times a day, for the benefit of any believer whatever.

THESIS 89. What the pope seeks by indulgences is not money, but rather the salvation of souls; why then does he suspend the letters and indulgences formerly conceded, and still as efficacious as ever?

THESIS 90. These questions are serious matters of conscience to the laity. To suppress them by force alone, and not to refute them by giving reasons, is to expose the church and the pope to the ridicule of their enemies, and to make Christian people unhappy.

THESIS 91. If therefore, indulgences were preached in accordance with the spirit and mind of the pope, all these difficulties would be easily overcome, and indeed, cease to exist.

THESIS 92. Away, then, with those prophets who say to Christ’s people, “Peace, peace,” where in there is no peace.

THESIS 93. Hail, hail to all those prophets who say to Christ’s people, “The cross, the cross,” where there is no cross.

THESIS 94. Christians should be exhorted to be zealous to follow Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, and hells.

be zealous to follow Christ . This is the goal for any Christian: to wholeheartedly follow Jesus Christ.

THESIS 95. And let them thus be more confident of entering heaven through many tribulations rather than through a false assurance of peace.

This text of “The 95 Theses by Dr. Martin Luther” courtesy of Senn High School. There are no stated copyright restrictions and the translation is assumed to be in the Public Domain.

Unless otherwise noted, all Bible quotations on this page are from the  World English Bible  and the  World Messianic Edition . These translations have no copyright restrictions. They are in the Public Domain.

October 31, 1517: Luther’s 95 Theses Appear

Martin Luther nailing the 95 Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg is one of the iconic images of the Reformation. In this essay, historians Volker Leppin and Timothy Wengert examine the best evidence for and against this famous story. In either case, it is correct to say that Luther posted the 95 Theses on October 31, 2017: that is the date listed on the cover letter that he mailed—posted—to local German bishops. 

Essay: “Sources for and Against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses” by Volker Leppin and Timothy Wengert, LQ 29 (2015), 373-398. All essays linked in this timeline are offered solely for personal and educational usage.

Image: Text of 95 Theses

Video: Timothy Wengert, “The Reformation: 500 Years Later"

August 29, 1518: Philip Melanchthon Arrives in Wittenberg

Philip Melanchthon’s addition to the University of Wittenberg in 1518 marked the beginning of Reformation partnership that lasted for more than a quarter of a century. In this reflection on his career, Heinz Scheible introduces readers to Melanchthon and corrects many of the misunderstandings that surround Luther’s longtime colleague and the Praeceptor Germaniae (teacher of Germany). 

Essay: “Luther and Melanchthon” by Heinz Scheible, LQ 4 (1990), 317-339.

Image: Colored woodcut of Philip Melanchthon (dated 1577) included into a German version of Melanchthon’s 1536 Loci Communes, rare book collection of Wartburg Theological Seminary. Photo by Martin Lohrmann, used with permission. 

June 13, 1525: War and Marriage

Amid the tumult of the Peasants War of 1524/25, Martin Luther married Katharina von Bora in a private ceremony in June 1525, a marriage which he viewed as an affirmation of life amid perilous times. Martin and Katie were married over twenty years, until the reformer’s death in 1546. Their relationship was characterized by mutual love and respect. In this essay, Martin Treu describes Katharina’s many major contributions to the Reformation.

Essay: “Katharina von Bora: The Woman at Luther’s Side” by Martin Treu, LQ 13 (1999), 156-178.

Image: “Kattarina Lutterin” by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1526

June 25, 1530: Presentation of Augsburg Confession 

Holy Roman Emperor Charles V invited his protesting subjects to defend their faith at the 1530 imperial meeting in Augsburg. Composed primarily by Philip Melanchthon, the Augsburg Confession remains foundational for the preaching and teaching of Lutheran churches around the world today. Author Eric Gritsch (d. 2012) was a longtime professor of church history at Gettysburg Seminary and a noted ecumenical theologian. 

Essay: “Reflections on Melanchthon as Theologian of the Augsburg Confession” by Eric Gritsch, LQ 12 (1998), 445-452.

Image: The Diet of Augsburg

September 1534: Publication of the German Bible

In a project that began with Luther’s translation of the New Testament (1522), the entire German Bible was published in September 1534. Though it often carries the name “the Luther Bible,” this translation was the work of a team whose members included Luther, Melanchthon, Caspar Cruciger, Johannes Bugenhagen, Justus Jonas, Matthäus Aurogallus, and Georg Rörer. Here Birgit Stolt studies Luther’s great ability to communicate both meaning and feeling. 

Essay: “Luther’s Translation of the Bible” by Birgit Stolt, LQ 28 (2014), 373-400.

Image: Title page to 1541 edition of the German Bible

February 18, 1546: Death of Martin Luther

Martin Luther’s death in early 1546 occurred just as new challenges were developing for Lutherans: the Roman Catholic Council of Trent had just begun and Emperor Charles V was about to declare war against his Protestant subjects. In this context, Luther’s longtime colleague Johannes Bugenhagen preached a funeral sermon, which recognized the community’s grief and announced the same gospel that Luther spent his life sharing. 

Essay: “A Christian sermon over the body and at the funeral of the venerable Dr. Martin Luther, preached by Mr. Johann Bugenhagen Pomeranus, doctor and pastor of the church in Wittenberg,” translated by Kurt K. Hendel. 

Image: Martin Luther 

September 25, 1555: The Peace of Augsburg

Although Emperor Charles won the Smalcaldic War in 1547, an uprising organized by Moritz of Saxony in 1552 eventually brought about the Peace of Augsburg, which granted legal status to the faith of the Augsburg Confession within the Holy Roman Empire for the first time. On the principle of cuius regio, eius religio (whose region, their religion), local nobility or city councils could choose to embrace Reformation teachings and practices. As examined in this essay by James Estes, Luther had laid the practical and theological groundwork for this cooperation between church and state as early as 1520.

