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• What Is a Plural Noun? | Examples, Rules & Exceptions

What Is a Plural Noun? | Examples, Rules & Exceptions

Published on April 14, 2023 by Jack Caulfield .

A plural noun  is a noun that refers to more than one of something (as opposed to a singular noun, which refers to just one). Like singular nouns, they may refer to people, animals, things, concepts, or places.

Plural nouns are normally formed by adding -s to the singular noun (e.g., the singular “cat” becomes the plural “cats”). With certain nouns, you need to add or change some of the other letters. The rules are explained in the table below.

There are also some irregular plurals that don’t end in  -s at all. The following section explains them.

Table of contents

Irregular plurals, plurals of compound nouns, common mistake: adding an apostrophe, plural nouns with singular functions, nouns that are always plural, uncountable nouns, worksheet: plural nouns, other interesting language articles, frequently asked questions about plural nouns.

Some plural nouns don’t end in -s at all. These are generally called irregular plurals . They are typically either leftovers from older ways of forming plurals in English or foreign words that were imported into English.

Only a small proportion of nouns have irregular plurals, but some of them are very commonly used words, so it’s important to be aware of them. There are a few main groups of irregular plurals, which are explained in the table below.

If you’re unsure about how to pluralize a word that isn’t mentioned in the table, consult a dictionary.

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Compound nouns are nouns that are made up of multiple words. They may be open compounds (written with spaces; e.g., “head of state”); hyphenated compounds (written with hyphens ; e.g., “brother-in-law”); or closed compounds (no spaces or hyphens; e.g., “household”).

To create the plural of a compound noun, you often pluralize only the final word (e.g., “high schools “), but there are also cases where you pluralize an earlier word (e.g., “ heads of state”) or occasionally multiple words (e.g., “ men-children “).

To determine how to pluralize a compound noun, consider which word is the “head” of the noun—the thing being represented, which the other words modify. For example, “high schools” refers to multiple schools, not multiple “highs.”

When it’s still not obvious, consult a dictionary to find the correct plural.

A common mistake when forming plural nouns is to add an apostrophe before the “s.” In English, apostrophes are used to form possessive nouns and contractions , not plurals. You also don’t need an apostrophe to pluralize a number, acronym , or proper noun .

• Maya loves pop music from the 1980’s .
• Maya loves pop music from the 1980s .
• SUV’s are bad for the environment and for road safety.
• SUVs are bad for the environment and for road safety.
• The Jones’s have gone on vacation.
• The Joneses have gone on vacation.

There’s one context in which it’s standard to use an apostrophe to form the plural. This is when you’re pluralizing a single letter. The apostrophe is generally added in such cases to avoid confusion with other words (e.g., “a’s” vs. “as”).

Some nouns are said to be plural in form but singular in construction . These words originate as plural forms but are now primarily used in a singular sense.

This is most common in the names of fields of study: for example, “physics,” “mathematics,” “ethics,” and “aesthetics.” Other examples include “news,” “measles,” and “billiards.”

“Singular in construction” means that these words have singular subject-verb agreement . For example, you’d write “the news is …” rather than “the news are …”

Similarly, some nouns are always plural and have no singular form—typically because they refer to something that consists of a pair of something. For example, “scissors” consist of two blades, “pants” of two legs, and “glasses” of two lenses.

Even a single pair of scissors, for example, is referred to in the plural (e.g., “the scissors are over there”). These nouns are sometimes referred to by the Latin term plurale tantum (“plural only”).

Because it’s wrong to use an indefinite article with a plural noun (e.g., “a scissors”) and no singular form exists (e.g., there’s no such thing as “a scissor”), the phrase “a pair of” is used before the noun when an indefinite article is needed. “Pairs of” is also used to specify quantities of these nouns (e.g., “three pairs of pants,” not “three pants”).

Your new spectacles suit you very nicely.

How many pairs of shorts do you own?

Uncountable nouns (also called mass nouns or noncount nouns ) are nouns that don’t have a plural form and can’t be preceded by an indefinite article (“a” or “an”). They often refer to abstract ideas or processes (e.g., “research”), physical substances (e.g., “water”), or areas of study (e.g., “geography”).

Uncountable nouns are singular, not plural, in terms of subject-verb agreement, and the words themselves cannot be pluralized. An alternative phrasing or word choice must be used instead:

• Several researches have been performed on this subject.
• A substantial amount of research has been performed on this subject.
• Several studies have been performed on this subject.
• Several pieces of research have been performed on this subject.

If you need to refer to a specific quantity of an uncountable noun, you use a unit of measurement to do so, since the noun itself doesn’t represent a specific quantity:

• There are 70 waters in the glass.
• There are 70 ml of water in the glass.

Test your understanding of how plural nouns are formed with the worksheet below. In each sentence, add the correct plural form of the noun in brackets. Some of the plurals are regular, some irregular.

• Practice questions
• Answers and explanations
• I love visiting [church] _______ on my [travel] _______.
• The atmosphere is made up of several [gas] _______.
• I bought two [loaf] _______ of bread and some [tomato] _______ at the market.
• Many [species] _______ of [fish] _______ live in [river] _______.
• A lot of [game of chance] __________________ involve rolling [die] _______.
• The singular noun “church” ends in “-ch,” so “-es” is added to form the plural noun. “Travels” is pluralized in the normal way, by adding “-s.”
• “Gas” ends in “-s,” so “-es” is added to pluralize it.
• As with some other nouns ending in “-f,” the plural form of “loaf” ends in “-ves.” “Tomato” follows the rule for most nouns ending in “-o” by adding “-es.”
• Both “species” and “fish” have the same form in the singular and the plural, so nothing is added to them. “River” is pluralized normally.
• The open compound noun “game of chance” is pluralized by adding “-s” to the head of the phrase, “game.” “Chance” is not pluralized. The word “die” has the irregular plural “dice.”

If you want to know more about nouns , pronouns , verbs , and other parts of speech , make sure to check out some of our other language articles with explanations and examples.

Nouns & pronouns

• Common nouns
• Proper nouns
• Collective nouns
• Personal pronouns
• Uncountable and countable nouns
• Verb tenses
• Phrasal verbs
• Sentence structure
• Active vs passive voice
• Subject-verb agreement
• Interjections
• Determiners
• Prepositions

The plural of “moose” is the same as the singular: “moose.” It’s one of a group of plural nouns in English that are identical to the corresponding singular nouns. So it’s wrong to write “mooses.”

For example, you might write “There are several moose in the forest.”

The correct plural of “octopus” is “octopuses.”

People often write “octopi” instead because they assume that the plural noun is formed in the same way as Latin loanwords such as “fungus/fungi.” But “octopus” actually comes from Greek, where its original plural is “octopodes.” In English, it instead has the regular plural form “octopuses.”

For example, you might write “There are four octopuses in the aquarium.”

Normally, the plural of “fish” is the same as the singular: “fish.” It’s one of a group of irregular plural nouns in English that are identical to the corresponding singular nouns (e.g., “moose,” “sheep”). For example, you might write “The fish scatter as the shark approaches.”

If you’re referring to several species of fish, though, the regular plural “fishes” is often used instead. For example, “The aquarium contains many different fishes , including trout and carp.”

The plural of “crisis” is “crises.” It’s a loanword from Latin and retains its original Latin plural noun form (similar to “analyses” and “bases”). It’s wrong to write “crisises.”

For example, you might write “Several crises destabilized the regime.”

Sources in this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

Caulfield, J. (2023, April 14). What Is a Plural Noun? | Examples, Rules & Exceptions. Scribbr. Retrieved June 24, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/nouns-and-pronouns/plural-noun/

Aarts, B. (2011). Oxford modern English grammar . Oxford University Press.