Essay: “Luther on the Role of Secular Authority in the Reformation” by James Estes, LQ 17 (2003), 199-225.

Image: Elector Moritz of Saxony, by Lucas Cranach the Younger

Later 1500s: Reformations outside Germany

From its outset, the Lutheran Reformation was an international movement. Reforms often included translation of the Bible into vernacular languages and new church orders that described how local communities would live out their gospel faith. Lutheran communities especially took root around Germany, Eastern and Central Europe, and Scandinavia. A taste of this diverse witness appears in this essay by Luka Ilić on the “Slovenian Luther,” Primus Truber.

Essay: “Primus Truber (1508-1586): The Slovenian Luther,” LQ 22 (2008), 268-277.

Image: Primus Truber, woodcut by Jacob Lederlein, 1578

June 25, 1580: Publication of the Book of Concord

On the fiftieth anniversary of the presentation of the Augsburg Confession, German Lutherans published the Book of Concord as a way to affirm their faith and close an era of theological controversy. Its contents include the Augsburg Confession, Luther’s catechisms, and the Formula of Concord by second-generation reformers. From a Lutheran Quarterly issue dedicated to the publication of a new English edition of the Book of Concord, Irene Dingel examines the extent to which the Book of Concord met its goals.

Essay: “The Preface of The Book of Concord as a Reflection of Sixteenth Century Confessional Development” by Irene Dingel, LQ 15 (Winter 2001), 373-395.

Image: Title page to a 1580 edition of the Book of Concord, rare book collection of Wartburg Theological Seminary. Photo by Martin Lohrmann, used with permission.

1599: Philip Nicolai Publishes the “King and Queen of Chorales”

Congregational singing quickly became a hallmark of Lutheran worship, with early Reformation hymns composed already in the 1520s by people like Elizabeth Cruciger, Paul Speratus, and Luther himself. In 1599 the pastor Philip Nicolai published a pastoral work for plague survivors and included two hymns with it: Wachet Auf (Wake, Awake, for Night Is Flying) and Wie Schoen Leuchtet (O Morning Star, How Fair and Bright), honored respectively with the titles “the king and queen of chorales.” The following essay introduces this Lutheran love of music: “Luther on Music.”

Essay: “Luther on Music” by Robin A. Leaver, LQ 20 (2006), 1-21.

Image: “Wake, Awake, for Night is Flying” by Philipp Nicolai

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• Why 1517? The Ninety-Five Theses in Context (Y. Petry)
• Luther College at the University of Regina, SK
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Why 1517? The Ninety-Five Theses in Context

By Yvonne Petry

Introduction

Any list of historic events or people includes Martin Luther (1483–1546) and the beginning of the Reformation in 1517 as one of the top ten historic changes in world history. The spark that Luther struck with the Ninety-Five Theses lit a fire across Western Europe, found a receptive audience among fellow clergymen and scholars, but also knights, urban middle class, and unhappy peasants. The German Reformation began in Wittenberg, where Luther taught, but within a few years spread throughout Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, France, then to England and Scandinavia. Over the next forty years, entire nations broke from the authority of the Roman church and redrew the map of Europe.

Martin Luther himself recognized the impact of the events of 1517. Looking back to that year thirty years later, by which time Luther was in his sixties, he wrote that

I was a preacher, a young Doctor of Theology, as they say. I began to dissuade the people from lending an ear to the shouts of the indulgence-sellers. I told them that they had better things to do and that I was sure that in these matters I had the pope on my side. … What I did toppled heaven and consumed earth by fire. [1]

One of the big questions historians ask about the history of church reform is: why did Martin Luther succeed when others before him had failed? One of the most common answers to this question is that, by 1517, European society had begun to change in fundamental ways, but the church as an institution had not.  

Late Medieval Christianity

In order to understand what happened in 1517, it is vital to begin by examining the social history of the Christian Church prior to the Reformation. Medieval Christianity was vibrant in many ways. For the peasants, who comprised the vast majority of the population, Christianity was part of village life. They did not understand complicated doctrines concerning the Trinity or the nature of Christ. Rather, they participated in the ritual life of the church, a life that was shared communally. They called on the saints for healing or protection; they watched the priest elevate the sacred host, believing he was doing something miraculous; they went on pilgrimages to view relics; they feasted and fasted according to the church calendar; and they relied on the sacraments of the church to carry them from cradle to grave and into the next life.

Most people did not worry about their salvation – after all, they were being watched over by the saints, and they had priests, monks, and nuns were praying for their souls. They understood that after death, people went to purgatory for a final cleansing or “purging” of their sins, on the path upward to heaven. Scholastic theology – called scholastic because it came out of the medieval universities – suggested that if individuals did their best, God would recognize their efforts and help them on their way.  

The Sacrament of Penance and the Sale of Indulgences

To understand the issue with indulgences, it is also important to know something about the sacrament of penance, which was the way in which the church promised people absolution of their sins. It involved three actions: contrition, confession, and satisfaction. Priests used books called penitentials which listed the appropriate action that would give satisfaction for any given sin. Typical acts of penance included fasting on bread and water, repeating the Ave Maria or Lord’s Prayer, giving alms, or visiting a shrine. Because acts of penance were often inconvenient, it became increasingly common to buy an indulgence rather than perform an act of penance.

Penitential practices evolved slowly over several centuries. Indulgences were first used during the crusades and promised remission of sins to those who fought in the Holy Land. Popes then began to issue them to those who made pilgrimages to Rome. By the fourteenth century, funds raised from indulgences were being used to repair and build churches. In 1343, Pope Clement VI began to speak of the treasury of merits, the concept that the church possessed surplus merits that could be purchased. In 1476, Sixtus IV said that indulgences could be used to help souls in purgatory; in other words, indulgences became transferable from one person to another.