Butterfield, J. (Ed.). (2015). Fowler’s dictionary of modern English usage (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Garner, B. A. (2022). Garner’s modern English usage (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.

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Plural Nouns

In general, a noun is a person, place, or thing. A proper noun is a specialized name for a specific person, place, or thing. Proper nouns are always capitalized (e.g., “Crayola”). Nouns can be singular (i.e., only one) or plural (i.e., more than one).

To make a noun plural, add “s” (e.g., “dogs” is the plural form of “dog”), “es” (e.g., “boxes” is the plural form of “box”; add “es” to most nouns that end in “ch,” “s,” “sh,” “x,” and “z” to make them plural), and sometimes “ies” (e.g., “babies” is the plural form of “baby”; see the Notes section for exceptions to this grammar guideline ) to the end of the noun.

Irregular plural nouns , which include terms like “women,” “men,” “children,” “alumni,” “feet,” “mice,” “data,” and so forth, usually are not made plural by adding “s,” “es,” or “ies” to their endings. However, some irregular plural nouns have the same endings as regular plural nouns, such as “leaves,” “knives,” “analyses,” and “theses.”

Plural nouns are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Sections 4.18 and 6.11 and the Concise Guide Sections 2.18 and 5.1

Plural surnames

Usually, a surname is made plural by adding an “s” to the end of it (e.g., “Ayubis” is the plural form of the surname “Ayubi”), but there are exceptions. Add “es” to most surnames that end in “ch,” “s,” “sh,” “x,” and “z” to make them plural: for example, “Burch” becomes “Burches,” “Jones” becomes “Joneses,” “Nash” becomes “Nashes,” “Knox” becomes “Knoxes,” and “Hernández” becomes “Hernándezes.”  

However, if the “ch” at the end of a surname is pronounced with a hard “k,” like “Bach,” add “s” to the end of the surname to make it plural: “Bachs” (the same is true for common nouns ending in a hard “ch”: “stomachs”). Likewise, if the “x” at the end of a surname is silent, like “Rioux,” make the surname plural by adding an “s” to the end of the name: “Riouxs.”

Plural versus possessive

Although there are many unique ways to form plural nouns, please note that placing an apostrophe “s” or just an apostrophe after an “s” at the end of a noun is not one of them. “Tuesday’s” and “cat’s” are never the plurals of “Tuesday” and “cat”; the plurals are “Tuesdays” and “cats.” In general, an apostrophe “s” is used to form the possessive case of a noun .

Some nouns are spelled the same way in their singular form as they are in their plural form (e.g., “fish,” “moose,” “sheep”). Other nouns do not have a singular form and are always spelled in the plural form (e.g., “clothes,” “eyeglasses,” “scissors”). Conversely, some nouns do not have a plural form (e.g., “homework,” “milk,” “advice”).

Also, to make an abbreviation plural, add an “s” to the end of the abbreviation. For example, “HCP” is the abbreviation of “health care provider” and “HCPs” is its plural form.

The spelling guidelines on this page serve as general pluralization recommendations and are not comprehensive. They are not specific to APA Style and can be found in many dictionaries and other style guides. The APA Style Experts frequently consult the Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary for their spelling guidance .

Some common examples of nouns in their singular and plural forms are presented next.

a “Attornies” is not the plural form of “attorney” because the letter that precedes the “y” is a vowel (i.e., an “e”) and not a consonant . In general, do not change nouns that end in “y” to “ies” to make them plural if the letter that precedes the “y” is a vowel; add an “s” to the end of the noun to make it plural.

b “Families” ends in “ies” because the letter that precedes the “y” in “family” is a consonant (i.e., an “l”). However, there are exceptions to this guidance. For example, “moneys” and “monies” are acceptable plural forms of “money.” When a term has more than one plural form, use your best judgment to determine which spelling is more appropriate to use in your work.

c The term “persons” is sometimes used in research settings to refer to groups of a specific number and in a legal context such as “missing persons” or “persons of interest.” Nevertheless, “people” is the preferred plural form of “person.”

d “Peoples” may be used to describe specific ethnic communities such as “Indigenous Peoples” or “First Peoples.”

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Copyediting | Copywriting | Training

• Jul 24, 2023

Mastering Singular vs. Plural in Writing: A Guide to Clarity and Agreement

Understanding when to use singular or plural forms is crucial for effective written communication. Correctly matching subjects, verbs, pronouns, and nouns in terms of number ensures clarity and coherence in your writing. This blog explores the rules of singular and plural usage, highlight common mistakes to avoid, and provides practical tips to ensure you understand singular and plural forms.

1. Subject-Verb Agreement

One of the key areas to focus on is ensuring agreement between subjects and verbs. Let's examine an example of a common mistake and its correction:

Mistake: "The books on the shelf was dusty."

Correction: "The books on the shelf were dusty."

Explanation: The subject "books" is plural, so it requires the plural form of the verb "were" to maintain agreement.

2. Singular and Plural Nouns

Using the correct form of nouns is essential for maintaining consistency throughout your writing. Consider this example:

Mistake: "The child's toy are scattered all over the floor."

Correction: "The children's toys are scattered all over the floor."

Explanation: The possessive form "children's" matches the plural noun "toys" to denote ownership by multiple children.

3. Pronoun Agreement

Ensure that pronouns agree in number with the nouns they replace. Here's an example of a common mistake and its correction:

Mistake: "Each of the students should bring their textbooks."

Correction: "Each of the students should bring his or her textbook."

Explanation: When referring to singular nouns, the pronoun should be singular ("his or her") rather than plural ("their").

*However, this rule is generally being overlooked and the use of ‘their’ to denote a singular person is now accepted. The use of ‘their’ can also appear more concise instead of clunky constructs like ‘his/her’ or ‘his and/or her’.

4. Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Distinguish between countable and uncountable nouns to select the appropriate verb forms and determiners. Consider this example:

Mistake: "There is too much furnitures in the room."

Correction: "There is too much furniture in the room."

Explanation: "Furniture" is an uncountable noun, so it does not require a plural form or "s" at the end.

5. Quantifiers and Indefinite Pronouns

Ensure that the quantifiers and indefinite pronouns used align with the singular or plural nature of the noun they refer to. Let's examine an example:

Mistake: "Somebody left their umbrella in the hallway."

Correction: "Somebody left his or her umbrella in the hallway."

Explanation: The indefinite pronoun "somebody" is singular, so the corresponding possessive pronoun should be singular as well ("his or her").

*As noted before, the use of ‘their’ as a singular is now widely accepted and thus this convention of using ‘his or her’ could be in decline.

Tips for Mastering Singular vs. Plural

a) Understand the rules: Familiarise yourself with the rules of subject-verb agreement, noun forms, pronoun agreement, and quantifier usage.

b) Practice with exercises: Engage in grammar exercises or create your own sentences to reinforce the correct usage of singular and plural forms

c) Read and analyse: Pay attention to how singular and plural forms are used in professional writing and literature.

d) Proofread and edit: Review your writing for consistency in singular and plural usage, specifically focusing on subjects, verbs, pronouns, and nouns.

e) Seek feedback: Ask for feedback from peers, teachers, or professional editors to identify any instances of incorrect singular or plural usage.

Mastering singular and plural usage in writing is essential for maintaining clarity, coherence, and grammatical correctness. By understanding the rules, practicing with examples, and seeking feedback, you can develop a strong command of singular and plural forms. Remember to ensure agreement between subjects and verbs, use appropriate pronouns and nouns, and pay attention to countable and uncountable nouns.

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• Writing Tips

Grammar Tips: Plural Nouns

7-minute read

• 10th March 2023

If someone asked you what a noun is , you’d probably say it’s a person, place, or thing. Pretty simple, right? But what about plural nouns? For example, what is the plural form for cat ? If you said cats , you’re right! What about the plural for foot ? If you said foots , you’re incorrect. The correct form is feet. Simply adding an s at the end works for some nouns – but not all.

Plural nouns can be confusing for many English learners. Most students struggle with regular versus irregular plurals as well as apostrophe usage with some plurals. Nevertheless, understanding plural nouns is important for effective communication. After all, you’ll encounter them in many contexts!

If you find plural nouns confusing, read on! This blog will provide essential grammar tips for using plural nouns correctly in written and spoken English. We’ll discuss pluralization rules as well as irregular and tricky plural noun forms. By the time you finish reading, you’ll feel confident using plural nouns effectively in any context. And understanding plural nouns can go a long way to improving your English grammar .

What Are Plural Nouns?

Plural nouns refer to more than one person, place, or thing. You can easily recognize most of them by their s or es ending:

There’s not much to pluralizing such nouns. However, things get tricky with irregular plurals, as they have their own unique forms. For example:

English language learners often struggle to distinguish regular plurals from irregular ones . Fortunately, to form irregular plurals, you just need to know which letters to change.

How to Make Nouns Plural

As we stated above, you can make most singular nouns plural by adding s or es to the end of the word, depending on the word’s ending. Likewise, collective nouns (nouns that represent groups) can be made plural by adding s or es . For example:

Regular Plural Nouns

Nouns such as bottle, toy, bike , and chair are the easiest to pluralize, as you simply add s to the end. However, some nouns require the es ending:

Irregular Plurals

The rules for forming these plurals are different from the rules for forming regular plurals, and interestingly enough, there are multiple ways to form irregular plurals. Examples of nouns that have irregular plurals include mouse , man , goose , wolf , and wife . Their pluralization looks like this:

Pluralizing these is usually a matter of knowing the rules regarding certain noun endings. If a noun ends in f or fe , you change the ending to ve before adding an s to form the plural:

The only exceptions to this rule are roof, belief, chef, chief , and café , which take the s ending. For nouns such as goose, foot, and tooth , you change the double o into a double e to make the plural. So the plural forms are geese, feet, and teeth , respectively.

Booth and book are exceptions: their plurals use the s ending. Therefore, changing the double o to a double e is incorrect. And for nouns such as man and woman , you only need to change the a to e to make the plural.

How to Pluralize the Word Mouse

The word mouse has a unique plural form. You simply change mouse to mice :

However, you wouldn’t apply this rule to other words ending in ouse , such as house . You would simply add the s ending for those.

More Rules for Plural Nouns

The final letter of a noun often dictates the correct spelling of the pluralized form. But just as we saw with irregular plurals, you must be aware of special rules.

Singular Nouns Ending in Y

If a singular noun ends in y and the letter before the y is a consonant, you change the ending to ies to make the plural:

If a singular noun ends in y and the letter before the y is a vowel, just add an s to make the plural:

Singular Nouns Ending in O

If a singular noun ends in o , add es to make the plural:

However, you would not apply this rule to nouns such as piano , halo , and photo , which take the s ending for the plural.

Which Nouns Take the es Ending?

We know you’ve probably been asking this question from the beginning. The simple answer is that the es ending applies to nouns that end in s , ss , sh , ch , x , and z . For example:

Plural Noun Exceptions

While we’ve already mentioned a few exceptions, more exist. If a singular noun ends in us , the plural ending is i . For example:

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If a singular noun ends in is , the plural ending is es :

If a singular noun ends in on , the plural ending is a :

Believe it or not, some nouns don’t change at all when you pluralize them. Such nouns include sheep, fish, deer, series , aircraft , and species . They can be singular or plural:

Plural Nouns Versus Possessive Nouns

Possessive nouns demonstrate ownership, generally with the ’ s ending. Let’s say your cousin Bill owns a boat (lucky Bill!). You would indicate it like this:

Most students confuse plural nouns with possessive nouns because of the s endings. Understanding how to use apostrophes with plurals and possessives can be tricky. Plural nouns don’t have apostrophes unless they’re also possessive. Let’s consider the following examples:

Common Mistakes When Using Plural Nouns

1. Adding s or es endings to irregular nouns (e.g., goose , man , child , foot )

2. Adding an apostrophe to a plural noun when it’s not possessive

3. Adding s endings with nouns that actually need the es ending

4. Adding pluralizing endings to nouns that don’t change at all (e.g., deer , fish , series )

5. Adding the wrong ending to nouns that end in us , is , and on

Tips for Avoiding Errors in Writing and Speaking

1. Remember that plural nouns don’t use apostrophes unless they’re also possessive.

2. You cannot pluralize all nouns simply by using s or es endings.

3. Remember which letters need to be changed to form irregular plurals (which all have unique forms).

4. Know which nouns use the s and es endings.

5. Know which nouns are singular and plural in sentences.

Tips for Identifying Singular and Plural Nouns in Sentences

Looking at how much of something a noun is referring to can tell you whether that noun is singular or plural. It’s singular if it refers to one person or thing. It’s plural if it refers to more than one person or thing.

When reading a sentence, look for any nouns with s or es endings. If so, they’re likely plural. Furthermore, by understanding how much of something the noun refers to, you can recognize the tricky irregular plural nouns we’ve covered.

Incorrect Plural Nouns Lead to Different Meanings

It’s important to use the correct forms of plural and possessive nouns, as incorrect plurals can change the meaning of a sentence. Take these examples:

We encourage you to practice using plural nouns correctly. One way to do this is by trying a worksheet on singular and plural nouns . The more practice you have, the more comfortable you’ll be. For our visual learners, we recommend this video on how to form plural nouns . Finally, we encourage you to proofread your written work for correct plural noun usage.

If you’re currently working on an essay or a paper, you might be interested in letting our proofreading experts review your writing. They can check for grammar and punctuation errors and make sure the spelling is perfect. They’ll also ensure the correct use of plural nouns! Consider submitting a 500-word document for free today.

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Which Is The Correct Plural Spelling? (It's a Trick Question)

Referenda & Referendums

Definition : a public vote on a particular issue

Latin has given English a sizable portion of its vocabulary, and one of the reasons that so many of our words are descended from that language is that they have entered our tongue at a number of distinct points. Some, such as butter , date back to the Roman invasion of Britain. Others came to us in the middle ages, from the Norman Conquest. Others still did not arrive until the 19th century, often as part of an expanding scientific vocabulary. Referendum is one of those late arrivals, initially used to describe a vote on the Swiss constitution at that time. Both referendums and referenda are correct.

Of course it will all take time—  The population must be reassured,  The boundary must be surveyed,  There'll be royal commissions, referenda…. —Margaretta D’Arcy and John Arden, The Non-Stop Connolly Show: Part Six , 1978 quote here

Syllabuses & Syllabi

Definition : a summary outline of a discourse, treatise, or course of study or of examination requirements

Syllabus comes to English from the Latin sillybus , which actually has nothing to do with buses or silliness ( sillybus refers to a label for a book). Both forms of the plural are acceptable, although people might look askance at you if you use syllabi . 

Gymnasiums & Gymnasia

Definition : a large room used for various indoor sports (such as basketball or boxing) and usually equipped with gymnastic apparatus

Very few people use gymnasia as the plural of gymnasium anymore, but it can come in handy if you want to confuse people. And if you desire still more obscure information about this word, know that it can be traced to a Greek word meaning “to exercise naked” ( gymnazein ). The naked aspect of this word’s history has been largely set aside in English, although Nathan Bailey, in his 1727 Universal Etymological English Dictionary , defined the word gymnologize as “to dispute naked, or like an Indian Philosopher.”