With these developments, penitental practices also began to sound quite financial. In fact, scholastic theologians borrowed metaphors from the expanding money economy and the new science of bookkeeping. It was as though individuals had their own bank accounts with debits (sins) and credits (merits). Each sin committed depleted the account; fortunately, the Church possessed an inexhaustible reserve of surplus measured. As God’s representative on earth, the pope was the chief financial officer of the whole operation. By the late fifteenth century, increasing numbers of “pardoners” roamed around Europe, selling indulgences; we find one such individual in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales (1476) .

The penitential system was based on the assumption that sin was quantifiable, and that the Church possessed the surplus merits to allow individuals to indulge in those merits in order to receive pardon for their own or others’ sins. Whatever we may think of this system, it did possess a sort of logical coherence. And it was accepted as valid for many centuries.

In summary, by the late Middle Ages, a picture emerges of tight-knit village communities, held together by festivals, by rituals, and processions, and more or less assured that the sacraments of the Church, including the sacrament of penance, would enable them to go to heaven. However, long before the Reformation began, it was clear that there were cracks appearing in the edifice of the institutional church.  

The Church as Institution

Throughout the Middle Ages, the Christian Church was not only the most important religious institution at the centre of European culture, society, and political life. Over many centuries, the Church had also become thoroughly wedded to the hierarchical class structure of Western Europe. In other words, the Church hierarchy mirrored the social hierarchy, with some bishoprics remaining in the hands of the same noble family over generations.

The office of the pope was a hugely important political position, and medieval popes repeatedly claimed authority over kings and emperors. Papal power reached its peak during the twelfth century, but then slowly began to erode. By 1309, political instability in Rome and political manoeuvering by Philip IV of France resulted in the pope leaving Rome for southern France, where his successors would remain for the next seventy years. The Avignonese popes tended to serve the interests of the French kings. Efforts to return to Rome resulted in the Great Schism in 1378 when two rival popes claimed precedence; efforts to resolve the Schism in turn led to a period where three men claimed to be pope. This institutional chaos ended only in 1417.  

Early Reformers

Beginning in the fourteenth century, there was general recognition that the Church needed reform at many levels. In fact, nearly two hundred years before Luther was born, Oxford Professor John Wycliffe (1320–1384) was outspoken in his criticism of the wealth of the church, the immorality of the clergy, and practices such as the veneration of saints. In the 1380s, he began translating the Bible into English and saw the need to make it available in the vernacular languages. The Czech scholar Jan Hus (1369–1415) translated Wycliffe’s work and ideas and introduced his program of reform in Bohemia.

At the Council of Constance of 1414–1418, one agenda item was the ending the Schism. Another item was the investigation of the ideas of Wycliffe and Hus. Both men were declared heretics by the Council: Hus was burned at the stake as a heretic, and the Council ordered that Wycliffe’s remains were to be exhumed and burned. Nevertheless, the Church would be increasingly criticized and ridiculed – and the new generation of popes just added to the problems.

By the fifteenth century, the Italian city states were embroiled in endless warfare amongst themselves, yet produced some of the most stunning art and architecture in Western history. The Renaissance popes were men of their time and waged war, plotted against their neighbours, hired Michelangelo and Raphael to decorate their homes, and began rebuilding St. Peter’s. They did not heed the growing calls for reform.  

Meanwhile, in Northern Europe …

By the fifteenth century, there was a clear cultural and religious disconnect between northern Europe and Italy. Northern Europeans in the Low Countries and the German states had slowly invented their own religious practices, known as the devotia moderna or Modern Devotion. Groups such as the Beguines emerged, women who wanted to live communally without taking the restrictive vows of the nuns. Schools were founded by the Brothers of the Common Life who taught a new form of introspective Christianity that had more to do with meditating on one's sins, and less with processing around the church with a consecrated host. One of the classic works of Christian devotion, The Imitation of Christ, was written during this time.

Moreover, humanist scholars were beginning to question scholastic theology, considering it too narrow. Italian humanists had rediscovered their own Roman heritage in the works of Cicero, but Northern humanists turned their attention to studying the Bible in the original languages. As he studied the original Greek text of the New Testament, the Dutch scholar Erasmus realized that in some places the Vulgate (the Latin translation of the Bible) was inaccurate. Among other things, he noticed that in Matthew 3:2 and 4:17 the Greek term metanoeite was used. The Vulgate translated this as “do penance.” In his annotations, Erasmus (1466–1536) pointed out that a more accurate translation would be “repent.” The combination of the new humanistic learning and the desire for a more interior spirituality meant that for many people in towns and cities, the traditional rituals and practices of the Church began to feel rather hollow. During this period, there was a significant increase in anticlerical sentiment, expressed in pamphlets and satires that ridiculed the clergy for their greed, lack of morals and lack of education.  

The Impact of the Printing Press

The most important development that undergirded this shifting cultural climate in Northern Europe was the invention of the printing press by Gutenberg around 1450. It ushered in a technological revolution matched only by the computer revolution of our day. For the first time in Western history, mass communication was possible. Within fifty years of the invention of movable type, print shops appeared all over Europe in towns and cities, producing books, broadsheets, pamphlets, and images.

Also for the first time in Western history, a literate middle class began to emerge; it would become the engine of the Reformation. Because reading is a solitary pursuit, that literate middle class was necessarily more individualistic, and it is obvious that by the early sixteenth century, people were beginning to worry about their salvation. For both scholars and the new literate middle class, the traditional answers that the Church provided began to sound empty and unsatisfying. The fact that many of the priests, especially those in rural areas, could not read also led to dissatisfaction.

In summary, criticism of the Church increased in the early sixteenth century – not so much because it was more corrupt than it had been, but because the expectations of the laity were higher than they had been, and by all accounts, the Church was not responding to those shifting expectations.

In May 1512, at the Fifth Lateran Church Council, just five years before Luther wrote the Ninety-Five Theses, Cardinal Egidio da Viterbo declared:

I see that unless by this council or some other means we place a limit on our morals, unless we force our greedy desire for human things … to yield to the love of divine things, it is all over with Christendom.

These words would be prophetic.  