"Had you rather witness the sports of the gymnasia than the works of artists?" inquired Plato. —Lydia Maria Francis Child, Philothea , 1836

Miasmas & Miasmata & Miasms

Definition : a vaporous exhalation formerly believed to cause disease

Most words have a single plural form, while others feel the need to have two. Others are more gluttonous still (such as octopus , the plural of which may be octopi , octopuses , or octopodes ), and require three different ways of pluralizing. Miasma is one of those triplets. So if you have more than one of these vaporous exhalations (and we hope you never do), they may be described as miasmas , miasmata , or miasms . 

Not a whit, fair sir—a cordial cup of sack, impregnated with wormwood is the best anti-pestilential draught; and, to speak the truth, the pestilential miasmata are now very rife in the atmosphere. —Anon., Mary of Scotland, or The Heir of Avenel , 1821

Terminuses & termini

Definition : either end of a transportation line or travel route

Given that the above two words are obscure variant plurals of a somewhat obscure singular form ( terminus ), it is quite unlikely that you will have need of distinguishing between them. But seeing as how the joy of unexpected knowledge is not regulated by need, we have included them anyway. You may use either terminuses or termini (but not terminusses ) with ferocious and joyful impunity.

Home from a world of late-liberal distraction  To rain and tenfoots clogged with leaves,  To the life's work of boredom and waiting,  The bus-station's just-closing teabar,  The icy, unpromising platforms of regional termini…. —Sean O’Brien, After Laforgue (from HMS Glasshouse), 1991

Memorandums & Memoranda

Definition : an informal record: also, a written reminder

Many usage guides have taken pains to warn their readers of a potential problem with the plural of memorandum . This is not whether or not to use memorandums or memoranda (either is fine), but rather to avoid using memorandas . Some words with similar Latinate endings in English will allow an a ending to take an s (such as agendas ), but memorandas is not among them.

But what does our proud Ign'rance Learning call,  We odly Plato 's Paradox make good,  Our Knowledge is but mere Remembrance all,  Remembrance is our Treasure and our Food;  Nature's fair Table-book our tender Souls  We scrawl all o'er with old and empty Rules,  Stale Memorandums of the Schools…. —Jonathan Swift, Ode to the Honorable Sir William Temple , c1689

Virtuosos & Virtuosi

Definition : one who excels in the technique of an art

Both virtuosos and virtuosi may be found as the plural form of virtuouso , although the former is more common than the latter. Virtuosi is also viewed by a number of usage guides as being overly pedantic, and many will recommend virtuosos instead. So if your desideratum (which is only pluralized as desiderata ) is to use the sort of words that usage guides think of as overly pedantic, well, then virtuosi is the word for you.

Those virtuosi who expend their amiable propensities in transfixing butterflies and impaling gnats would here find ample employment from May till November. —Caroline M. Kirkland, Forest Life , 1850

Appendices & Appendixes

Definition : supplementary material usually attached at the end of a piece of writing

Some people are of the opinion that when giving the plural of appendix one form is appropriate for certain contexts and not for others (stating, for instance, that appendices should be when referring to texts, and appendixes for non-textual things). We have a considerable body of written evidence indicating that these plurals are used interchangeably, so decide which one you are more comfortable with, and use it at will.

Modest Attire, and Meekness, signify  A Mind compos'd of Native Purity.  Needs no Appendices so to set forth  A Jewel of a more admired worth. —Mary Mollineux, Of Modesty (from Fruits of Retirement), 1702

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Eseys or Essays – Which is Correct?

• by Sarah Thompson
• March 3, 2024

Let’s have a conversation about the common mistake people make when writing the word “Essays.” Many individuals seem to get confused between “Eseys” and “Essays” and find themselves wondering which spelling is correct. Today, we will debunk this confusion and establish the correct spelling once and for all.

To address this issue, it is pertinent to emphasize that “Essays” is the correct spelling of the word. The incorrect term “Eseys” is a common misspelling resulting from a typographical error or a lack of familiarity with the correct spelling.

Now, let’s learn the reasons why “Essays” is the right spelling. Firstly, “Essays” is the plural form of the singular noun “Essay.” When we want to refer to more than one essay, we simply add an “s” to the end of the word. This is the conventional English rule for forming plurals of nouns, and it applies to “Essay” as well. For example, “I have written multiple essays on various topics.” Here, the correct plural form of “Essay” is used to convey the idea that the speaker has written more than one essay.

Moreover, we can also look at past forms of verbs to further solidify the correct spelling. For instance, the verb form of “Essay” is “Essayed.” “Essayed” is the past tense form, and by examining the conjugation of the verb, we can recognize that “Essays” is indeed the accurate plural form. You might say, “He essayed his thoughts on the subject,” to convey that someone expressed their ideas in the form of an essay.

To illustrate the incorrect spelling, “Eseys,” it is crucial to emphasize that this word does not exist in Standard English. It is a mistake that has often emerged due to a lack of knowledge or inattentiveness during writing. Therefore, it is essential to be attentive and avoid this misspelling in formal writing, as it may weaken your language skills and leave a negative impression on the reader.

In conclusion, we have effectively established that the correct spelling of the word referring to multiple essays is “Essays.” “Eseys” is an erroneous form that should be avoided. Remember, using proper grammar and spelling not only enhances your communication skills, but it also showcases your proficiency in the English language. So, the next time you find yourself unsure about whether to write “Eseys” or “Essays,” confidently choose the latter for an accurate and grammatically correct sentence!

So, keep practicing your writing skills, pay attention to proper grammar, and remember the correct spelling of “Essays.” With dedication and practice, you will become an exceptional writer and expert in the English language.

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• Correct Word
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Plural Nouns in English: Simple Guide with Examples

English plural nouns can seem challenging for learners. But this guide makes it easier to turn any singular (one) noun into a plural (more than one) noun.

Discover the eight rules for making nouns plural in English below. I’ve also included common examples of nouns for each rule and the different kinds of irregular plural nouns.

How Do Plurals Work in English?

Regular plural nouns, add -s to most regular nouns.

• Add -es to nouns ending in -o, -s, -x, -z, -sh or -ch
• Add -s to nouns that end with vowel + y

Change the ending to -es for nouns ending in -is

Change the ending to -ves for nouns ending in -f or -fe, change the ending to -ies for nouns ending in consonant + y, change the ending to -i for nouns ending in -us.

• Change the ending to -a for certain nouns ending in -on

Irregular Plural Nouns

Common irregular nouns to memorize, nouns with the same plural and singular forms, nouns that don’t change, and one more thing....

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The difference between the singular and plural forms of a noun is reflected in spelling. The most basic way to make an English noun plural is by adding -s , but as you’ll see below,  there are a number of spelling rules to follow to make a noun plural and also many exceptions.

The majority of English nouns are regular, which means they all follow the same format for their plural forms. Here are the rules for dealing with regular nouns:

For most regular English nouns, you simply add the letter -s to the noun.

It’s easy, but remember that another form looks very similar, and that’s the possessive form: “a dog’s bowl,” which means the bowl belongs to the dog. So watch out for that. 

Here are a few common examples:

Add -es to nouns ending in -o ,  -s , -x , -z , -sh or -ch

When the noun ends with -s , -x , -z , -sh or -ch , simply add -es after the noun.

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For most nouns ending with the letter -o , you have to add -es after the noun instead of -s .

Add -s  to nouns that end with vowel + y

If a vowel comes before the letter -y , then it’s easy. You simply add -s after the noun.

For nouns ending in -is , drop the -is and then add -es .

Let’s look at some common examples:

For some nouns ending with -f or -fe , you change the F to V and then add -es.

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For nouns ending with a consonant + y , the general rule is to drop the -y and add -ies after the noun.

For nouns ending in -us , drop -us and add -i at the end of the word.