Martin Luther Enters the Scene

Martin Luther, son of a Saxon miner, was born in Eisleben in 1483. He was one of that generation of devout Germans who began worrying about his salvation. He had attended a school run by the Brothers of the Common Life. He became a monk and was scrupulous about confessing his sins and performing all the acts of penance required – so much so that his fellow monks ridiculed him. To ease his conscience, Luther’s confessor Johann Staupitz (1460–1524) encouraged him to become a scholar of the New Testament. It may very well be that Luther would not have become the man he did without Staupitz’s friendship and encouragement.

In 1512, Luther received his doctorate and became a professor of New Testament at the University of Wittenberg. It had been founded just a few years earlier, in 1502, by the prince of the region, Frederick III the Wise, Duke of Saxony. He encouraged scholars and artists, especially those interested in the new humanistic learning, to come to his territory, and Luther thrived in this atmosphere. [2] At the time he wrote the Ninety-Five Theses , he was a thiry-four year old monk, priest, and professor.  

In Wittenberg, in the person of Luther, the issue of the sale of indulgences as an example of a corrupt and outdated Church practice came to a head. To understand what happened, it is important to know the political context. The German-speaking lands were not a unified country, but a conglomeration of small principalities united under the authority of the Holy Roman Emperor. The title of emperor was an elected position, and there were seven princes in Germany who had the right to vote, including Luther’s prince, Frederick of Saxony. Needless to say, holding one of the elector positions was politically desirable, especially when elections became imminent. In 1516, the current emperor, Maximilian I, was rather old.

One of the elector positions – that of the Archbishop of Mainz (the highest ecclesiastical office in the Empire) – was vacant in 1516. The Hohenstaufen family was eager to place one of their own in the position. However, their candidate, Albrecht, was underage, and not an ordained priest. There were ways around this, however, if one could get a dispensation from the pope, and popes were in the habit of granting such dispensations, at a cost.

The Pope in question was Leo X, a member of the wealthy and powerful Medici family. Among other activities, he was continuing the building of St. Peter's in Rome. Leo X agreed to sell the office of archbishop to Albrecht for a large sum of money. The family negotiated a loan to pay for it. In order to pay back the loan, they struck a deal with the Pope. They agreed to allow access to the papal indulgence sellers to their territory, with the understanding that the profits of the sale would be shared. Albrecht of Mainz would use his share to pay off the family debt, and the Pope could carry on his building programme.  

The Ninety-Five Theses

Indulgence sellers such as Johann Tetzel (1465–1519) were hired, and the sale was conducted among the German peasantry. Luther was certainly aware of indulgences before this time, but it was sales techniques used by Tetzel that brought the matter to his attention. Luther began to question the practice of selling indulgences and in response wrote the Ninety-Five Theses.

The first two of the Ninety-Five Theses state:

• When our Lord and Master Jesus Christ said, 'Repent' (Matthew 4:17), he willed the entire life of believers to be one of repentance.
• This word cannot be understood as referring to the sacrament of penance, that is, confession and satisfaction, as administered by the clergy.

Clearly, Luther was using Erasmus' Greek New Testament and had read his commentary.

In subsequent theses, Luther questioned the ethics of encouraging peasants to buy indulgences rather than give alms or buy food for their family. He also questioned the authority of the Church to forgive sins, a right that surely belonged to God alone. It is also important to recognize that Luther, a priest and a monk, was raising these issues as an insider. He noted in Thesis 81 that the “unbridled preaching of indulgences makes it difficult for even learned men to rescue the reverence which is due the pope from slander or from the shrewd questions of the laity.”

Did Luther post The Ninety-Five Theses on the church door in Wittenberg? Scholars have been debating this issue for the last four decades. [3] Those who question it point out that the earliest reference to him doing so was written approximately thirty years later, by his colleague Philip Melanchthon (1495–1560), who was not present in 1517. Other scholars argue that posting notices to debate at a University was such a normal thing to do that it would not have been considered noteworthy at the time. What we do know is that the Theses were printed and circulated around Europe within a period of two months. We also know that Luther sent a copy to Albrecht of Mainz, who now held the most important ecclesiastical position in the empire. He was not aware of the deal that Albrecht had made with the Pope, or that Albrecht was himself profiting from the indulgence sale.  

The Church's Reaction

Albrecht sent his copies to the theologians in his city and a copy to Rome. There were church officials sent to debate and correct Luther’s mistaken views: Cardinal Cajetan met with him and then a few months later, Johannes Eck (1486–1543). At each interview, Luther refused to back down – his response to his critics was always along the lines of “show me in the Bible where I'm wrong”.

Leo X issued a bull of excommunication in June of 1520, stating that

we condemn, reprobate, and reject completely each of these theses or errors as either heretical, scandalous, false, offensive to pious ears or seductive of simple minds, and against Catholic truth…We likewise condemn … and reject completely the books and all the writings and sermons of the said Martin.

In other words, it was decreed that Luther’s books should be burned. He responded by calling the pope the Antichrist and burning the bull in Wittenberg, two months after he received it.

At the imperial Diet of Worms in spring 1521, presided over by the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, Luther’s views were declared heretical, and he was made an outlaw. The Edict stated that

we forbid anyone from this time forward to dare, either by words or by deeds, to receive, defend, sustain, or favour the said Martin Luther. On the contrary, we want him to be apprehended and punished as a notorious heretic, as he deserves, to be brought personally before us, or to be securely guarded until those who have captured him inform us, whereupon we will order the appropriate manner of proceeding against the said Luther. Those who will help in his capture will be rewarded generously for their good work.  

Luther in Hiding

As a heretic and an outlaw, Luther could certainly have suffered the same fate as Hus. What saved him was his prince, Frederick, and the fact that Emperor Charles needed the support of his German princes, because he was fighting a costly war in Italy against France. Frederick spirited him away and placed him in hiding for a year. He spent that year in Eisenach making the first German translation of the Bible, using the new scholarly tools of the humanists.

Meanwhile, Luther's ideas had touched a nerve all over Europe. While Luther was in hiding, others in Wittenberg picked up the gauntlet. On Christmas Day 1521, Luther’s colleague Andreas Karlstadt (1486–1541) celebrated mass in the German tongue, without clerical vestments, and gave communion in both kinds to parishioners who had not confessed. Propagandists like Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472–1553) produced anti-Catholic broadsheets, including The Passion of Christ and Antichrist , which took scenes from the life of Christ and contrasted them with activities of the current pope.  

Salvation by Grace

The years between 1519 and 1521 were seminal for the Reformation. Historians do not know exactly when Martin Luther had his “tower experience” in which he turned traditional salvation theology on its head. It was likely sometime in 1519, as he was studying Romans 1:17, that Luther began to believe that salvation came through God's grace, not through human effort. In other words, humans did not need to earn God’s favour; God would forgive them in spite of their sinfulness. In a series of three treatises published in 1520, The Babylonian Captivity of the Church, The Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation , and The Freedom of the Christian, Luther laid out some of the most important features of what would become the Protestant position on many issues.  

Celibacy, Marriage, and Katharina von Bora

One of the most radical social changes for the institutional church was the abandonment of the idea of clerical celibacy. As Luther worked on a new theology of salvation, he also examined the theology around the priesthood, celibacy and marriage. In two treatises On the Estate of Marriage in 1519 and 1522, he made the bold claim that marriage is holy. For a thousand years, the Christian Church had taught that marriage was for the weak, that it was a second-best option, going back to Paul. Luther's views were pragmatic, but also realistic. His views on marriage were directly related to his views on the monastic life. He argued that only a select few were called to a celibate life.

As in other things, Luther's views resonated with the laity. German villagers knew that their priests had housekeepers, maids, cooks, girlfriends, and concubines. As long as the priest paid a fine for his misdeeds, the Church looked the other way. For Luther, the solution was simple – let the priests marry. In his Address to the Christian Nobility , he argued quite pragmatically that priests needed housekeepers to look after them. To put them together and expect them to be celibate was like putting fire to straw and thinking it would not burn.

For several years, his friends urged Luther to marry, as an example to others. But Luther stated on more than one occasion that he would not himself marry. However, theology became reality when, in 1523, nine nuns at a convent in Nimbschen became persuaded of the Lutheran message and asked for Luther’s assistance so they could escape. Luther had promised all nine Cistercian nuns that he would help them escape and find them suitable marriage partners. After two years, all of the nuns had married except for Katharina von Bora (1499–1552), a young woman from a minor noble family. Marriage to Luther was Katharina's idea. While it is obvious that Luther married Katharina out of a sense of responsibility for her and not out of any personal desire, he would later come to value her as a companion, praising her abilities and speaking kindly and fondly of her and of the goodness of the estate of marriage.  

Reformation as Political and Social Rebellion

Within a decade of the posting of the Ninety-Five Theses , the Reformation became both a political revolt and social rebellion. It is possible that the Reformation might have remained a debate among theologians and clergy. The fact that it did not, is a reflection of the power of the institution of the Church in early modern society. As noted previously, the church hierarchy was identical to the social hierarchy. Thus, all over Europe the bishop, landlord, and nobleman were the one and the same person. As a result, a lot of anger was directed against the Church because its officials were also the landowners, and city councils expelled (by violence or otherwise) the traditional elites, who were in many cases both bishop and lord, and began replacing them with representatives from the artisan class.

As with a lot of social change, the Reformation quickly became violent. Churches were ransacked, priests attacked, statues broken, and chalices stolen wherever the Reformation took hold on the continent. This was in part an attempt to purge the churches of statues, relics, and images that were thought to be irrelevant, but also an attack on the wealth of the church.

The most widespread violence occurred during the German Peasants’ War. Thomas Müntzer (1489–1525), sometimes considered the first communist, took Luther’s message and made it political – he spread his message of the “freedom of the Christian” and “priesthood of all believers” throughout Germany. The Twelve Articles of the Peasants asked for freedom to name their own pastors, and they also objected to excessive taxes, penalties against hunting, and the status of serfdom that landlords were trying to reinstate.

It ended, as most peasants’ revolts did, in failure, with tens of thousands of peasants and artisans dead at the hands of imperial soldiers.

The Reformation also became political. The German princes used Luther’s ideas to fight for their independence from the Holy Roman Emperor. Luther, for his part, appealed to the princes as political allies. Philip of Hesse organized a league of Lutheran princes. This led to three decades of warfare, concluding with the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 which allowed each prince to determine the religion in his territory.

Rulers around northern Europe, most notably Henry VIII of England, used the Reformation to declare their independence from Rome and establish the first national churches. In many Protestant countries, this was accompanied by the confiscation of Church lands and estates.  

Fragmenting the Reformation

The Reformation did not result in simply the separation of Protestants from the Catholic Church, but in the development of many types of Protestantism. This was inevitable. The Catholic Church was right to argue that authority needed to be vested in the pope or chaos would erupt – because it did erupt. By placing all authority in the Bible rather than in the traditions of the Church and its decrees, the door was opened for a plethora of interpretations. In 1529 at the Marbourg Colloquy (which was an attempt by one of the German princes to create a unified Protestant front for military purposes), Luther and Ulrich Zwingli (1483–1531) nearly came to blows over interpretations of the Lord’s Supper.

While all Protestants agreed on many issues, disputes arose very quickly regarding the interpretation of scriptures, the sacraments, the structure of the church (Episcopal or Presbyterian), and the role of the church in society. There were also divisions over whether to read certain statements literally or metaphorically, over the extent to which the New Testament ought to be a role model for the Church, and how to make decisions on issues on which the Bible is silent. These divisions eventually led to the spectrum of churches that we have with us today: Lutheran, Reformed, Presbyterian, and Anabaptist.