A few common examples are:

Change the ending to  -a for certain nouns ending in -on

You probably won’t encounter this class of nouns very often, but it’s still important to know where you might need to use these words:

If you’ve been an English learner for some time, you know there’ll always be special cases that don’t fit into any fixed formats or follow any rules. They are irregular, which means different.

They do things differently from everyone else and that’s what makes them so interesting . They don’t follow the standard rules and have to be memorized.

Let’s look at some examples:

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Talk about easy! There are some words that are exactly the same in their singular and plural forms.

Some common examples are below. You might notice that a lot of these words have to do with biology or animals.

Then there are some nouns that have no singular forms or no plural form. Because of this, you only have to learn the one form. 

This is especially true with what’s called  mass nouns . They have no distinct plural forms. Typically, they refer to nouns that often come in groups, or nouns that are somewhat abstract. 

So now, I hope you have a clearer picture of how to make nouns plural in English.

Outside of this list, try to listen to how native speakers use these in their speech. If you don’t have natives around you, find a language exchange partner, or start watching English-language movies and TV shows . 

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As you watch English language content (especially with subtitles), you’ll get more familiar with how plurals work in English by hearing them in context.

It may take some time to become familiar with the rules but that’s okay. To learn them quicker, print out a copy of these rules and keep them handy for your reference. Pretty soon, you’ll be an expert at plural spellings. Good luck!

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The Plural Forms of Words

What are the plural forms of words.

Forming the Plurals of Nouns

• 1 dog > 2 dogs
• 1 house > 2 houses
• 1 video > 2 videos
• How to form the plurals of nouns (spelling rules)
• How to form the plurals of compound nouns (e.g., mothers-in-law, Knights Templar)
• How to form the plurals of abbreviations (e.g., MOTs, L.R.S.s)

What Are the Plural Pronouns?

What Is the Plural Form of a Verb?

What Are Plural Demonstrative Determiners?

Forming the Plurals of Foreign Words

• stadium > stadia or stadiums
• datum > data
• radius > radii or radiuses
• agendum > agenda

"Plural" Also Applies to Zero

• 0 dogs (plural)
• 1 dog (singular)
• 2 dogs (plural)
• 3 dogs (plural)
• There are no alligators in the lake.

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I have a love/hate relationship with the English language. I love writing and communicating ideas to fellow readers. I (sometimes) hate all the weird rules.

Take plurals, for instance. English has many strange plural words that defy rules or make their own. In this article, we'll cover several tricky plurals (such as "moose" and "moose") and do our best to explain how they work. I hope it drives your love/hate relationship more toward the former!

Regular Plurals

You probably don't need our help with these. For most words, simply add an "s" to the end of the singular form to make a plural. For instance:

Singular: paper / Plural: paper s

Singular: cat / Plural: cat s

Singular: tree / Plural: tree s

Easy enough. Things get slightly complicated when the word already ends with an "s," or with a "ch," "sh," "x," or "z." In this case, it's often correct to add "es" instead:

Singular: grass / Plural: grass es

Singular: bench / Plural: bench es

Singular: radish / Plural: radish es

What about words like "memory"? To pluralize a word ending in a consonant and the letter "y," replace the "y" with "ies":

Singular: memory / Plural: memor ies

Singular: baby / Plural: bab ies

Singular: glory / Plural: glor ies

Now let's advance to the truly tricky stuff.

Irregular Plurals

As the name implies, irregular plurals don't follow the rules of their regular counterparts. The best way to learn these is to memorize them. Here are a few examples:

Calf and Calves

One might think calfs is the right word, but it's actually cal ves . There are a few others with a similar construction, including leaf and lea ves , knife and kni ves , and life and li ves .

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Hoof and hoofs (or hooves).

Some irregular plurals are actually acceptable in multiple forms, as in the case of the word hoof . The logical plural hoof s actually works here. Yet using hoo ves is also valid. As the writer, it's your choice which you use, so long as you're consistent.

Just don't get tripped up with words that sound similar. For example, hooves is an acceptable plural of hoof . However, prooves is not the plural of proof . The correct plural is proof s . It's just one of those things you have to remember (though ProWritingAid's homonym report can help).

Person and People

This is certainly one of the stranger ones on this list. The preferred plural of person is not persons . It's people .

However, you've probably heard the word persons used before, such as in the phrase "Missing Persons Case." That's because persons is a formal version of the plural and therefore used almost exclusively in legal settings. So unless you're a law enforcement official, you should opt for people .

What about peoples ? In the words of Jane Mairs , Director of English Language Learning Publishing, "the only time you will want to use the word 'peoples' is when you are referring to groups of people from multiple ethnic, cultural, racial, or national backgrounds." For example:

"The American people." (We use people because we're referring only to Americans.)

"The American, Chinese, Mexican, and English peoples." (We use peoples because we're referring to many folks from many countries.)

Latin and Greek Plurals

There are a few tricky holdovers from these languages that have remained in English. A few examples:

Stimulus and Stimuli

There's no such word as stimuluses (even though that would make logical sense). According to our Ancient Greek friends, the proper plural is stimuli .

Genus and Genera

Again, you'd probably guess that the plural form of genus would be genuses . However, it's actually genera . Fortunately, if you're not a scientist, this probably won't be a concern too often.

Alumnus and Alumni

This one came up when I revisited my alma mater the other day. When asked for the reason for my visit, I said, "I'm an alumni." I feared I'd botched it and, sure enough, I had.

What I should've said was, "I'm an alumnus ." That's the singular form for male graduates. For female graduates, the generally accepted form is alumna . The plural form for both is alumni . So if my wife had been there as well, she would've said, "I'm an alumna," or, "We're alumni."

As if that wasn't tricky enough, there's also another plural form for a group of graduates who are all women. It's alumnae . So if my wife was with a female friend who graduated from the same school, she would've said, "We're alumnae."

So to reiterate: alumni can refer to a group of all-male graduates or a group of both men and women. Alumnae can refer only to a group of all-female graduates. If there's even one dude in there, you'd use alumni .

Many animals use the same word for both their singular and plural form. Thanks, animals! These are called invariants. For example, "I saw a moose " is correct, as is, "I saw several moose ." Mooses , meese , and moocices are not real words. Here are some others that fit this category:

Miscellaneous Weird Plurals

Ox and oxen.

Logic rarely factors into English. Therefore, the plural of ox is not oxes . It's oxen ! You probably knew that one if you're a fan of the Oregon Trail computer games.

Fox and Foxes

Since fox rhymes with ox , you might think the plural of fox would be foxen . It's not! The plural of fox is foxes . I made this error several times and felt silly for doing so.

Data and Datas(?)

There's a constant debate over the plural form of data . Is it datas ? Is datas even a word?

First of all, data is already a plural word; its singular companion is datum —or was. Unless you're in a technical field, that singular has been largely abandoned. Instead, most grammarians accept data as both a singular and plural form.

So what about the word datas ? It's mostly a matter of opinion. Though some use datas as a plural, others oppose the word. It seems most authorities agree that the preferred form for both singular and plural is data , and that it should be never used with the indefinite article ("a"). Easy to remember, since sentences like "I found a data I think you should see" just sound weird.

If you're still confused, I found this article immensely helpful when researching the topic myself. Check it out!

What are some tricky plurals we missed? Let us know in the comments below!

Common Questions about Plurals

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• Proper Nouns
• Countable and Uncountable Nouns
• Gerunds and Infinitives
• Types of Nouns
• Abstract Nouns
• Collective Nouns
• Compound Nouns

Plural Nouns

• Common Noun
• Conjunctions
• Preposition

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What is a Plural Noun

Singular and plural nouns, singular noun examples.

• The boy had a baseball in his hand .
• My horse prefers to wear an English saddle .
• That cat never seems to tire of jumping in and out of the box .
• You stole my idea and didn’t give me any credit.
• Your mom is going to be upset about that broken lamp .
• It’s not difficult to grow a tree as long as you give it plenty of water.
• I can’t believe you let your dog stick his head out the window while you drive.

Plural Noun Examples

• The boys were throwing baseballs back and forth between bases .
• Our horses are much happier wearing lightweight English saddles .
• Those cats never seem to tire of chasing one another in and out of those boxes .
• You stole my ideas and didn’t give me any credit.
• Our moms are going to be upset that we stayed out all night going to parties .
• It’s not too difficult to grow trees as long as you provide them with plenty of water.
• I can’t believe you allow your dogs to climb all over the seats while you are driving.

Singular – Plural Nouns Exercises

Transform each of the following words into plurals:

Choose the correct plural for each of the words that follows:

• Choice a. Choices b. Choices c. Choiceies
• Box a.Boxs b. Boxies c. Boxes
• Thief a.Thiefies a. Thiefs c. Thieves
• Army a.Armys b. Armies c. Army
• Owl a.Owls b. Owlies c. Owelds

Choose the best word to fit into each of the following sentences:

• The men sharpened their _____________ before throwing them at the targets. A – knife B – knifes C – knives
• Please eat the rest of your _____________. A – pease B – Peas C – Peies
• I’d like you to stop leaving your ________________ on the floor. A – Socks B – Sockses C – Sox
• We saw a lot of _________________ at the park. A – Deers B – Deeries C – Deer
• This recipe calls for a lot of _____________. A – Tomatos B – Tomatoes C – Tomaties

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• 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú

Pronunciation [ change ]

• ( US ) ( UK ) IPA ( key ) : /ˈɛˌseɪ/

Noun [ change ]

• Writing that looks at an issue or subject . Each student had to write an essay on his favorite author.

Related words [ change ]

Verb [ change ].

• ( transitive ) To try .
• ( intransitive ) To move forth, as into battle .

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Singular and Plural Forms in Scientific Writing

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Although plurals can sometimes be relatively simple, there are situations that cause confusion, including mass nouns. Learn more about how to avoid mistakes in scientific writing.

Updated on June 19, 2012

In most cases, forming the plural in English is relatively simple (just add an 's'). However, authors frequently make a few mistakes when forming plurals, especially with mass nouns.

Count nouns are discrete, individual entities -- items that you can count. Mass nouns , sometimes called uncountable or non-count nouns, refer to an undifferentiated mass or collection of material. For example, you would not say, “I'm all out of a water.” It is correct to say “I need a little water” or “I need a few bottles of water.” In this example, water is a mass noun, and bottle is a count noun. Likewise, when describing an experiment, you would quantify a mass noun by adding a specific measurement (e.g., “2 ml of water”); in fact, whether you choose bottles or milliliters, the mass noun requires some unit of measurement to be quantified. Note that the unit is plural and the mass noun ('water') remains unchanged.

Data and research are two nouns that are frequently used in the sciences and are much more tricky than they appear.

It is often taught that data (like media or spectra) is a plural word (the singular is 'datum'). In most contexts, the word data refers to specific numerical results and should therefore be treated as a plural count noun, with a corresponding plural verb form.

• The patient data are sorted in Table 1.
• Data were collected retrospectively from patient medical records.

However, this rule is not strict; it depends on the scientific context. Data can sometimes be used in the singular as a mass noun. For example, in Ars Technica, Chris Foresman examines how securely “user data is stored” by Apple's iCloud service. Likewise, the following PLOS ONE article uses the singular form of data in its title: “ Clickstream Data Yields High-Resolution Maps of Science. ” In computer science, data is often used in the singular form as an mass noun; that is, computer scientists use the word data to describe a mass of information to be accessed, stored, or processed ( information is another great example of a mass noun).

Unlike data , research should always be used as a mass noun, and its verb must be singular. Some writers attempt to force research to take a plural form (researches); however, this usage is incredibly rare, and it will almost certainly trouble a reviewer. Because research is a mass noun, it can refer to a wide body of literature (e.g., “current research in the field”) or the work involved in a specific project (e.g., “our research focused on the following objectives”). If you need to quantify the research in question, try using study/studies (e.g., “In total, 28 studies were included in this review”). Consider the following examples, also from PLOS ONE :

• A Comparison of rpoB and 16S rRNA as Markers in Pyrosequencing Studies of Bacterial Diversity
• Aggregating, Tagging and Integrating Biodiversity Research (not researches)

We hope these tips and examples help avoid the grammatical confusion that often surrounds data and research . Are there other singular or plural forms that cause you trouble in your scientific writing? Write to [email protected] , and we will work with you to find the answer. Best of luck!

Brandon Jernigan, PhD

Strategic Communications Partner and Operations UX

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Definition of essay noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary

• I have to write an essay this weekend.
• essay on something an essay on the causes of the First World War
• essay about somebody/something Have you done your essay about Napoleon yet?
• in an essay He made some very good points in his essay.
• Essays handed in late will not be accepted.
• Have you done your essay yet?
• He concludes the essay by calling for a corrective.
• I finished my essay about 10 o'clock last night!
• Lunch was the only time she could finish her essay assignment.
• We have to write an essay on the environment.
• You have to answer 3 out of 8 essay questions in the exam.
• the teenage winner of an essay contest
• We have to write an essay on the causes of the First World War.
• be entitled something
• be titled something
• address something
• in an/​the essay
• essay about

Definitions on the go

Look up any word in the dictionary offline, anytime, anywhere with the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary app.

Sternum Plural, What is the Plural of Sternum?

Horse Plural, What is the plural of Horse?

Zen Plural, What is the Plural of Zen?

Sugar Plural, What is the Plural of Sugar?

Sock Plural, What is the Plural of Sock?

Bigfoot Plural, What is the plural of Bigfoot?

About the author.

Hi, I'm USMI, engdic.org's Author & Lifestyle Linguist. My decade-long journey in language and lifestyle curation fuels my passion for weaving words into everyday life. Join me in exploring the dynamic interplay between English and our diverse lifestyles. Dive into my latest insights, where language enriches every aspect of living.

• 1.1.1 Pronunciation
• 1.1.2.1 Derived terms
• 1.1.2.2 Related terms
• 1.1.2.3 Translations
• 1.2.1 Pronunciation
• 1.2.2.1 Translations
• 1.3 Anagrams
• 2.1 Etymology
• 2.2 Pronunciation
• 2.3.1 Hypernyms
• 2.3.2 Derived terms
• 2.3.3 Descendants
• 3.1 Etymology
• 3.2.1 Derived terms
• 3.3 References
• 4.1 Etymology
• 4.2.1 Derived terms
• 4.3 References

Etymology 1

Since late 16th century, borrowed from Middle French essay , essai ( “ essay ” ) , meaning coined by Montaigne in the same time, from the same words in earlier meanings 'experiment; assay; attempt', from Old French essay , essai , assay , assai , from Latin exagium ( “ weight; weighing, testing on the balance ” ) , from exigere + -ium .

Pronunciation

• ( Received Pronunciation , General American ) IPA ( key ) : /ˈɛs.eɪ/ (1), IPA ( key ) : /ɛˈseɪ/ (2-4)

• Rhymes: -ɛseɪ
• Homophone : ese

essay ( plural essays )

• 2013 January, Katie L. Burke, “Ecological Dependency”, in American Scientist ‎ [1] , volume 101 , number 1, archived from the original on 9 February 2017 , page 64 : In his first book since the 2008 essay collection Natural Acts: A Sidelong View of Science and Nature , David Quammen looks at the natural world from yet another angle: the search for the next human pandemic, what epidemiologists call “the next big one.”
• ( obsolete ) A test , experiment ; an assay .
• 1861 , E. J. Guerin, Mountain Charley , page 16 : My first essay at getting employment was fruitless; but after no small number of mortifying rebuffs from various parties to whom I applied for assistance, I was at last rewarded by a comparative success.
• 1988 , James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom , Oxford, published 2003 , page 455 : This was Lee's first essay in the kind of offensive-defensive strategy that was to become his hallmark.
• ( philately , finance ) A proposed design for a postage stamp or a banknote .