Within about ten years after Luther's writing his Ninety-Five Theses , Egidio da Viterbo words from 1512 had become prophetic – it was all over for Christendom. The Christian Church, the landscape of Europe, and the self-understanding of Europeans, would never be the same.

Further Reading

Dixon, Scott. Contesting the Reformation. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.Greengrass, Mark. Christendom Destroyed: Europe 1517-1648. New York: Viking, 2014.

Gregory, Brad S. The Unintended Reformation: How a Religious Revolution Secularized Society. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2012.Heal, Bridget and Ole Peter Grell, eds. The Impact of the Reformation. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008.Hendrix, Scott. Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer. New Haven/London: Yale University Press, 2015.

Karant-Nunn, Susan. The Reformation of Ritual: An Interpretation of Early Modern Germany . London: Routledge, 1997.Kolb, Robert et al, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Martin Luther’s Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.

Leppin, Volker and Wengert, Timothy. “Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses .” Lutheran Quarterly 29 (2015): 373-98.

MacCulloch, Diarmid. Reformation: Europe’s House Divided, 1490-1700. London: Penguin, 2003.

Marty, Martin. October 31, 1517: Martin Luther and the Day that Changed the World. Brewster, MA: Paraclete Press, 2016.

McKim, Donald K., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Mjaaland, Marius Timmann. The Hidden God: Luther, Philosophy and Political Theology. Bloomington/Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2016.Oberman, Heiko. Luther: Man between God and the Devil. New York: Doubleday, 1989.

Ozment, Steven. Protestants: The Birth of a Revolution. New York: Doubleday, 1992.Payton, James R. Getting the Reformation Wrong: Correcting Some Misunderstandings. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2010.

Pettegree, Andrew. Brand Luther: 1517, Printing and the Making of the Reformation. New York: Penguin, 2015.

Pettegree, Andrew. The Reformation World. London: Routledge, 2000.

Plummer, Marjorie Elizabeth. From Priest's Whore to Pastor's Wife: Clerical Marriage and the Process of Reform in the Early German Reformation . Burlington: Ashgate, 2012.

Rittgers, Ronald. The Reformation of Suffering: Pastoral Theology and Lay Piety in Late Medieval and Early Modern Germany. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Tracy, James. Europe’s Reformations, 1450-1650: Doctrine, Politics and Community. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999.

Wallace, Peter. The Long European Reformation. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.

Wandel, Lee Palmer. The Reformation: Towards a New History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Wiesner-Hanks, Merry, ed. Convents Confront the Reformation: Catholic and Protestant Nuns in Germany . Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 1996.

Wengert, Timothy. Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses: With Introduction, Commentary and Study Guide. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015.

*This Table Talk was given at Luther College at the University of Regina on February 7, 2017.

[1] Preface to the complete edition of Luther's Latin Works (1545), trans. Andrew Thornton, from “Vorrede zu Band I der Opera Latina der Wittenberger Ausgabe. 1545” in vol. 4 of Luthers Werke in Auswahl , ed. Otto Clemen, 6th ed. (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1967), pp. 421-428,  accessible online .

[2] As a faculty member at a young university, I find that there are interesting parallels to be drawn. In 1963, University of Regina faculty wrote the Regina Beach Manifesto, which stated that the goal of a liberal arts education is not merely the transition of past wisdom, but that scholars are critics of society, and "examiners of institutions and ideas." This same spirit of social criticism characterized the University of Wittenberg in the first decades of the sixteenth century.

[3] A useful summary of the debate is provided by Volker Leppin and Timothy Wengert in their recent article, “Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses, ” Lutheran Quarterly 29 (2015): 373-98. They conclude (p. 390) that “there are equally good arguments for and against the posting of the Theses .”

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3 Ways Martin Luther’s 95 Theses Changed The World

In 1517 Martin Luther published a thesis attacking the process of selling indulgences by the Catholic Church. This publication sent shockwaves around Europe and sparked what is now known as the Protestant Reformation.

There are 3 major ways that Luther’s theses changed the world forever. First, Martin Luther’s theses attacked the very core of European medieval society. Second, Luther’s 95 Thesis demonstrated the power of the newly invented printing press. Third, Martin Luther’s work led to the creation of the modern nation-state.

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Further, you can check out some of the other articles below.

Martin Luther’s 95 Theses Challenged the Very Core of European Medieval Society

One of the major ways in which Martin Luther’s 95 theses changed the world was due to its direct attack against the very core of European Medieval Society.

For nearly 1,000 years the society of Europe revolved around the dominance of the Roman Catholic church. This religious institution managed to spread across Europe from eastern Germany to Spain and up to England. This Catholic church would be the ultimate power in the land and had the authority to install kings and lords into power.

The problem however was the cost to continue to run this massive bureaucratic institution. Along with large donations, the European church would also start to sell indulgences for money. A plenary indulgence is given out by a member of the clergy to absolve one of sins.

The problem was however up until this point most indulgences were forgiven by the clergy through small actions such as prayer or reading scripture. Sometime around the early 15th century the European church began to flat out sell these indulgences.

If you had committed a crime or sin you could pay your way out of the punishment. As you might imagine this started to cause a problem across segments of the European population who could not afford to pay for such indulgences.

Martin Luther published his 95 theses directly attacking this practice. He argued that there was no need to pay for these indulgences and that the very act of doing so was against the established doctrine of Christianity.

When Martin Luther published his work it sent shockwaves around Europe. People began to question the authority of the European church. This questioning of the church’s authority to rule caused European medieval society to begin to implode on itself and over the next 100 years wars would erupt across Europe as instability grew.

Martin Luther’s 95 Theses Demonstrated the Power of the Printing Press

The printing press changed the world by making information easy to spread. This gave Luther the perfect medium to publish his 95 theses easily around the known world.

The printing press was invented in the middle of the 15th century. 70 years later Martin Luther would publish his 95 theses in an environment where printing press companies had spread across Europe. This created the perfect situation for Luther’s work to take advantage of the massive networks of literary people for 3 reasons.