Derived terms

• argumentative essay
• automated essay scoring
• eight-legged essay
• essay question
• photo-essay
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Etymology 2

From Middle French essayer , essaier , from Old French essaiier , essayer , essaier , assaiier , assayer , assaier , from essay , essai , assay , assai ( “ attempt; assay; experiment ” ) as above.

• ( UK , US ) IPA ( key ) : /ɛˈseɪ/

essay ( third-person singular simple present essays , present participle essaying , simple past and past participle essayed )

• 1900 , Charles W. Chesnutt , chapter II, in The House Behind the Cedars : He retraced his steps to the front gate, which he essayed to open.
• 1950 April, R. A. H. Weight, “They Passed by My Window”, in Railway Magazine , page 260 : The train took the slow to branch spur at the north end at a not much slower speed, then essayed the short sharply curved climb with a terrific roar, smoke rising straight from the chimney to a height of some 60 ft., the long train twisting and curling behind.
• 2023 October 12, HarryBlank, “Fire in the Hole”, in SCP Foundation ‎ [2] , archived from the original on 22 May 2024 : There was the counter, there was the bulletin board, above her the dull sound of music being played over headphones. Something jaunty. She liked the beat. Then the sound of a chair being pushed back, and someone humming as they walked away from her, and she darted up to plunge the bayonet into their kidneys from behind. A followup stroke through the back of the neck, and the second soldier was down. She didn't even stop to see if it was a man or a woman, young or old. There were further hurdles to essay before she reached her destination.
• ( intransitive ) To move forth, as into battle.
• Sayes , Seays , Sesay , eyass

Borrowed from English essay ( “ essay ” ) , from Middle French essai ( “ essay; attempt, assay ” ) , from Old French essai , from Latin exagium (whence the neuter gender).

• IPA ( key ) : /ɛˈseː/ , /ˈɛ.seː/
• Hyphenation: es‧say
• Rhymes: -eː

essay   n ( plural essays , diminutive essaytje   n )

Descendants

Norwegian bokmål.

Borrowed from English essay , from Middle French essai .

essay   n ( definite singular essayet , indefinite plural essay or essayer , definite plural essaya or essayene )

• an essay , a written composition of moderate length exploring a particular subject
• essaysamling
• “essay” in The Bokmål Dictionary .

Norwegian Nynorsk

essay   n ( definite singular essayet , indefinite plural essay , definite plural essaya )

• “essay” in The Nynorsk Dictionary .

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Exploring how religious and secular forces interact in the modern world.

Global Currents article

The (national) fantasies of hope: rethinking the 2024 indian elections.

In early June 2024, India completed its general elections, which resulted in a third consecutive victory for the incumbent Hindu nationalist Prime Minister, Narendra Modi. The Bharatiya Janata Party’s (BJP’s) margin of victory, however, was substantially lower than expected and the party failed to win a parliamentary majority in the Lok Sabha, or lower house of parliament. The change in the margin of victory marks the return of coalition politics, as Modi must now rely on allied parties to form the new government under the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), which includes numerous center and right-wing parties. Conversely, the Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance (INDIA), led by the primary opposition party, the Indian National Congress (INC), stunned many observers as it secured a greater number of seats than expected. The demise of the INC and its leader Rahul Gandhi, the great-grandson of India’s inaugural prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, appeared to have been greatly exaggerated.

These election results produced a sense of jubilation amongst Indians who are against the politics of the Modi government. On social media and in news stories, people celebrated that Modi was “cut to size,” but more significantly, that Indians had reclaimed their “democracy” in spite of significant electoral malpractice. Within days, a plethora of analyses from Indian academics in particular circulated and proclaimed that something had fundamentally changed in India. Some argued that this election was a return to “a disinterested vision of the good society” over one that was a “politics of self-interest,” while others spoke of how “the pall of suffocation created by a decade of Modi’s strongman style…has lifted” and that this election “affirmed pluralism over populism.” The election, thus, was viewed as a “vote against hate.” Perhaps the title that succinctly summarized most reactions was that the elections brought “hope, even in defeat.” Therefore, even though the BJP retained power, the failure to reach its dominant majority in the 543-member Lok Sabha— ‘ab ki baar char sau paar’ [This time with over 400 seats] as Modi’s campaign slogan went—signaled hope for Indian democracy as it was presumed that the relationship between state and society could undergo repair as the latter could renew the state.

The National Symbolic

In-depth electoral analysis and judgments of the recent Indian elections abound. Yet, is it possible to read these initial moments of hope as indicative of an Indian “National Symbolic”—what Lauren Berlant has defined as some “tangled cluster” of “the juridical, territorial ( jus soli ), genetic ( jus sanguinis ), linguistic, or experiential” that transforms individuals into national subjects? (5) The National Symbolic produces fantasy and, in particular, “a fantasy of national integration, although the content of this fantasy is a matter of cultural debate and historical transformation” (22). How do the celebratory, and indeed, jubilatory, declarations in response to the recent elections demonstrate an ongoing desire for an integrated Indian form? And how might that national fantasy affirm, rather than repudiate, Modi and his politics? We contend the celebration of Indian political forms—citizenship and the constitution, for example—reveals the perpetuation of an Indian national fantasy while it disavows the violent divisions that produce the very space of the nation. [1] Put differently, hope reaffirms the life and the narrative of the nation—signing and countersigning an Indian history, both a singular and plural one. Our goal, in contrast, is not to provide a more inclusive understanding of the Indian national fantasy, but to consider the theoretical underpinnings of the post-election relief that continue to make India a particularly powerful object of desire.

If this celebration, this hope, is tethered to an Indian national fantasy, what is this fantasy with all its multiple and contradictory meanings? For most liberal-left Indians, Modi’s tenure as prime minister since 2014 violates India’s foundation as a tolerant, multicultural nation that—while not perfect—strives towards a democratic and secular form. This tolerant form of India gains its coherence against the religious fundamentalist or the orthodox, which is known, notoriously in the historiography of South Asia, as the semiticization of Indian traditions—in which the introduction of proselytization and the assertion of religious difference during the colonial period created a “semitic” form against a tolerant “Indic” one . Numerous scholars have demonstrated that this racist framing accrues numerous adherents across the political spectrum. Sustained by historical analyses that privilege the fluid and multiple, national fantasies around India are thus bound to tolerance. It is a tolerance that functions in concert with “the will of an interventionist modernizing state in order to…supply, in the name of ‘national culture,’ a homogenized content to the notion of citizenship” as Partha Chatterjee writes—an integrated, whole, and unassailable national body.

The Role of the Indian Constitution

The Indian constitution plays a significant role in this national fantasy, and it certainly was invoked a number of times during the 2024 election. Rahul Gandhi appeared in a press conference with the constitution in hand; reports later commented on how sales of the constitution have skyrocketed since. After his victory, Modi, too, called the constitution a “ guiding light. ”

One reason for the Indian constitution’s critical role in national fantasy, especially on the liberal-left, is because of Indian federalism: the distribution of powers between the national government and the different states’ governments creates a political form that allows for the possibility of tolerance and inclusion for diverse peoples. To take one example, in his theorization, Partha Chatterjee contends that the federalism enshrined in the Indian constitution coupled with the unique character of Indian citizenship does not allow for nation-people-state to be collapsed together to create a whole integrated national fantasy. There can be no singular National Symbolic, although the BJP constitutes an attempt to create one. Instead, in India, Chatterjee contends we find remarkably diverse political communities that are “peoples-nation”—political communities not integrated into the nation-state, but in tense relation to the nation-state. This separation provides an opportunity for a redemptive politics that is tolerant of numerous narratives and peoples. For Chatterjee, this is the case because of the structure of India’s postcolonial democracy in which formal citizenship was granted to all before their inclusion in civil society, creating, what Chatterjee calls, an alternative political society. In short, the bourgeoisie are dominant, but not hegemonic.