First, the printing press gave Luther’s work the ability to be published in regional dialects. Before the printing press all books were published in Latin outside of a few examples. This was because books had to be copied by hand by medieval monks. The language of the elite and literary people across Europe was Latin, which the average person could not read or understand. The printing press gave Luther the ability to publish his work in many different languages so that everybody could read it.

Second, the printing press gave Luther the ability to escape the European church’s monopoly over the spread of information. Since the Catholic church held dominance over book production and universities they essentially controlled the spread of information. The printing press on the other hand was controlled by businesses and could easily print a book outside of the control of the Catholic church.

Third, the printing press gave Luther the ability to mass produce his work. Books before the printing press would take between 3-10 months on average to hand copy. The Printing Press could copy thousands of books during the same time. This meant that Luther’s work could easily be spread around the known world rapidly.

These 3 reasons allowed Martin Luther to spread his work around Europe. As a result of this one of the main ways in which Martin Luther’s 95 theses forever changed the world was by demonstrating the power of the printing press to easily spread information to the masses.

Martin Luther’s Work Lead to the Creation of the Modern Nation State

One of the main ways in which Martin Luther’s 95 Theses changed the world was by leading to the creation of the modern nation-state.

When Martin Luther published his work it essentially denounced the European church; the nucleus of medieval European society. Now people did not have to pay the church to secure their religious happiness within Europe, in theory they already had it pre-built in from thousands of years ago.

As a result of this people started thinking of different ways in which society could operate. From the mid-16th century up until 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia there was constant infighting and religious turmoil over how society should be structured and operate.

These wars often revolved around either Protestants or Catholics attempting to gain power over their region in Europe. England saw a civil war, France went to war with Spain over Dutch territory, and Germany saw massive internal fighting over religious dominance.

All of this eventually culminated with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 which finally created the law that each ruler could determine the religion of their own territory and the government of their subjects. As part of this treaty the reigning monarchs of Europe each drew their borders on the map; this was the creation of the modern nation-state.

This all started with the publication of Martin Luther’s 95 theses. This is because Martin Luther started the snowball effect that lead to nearly a century of infighting over religious rights and government across Europe. Today when you have to cross a border to visit another country thank Martin Luther for helping to create the need to establish them.

There you have it; an entire article going over the 3 ways in which Martin Luther’s 95 theses changed the world forever.

The study of the protestant reformation is an amazing subject of research. Many people are not aware of just how important this event was to the creation of the modern era. Any prospective students of history will find substantial amounts of possible research looking into this field.

I hope you enjoyed this article. Here at The History Ace I strive to publish the best history articles on the Internet. Feel free to subscribe to the newsletter and share it around the web.

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20/20 Scriptural Vision Ministry

Earnestly Contending for the Faith

• Jan 20, 2022

Were Martin Luther's 95 Theses True to Scripture, or Heretical?

Updated: Nov 1, 2023

On October 31, 1517 a Roman Catholic monk named Martin Luther nailed a 95 point Theses to the door on a Roman Catholic Cathedral. It was his way to protest certain teachings of the Catholic faith. The question of great importance that must be asked, since this event is often referred to as the start of the Protestant Reformation, was Luther’s 95 Theses a representation of orthodox Biblical theology or Roman Catholic heresy?

Many people are familiar with Luther and have a rough idea of what he did on that day but the real truth and deeper details seem to evade most people in this age of apostasy we live in. In this investigative report, we will take a closer look at the 95 Theses and how they stand up to the Word of God, or whether they are mere extensions of Roman Catholic dogma.

Of course there were some good things that came out of this nailing of the Theses event and the Protestant Reformation overall, such as Rome's pagan hold on the Word of God was broken upon which many more people, or the general public we could say, had greater access to the Scriptures and hear the truth of God's Word through the original texts and translations, the false gospel of Catholicism was exposed and repudiated , etc. However, with that said, the true gospel and the true Bible (Received Text) and translations of the true Received Text always existed alongside the Protestant Reformation, and pre-Reformation, and during all the years of the Dark Ages, right back to the beginning of the church, which was John the Baptist. So the world didn't need Martin Luther or John Calvin or Menno Simons or any other individual for the true church, the small despised pillar and ground of the truth, to keep going forward and existing in either the darkest or brightest of times. God promised the gates of hell wouldn't prevail against it, and it hasn't. He also promised the perseveration of His words here on earth, and that is certainly true. One thing is for certain; if the Protestant Reformation hadn't happened, we wouldn't have the apostasy as we do today. The churches and denominations formed by men such as Luther, Calvin and Zwingli, were heretical in that day and nigh complete apostate today.

An oft repeated tale by the likes of pro-Reformed Calvinists is that the Reformers rescued or revived the true gospel out of Roman Catholicism. This fable is coupled with Luthers nailing of his 95 theses to the door of the Catholic Church in Wittenberg, Germany, as the beginnings of the true Christian movement. But is it actually true? Those who obtain their history mainly from sanitized and hagiographical Protestant sources often have a very inaccurate view of history.

Contrary to widespread public opinion, Luther’s 95 Theses have nothing to do with justification by faith alone—which is actually not supported, but rejected, in them. Nor do they utter a word of protest against the Catholic Mass, the sacramental system, Mary worship, the Pope, or numerous other Roman Catholic heresies, since Luther continued to embraced many of these heresies after his Roman departure. They certainly say nothing against baptismal regeneration, a damnable heresy that Luther also clave to his entire life.

They do not even condemn the practice of paying money to get Papal pardons — on the contrary, they anathematize those who deny Papal indulgences. They also support the existence of Purgatory. The idea that Luther had been born again, and consequently condemned Roman Catholicism in the 95 Theses, is pure myth. It’s a dangerous fable that has done untold damage to the lives of many people. Yet it’s the backbone of the so called Protestant Reformation.

The only thing condemned by the 95 theses is the abuse of indulgences—and even here, Luther put his Theses on the door of the Roman Catholic “church” in Latin, so that the common people could not understand what he wrote. He only intended to debate in Latin certain abuses of indulgences with other faithful servants of Rome. Indeed, many of Luther’s theses would be heartily endorsed by the Catholic counter-reformation.

Consider a sample of his Theses below, with some comments.

Under no. 3,

“Yet it means not inward repentance only; nay, there is no inward repentance which does not outwardly work divers mortifications of the flesh.”

Luther affirms that without Catholic mortifications of the body there is no repentance.

Under no. 7,

“God remits guilt to no one whom He does not, at the same time, humble in all things and bring into subjection to His vicar, the priest.”

“Vicar”? How Protestant is this? It’s apostasy.

Under no. 17,

“With souls in purgatory it seems necessary that horror should grow less and love increase.”

So, according to the 95 Theses, Purgatory exists, and souls there increase in love over time. It’s heresy.

Under no. 18,

“It seems unproved, either by reason or Scripture, that they are outside the state of merit, that is to say, of increasing love.”

In Purgatory, souls are earning merit before God so that they can get into heaven.

Under no. 25,

“The power which the pope has, in a general way, over purgatory, is just like the power which any bishop or curate has, in a special way, within his own diocese or parish.”

The Pope has various powers over people in Purgatory.

Under no. 29,

“Who knows whether all the souls in purgatory wish to be bought out of it, as in the legend of Sts. Severinus and Paschal.”

Various Catholic legends apparently have some authority in teaching us about who wants to get out of Purgatory and who does not.

Under no. 30,

“No one is sure that his own contrition is sincere; much less that he has attained full remission.”

Nobody can be certain of his own salvation. Sounds eerily similar to what most of the false denominations today teach, coupled with the false "losing salvation" doctrine .

Under no. 56,

“The “treasures of the Church,” out of which the pope grants indulgences, are not sufficiently named or known among the people of Christ.”

Apparently the treasures through which the Pope grants indulgences should be better known.

Under no. 58,

“Nor are they the merits of Christ and the Saints, for even without the pope, these always work grace for the inner man, and the cross, death, and hell for the outward man.”

Both the merit of Jesus Christ and of dead Catholic “saints” are a means whereby which saving grace is received. According to Luther, salvation is by sanctification, rather than through justification by faith alone.

Under no. 69,

“Bishops and curates are bound to admit the commissaries of apostolic pardons, with all reverence.”

Bishops and curates are to have all reverence for pardons given by the Pope to people, and admit those who are carrying them to the territory of their bishoprics in the Catholic State-Church.

Under no. 71,

“He who speaks against the truth of apostolic pardons, let him be anathema and accursed!”

If you deny the ability of the Pope to grant indulgences, you will be eternally damned in hell. The truth is quite the contrary.

Under no. 73,

“The pope justly thunders against those who, by any art, contrive the injury of the traffic in pardons.”

Positive proclamation of the Pope. The Pope should actually thunder against those who deny, by any means, that one can purchase with money remission of various penalties.

Under no. 91,

“If, therefore, pardons were preached according to the spirit and mind of the pope, all these doubts would be readily resolved; nay, they would not exist.”

Indulgences should be preached in accordance with the mind of the Pope—then all would be well.

Under no. 94,

“Christians are to be exhorted that they be diligent in following Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, and hell;”

True believers do not go to hell or purgatory. So what “penalties”?

Under no. 95,

“And thus be confident of entering into heaven rather through many tribulations, than through the assurance of peace.”

Christians should be diligent to do good works and follow Christ in order to be saved, since by such means they enter into heaven, rather than by having assurance of salvation through peace with God received in conversion, for Biblical assurance of salvation is bad, and works unto salvation is good.

These are only some of the ones that could be mentioned. Are Luther's 95 Theses really true to Scripture or heretical? I think that question is answered succinctly above, by Luther's own words.

Luther with his theses allegedly started the Reformation, of whom MarArthur says was “one shining light in the history of the Christian church . . . Now Martin Luther, coming out of Roman Catholicism, fought more than anyone for the truth that man is saved by faith and not by works.” I think its plain to see MacArthur is dishonest, and we could also say willfully so, since he knows what the Theses does say, lest he is spiritually blind (cf. Ac 26:18) and cannot discern between truth and error (1 Jn 4:6).

“And no marvel; for Satan himself is transformed into an angel of light. Therefore it is no great thing if his ministers also be transformed as the ministers of righteousness; whose end shall be according to their works.” (2 Cor 11:14-15).

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ebook ∣ Or Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences

By martin luther.

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Martin Luther

CrossReach Publications

07 July 2021

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After serious deliberation, without consulting any of his colleagues or friends, but following an irresistible impulse, Luther resolved upon a public act of unforeseen consequences. It may be compared to the stroke of the axe with which St. Boniface, seven hundred years before, had cut down the sacred oak, and decided the downfall of German heathenism. He wished to elicit the truth about the burning question of indulgences, which he himself professed not fully to understand at the time, and which yet was closely connected with the peace of conscience and eternal salvation. He chose the orderly and usual way of a learned academic disputation. Accordingly, on the memorable thirty-first day of October, 1517, which has ever since been celebrated in Protestant Germany as the birthday of the Reformation, at twelve o'clock he affixed (either himself or through another) to the doors of the castle-church at Wittenberg, ninety-five Latin Theses on the subject of indulgences, and invited a public discussion. At the same time he sent notice of the fact to Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz, and to Bishop Hieronymus Scultetus, to whose diocese Wittenberg belonged. He chose the eve of All Saints' Day (Nov. 1), because this was one of the most frequented feasts, and attracted professors, students, and people from all directions to the church, which was filled with precious relics. No one accepted the challenge, and no discussion took place. The professors and students of Wittenberg were of one mind on the subject. But history itself undertook the disputation and defence. The Theses were copied, translated, printed, and spread as on angels' wings throughout Germany and Europe in a few weeks.