The BJP’s ability to triangulate nation-state-people into a unified national fantasy, then, is countered by federalism and political societies, such as regional populist parties. But beyond these regional parties, Chatterjee argues that what is needed is a counter-narrative to Hindu nationalism’s claims to cultural homogeneity to bind regional mobilizations together in the center, “a vibrant federal republic.” Such a narrative would realign the relation between peoples-nation and nation-state by making it plural with “several civilizational narratives” (109).

In a strange twist, the very impossibility of unified India—the lack of hegemony—becomes a celebrated feature of India , integrated into the nation itself, rather than calling India into question. In their very impossibility, India’s constitution and democratic culture become redemptive, always already tolerant and inclusive. Chatterjee, therefore, reinscribes the very national fantasy he purports to critique by appropriating the fundamental deadlock in the national fantasy by making it plural and offering a more inclusive and hopeful narrative for India.

Following Chatterjee’s analysis, it is easy to see why the return of coalition politics was celebrated in the aftermath of the election. Coalition politics signals the possibility for coalescing a counter-narrative of peoples-nation and, therefore, a renewed sense of hope that functions within the Indian National Symbolic, no matter India’s sordid history. As Shruti Kapila stated , there was “new-found excitement at the return to old-style political jockeying.” The return of the old India thus becomes the promise of the new India. For Chatterjee , too, “It is time to restore [coalition politics] to its proper place at the centre of our political life.” Restoration and return signal hope for a better India to come—one that was always there.

Chatterjee, therefore, reinscribes the very national fantasy he purports to critique by appropriating the fundamental deadlock in the national fantasy by making it plural and offering a more inclusive and hopeful narrative for India.

Against this hopeful excitement that creates a theoretical distinction between people and state, one must ask: Why focus on “India” at all, especially when there are political movements that reject the idea of India and the fantasies it generates? Why, then, do academics continue to provide unifying narratives for India, reinscribing the aims of a nation-state? At what point do we have to rethink the constant attempt to narrate the history of the Indian nation-state-people(s)? Do we need only more robust histories of the diversity and tolerance of India and its constitution? Or do we have to question the very logic of history since the national imaginary cannot be reduced to historical content—plural or otherwise–but is, instead, history itself ? These are especially important questions since, as Rahul Rao writes, “Calls to protect the Constitution cannot mean much to those who do not wish to be governed by it – unless the Constitution can contemplate a process by which it will no longer be applicable to unwilling subjects.”

Recall that this is a constitution that has entrenched India’s colonial occupation of Kashmir and cemented the second-class citizenship status of Muslims in India. In an article written before he was arrested, the Muslim activist who was involved with the anti-CAA and anti-NRC protests in India, Sharjeel Imam, writes of how the “dismal figures among Muslims in relation to poverty, education, employment and political representation clearly demonstrate the lack of foresight regarding the minority issue during the constitution-making process.” He says that this occurred because of the articulation of the country as Bharat (a geographic imaginary derived from Sanskrit texts), which “reflects an exclusively Hindu imagination of Indian history” as well as the lack of safeguards for Muslims in terms of representation, cow protection, and finally, the definition of “schedule castes,” which excluded Muslims and led them to “further impoverishment, as they are hardly supported by any relevant programs for affirmative action at the central state level.” The very foundational moment of India then is premised on exclusion and the binding together of people-nation-state, even if scholars try to imagine otherwise. This binding reveals that the very distinction between the “state” and “political society” that makes it possible to locate hope in the latter is difficult to sustain.

Communalism and Coalition Politics

Another recurrent theme amid the celebrations was that the election revealed the limits of communal politics—a politics embodied by Modi and the BJP. During Modi’s re-election campaign, he repeatedly made a number of remarks against Muslims in India, accusing them of being “infiltrators” that depleted resources available to Hindus in order to galvanize his Hindu base. Against this Hindu-nationalist ideology, the return to coalition politics came to be seen as a return to an earlier and more tolerant secularism.

A wider historical view reveals anti-Muslim or minority hate or policies in India are not the sole property of the BJP; such exclusion has defined Indian politics since 1947. The Congress Party has engaged in communalism, and served as a source of violence or domination for minorities, including Muslims, Dalits, and Sikhs, or the occupied in Kashmir. During the election, the Indian National Congress did not directly address the Muslim question in India. In the press conference after election results came out, Rahul Gandhi thanked “the poor and marginalised people who came out to save the constitution. Workers, farmers, Dalits, adivasis [Indigenous] and backwards have helped save this constitution.” It was not lost on Muslims that they were not mentioned, despite the country’s 200 million Muslims coming out in droves to vote for the INDIA alliance, led by the Congress Party. The situation in India is such that an opposition party, ostensibly a party that is against the BJP, cannot even mention Muslims or address their fears and concerns, knowing that it will isolate India’s predominantly Hindu population.

A wider historical view reveals anti-Muslim or minority hate or policies in India are not the sole property of the BJP; such exclusion has defined Indian politics since 1947.

Anthropologist Irfan Ahmad told Al Jazeera English , “Since 2014, this electoral circus has passionately been staging Muslims as a threat against which people are asked to vote. While the BJP issues the threat openly, the non-BJP parties do implicitly: That is by remaining silent. No party has the courage to talk about the violence done to the Muslims.” Sikhs, too, have been violently targeted. Yet this violence was met with silence in the election across India even with the continued criminalization of dissent , arbitrary detentions of foreign nationals , as well as state-orchestrated murder abroad .

Yet a politics of hope that centers an Indian national fantasy means that amidst the flurry of pieces in the wake of the elections, no demands were made of the Congress party or the INDIA alliance to take stock of its communal past and present. Instead, the past and future of India always redeems the violent exclusions in the present. We must ask: If hope remains tethered to an Indian future, is the current iteration of anti-Hindutva politics rooted in a concern for the oppressed and the excluded? If so, how does such a politics contend with the Indian National Congress and India’s “secular” or “liberal” political formations without further entrenching an Indian national fantasy? To be sure, many privileged, upper caste liberal Indians have been embarrassed by the authoritarianism and Hindu nationalism of the prime minister who has harmed the national fantasy of a “democratic India.” The hope that stems from the election is particularly powerful and seductive for them since it keeps alive the “ Incredible India” brand as it provides a route to self-correction: India can return to its original promise, improvements can once again be made.

Against hope, then, it might be time to interrogate these fantasies. If citizenship is marked by exclusions and colonial inclusions (Kashmir, Sikhs, and others), rather than formal granting and the creation of political societies, then India’s impossibility cannot be redeemed in coalition politics or counter-narratives. If violent exclusion and then forceful integration is at the center of India, why does it and its constitution remain the desirous object of history? How can one detach oneself from a hope and world that is not working? To detach oneself is not to escape fantasy altogether. To undo the world while making another, Berlant writes, “requires fantasy to motor programs of action, to distort the present on behalf of what the present can become” (263). But the fantasies generated by the Indian National Symbolic serve to install a singular vision of politics by seamlessly binding together the present with past and future in the promise of tolerance that always eludes.

[1] We draw here from Lauren Berlant, The Queen of America Goes to Washington City: Essays on Sex and Citizenship and Manu Goswami, Producing India From Colonial Economy to National Space .

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