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100s of Free Human Rights Law Dissertation Topics and Titles

Published by Grace Graffin at January 6th, 2023 , Revised On May 17, 2024

Introduction

Writing a dissertation is a long process that requires good research skills and decent expertise in the field. Depending on the researcher’s university’s academic requirements, some different prerequisites and requirements should be fulfilled before writing the dissertation (thesis).

For instance, the supervisor may ask the researcher to provide a dissertation proposal with topics based on current legal trends. Once the dissertation topic is approved, the researcher will have to provide the supervisor with the research aim and problem statement alongside a good methodology .

Human Rights Law Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: how the social rights of immigrants are protected under international human rights law: a primary investigation in the uk.

Research Aim: The research will aim to investigate the protection of the social rights of immigrants given in international law in the UK. Many human rights contracts clearly forbid discrimination centred on state origin and want states to guarantee that immigrants’ human rights are treated equally. Moreover, immigrants, like other particularly vulnerable groups, have been granted additional safeguards under international law to address situations in which their rights are most in danger, such as employment. The research will focus on the immigrants and their social rights in the UK.

Topic 2: The role of social media apps in spreading awareness among youth about human right

Research Aim: The research will aim to explore the part social media plays in spreading awareness of human rights among the young. In today’s world, people use social media more than reading newspapers, and social media has also helped many people get justice. Young or old, every age group is active on social platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, etc., and these apps have brought a new way to learn things. So, this study will specifically focus on social media apps and how they are contributing in spreading awareness about human rights among people.

Topic 3: What obstacles do international human rights policies encounter in terms of implementation? An academic review

Research Aim: The research will aim to investigate the challenges and problems international human rights face during implementation.  There are many factors that make it difficult to implement the policies in a country or an organisation. There should be solutions to the problems and challenges in the implementation of international human rights. This study will explore and explain the challenges and try to give solutions to tackle the challenges.

Topic 4: How are the rights of men being violated in the society? A human right perspective

Research Aim: The research aims to find the reason men’s rights are violated in society. Men’s rights are violated in society more often now. Men also get raped, beaten, killed without anyone questioning the abuser. Even after getting hit by a woman, people blame the man. Violence against males is a severe violation of human rights. The government’s role is to guard males from abuse, including domestic violence.

Topic 5: Define the rights to ethics, religion and life in the context of human rights law in US

Research Aim: The research will aim to define the basic human rights to culture, religion and life in the human rights law in the US. The research will explain the fundamental rights given to human beings, freedom of speech, and a thorough explanation of the human rights law article. The study will also describe the acts that violate fundamental human rights.

Topic 6: Investigating the impact of nationalist movements and ideologies on the rights of religious and ethnic minorities in India

Research Aim: The study investigates how nationalist movements and ideologies impact the rights of religious and ethnic minorities in India. It will also assess the role of governments in promoting or suppressing minority rights in such contexts.

Topic 7: Examining the rights and legal status of stateless persons who are forced to flee their countries of origin

Research Aim: The study aims to examine the rights and legal status of stateless persons who are forced to flee their countries of origin. This research will focus on the challenges they face in accessing protection and assistance in the absence of citizenship.

Topic 8: Investigating the tension between national security concerns and the protection of refugee rights

This research explores the tension between national security concerns and the protection of refugee rights. It discusses the context of border control policies, immigration detention, and anti-terrorism measures.

COVID-19 Human Rights Law Research Topics

Impacts of coronavirus on human rights.

Research Aim: This study will highlight the impacts of Coronavirus on human rights.

International human rights law and COVID-19

Research Aim: This study will address the current pandemic crisis and international human rights law status in response to COVID-19.

United Nations on human rights during COVID-19

Research Aim: This study will review the United Nations’ response to human rights for protecting human health and rights during COVID-19.

The role of National Human Rights Institutions during COVId-19

Research Aim: This study will highlight the role of National Human Rights Institutions during COVID-19.

Dissertation Topics in Human Rights Law and Society

Human Rights is an important area of the law inherent to all human beings, regardless of their race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, and other status forms. Human Rights can be seen as the most significant law area that has taken place since the end of the Second World War.

According to Rehman, even though the world has evolved over the years, human rights continue to be constrained and limited. Research in this particular area of the law is important to know its weaknesses and limitations in the 21st century.

This document contains a wide range of dissertation topics based on the area of Human Rights or Fundamental Rights. These topics provided by our PhD-qualified writers are based on the current legal trends, which tend to assess different topics related to Human Rights in the 21st Century.

Most of the themes provided have never been researched before, and a desk-based or comparative analysis approach is used to provide a meaningful contribution to human rights.

Some topics are aimed at the thesis, which should implement an international aspect of Human Rights. On the other hand, the other topics are focused on specific jurisdictions such as the United Kingdom or the European Union.

You can also start your dissertation by requesting a brief research proposal from our writers on any of these topics, including an introduction to the topic, research question , aim and objectives, literature review , and the proposed research methodology to be conducted. Let us know if you need any help in getting started.

Check our dissertation example to get an idea of how to structure your dissertation .

Review the step-by-step guide on how to write your own dissertation here .

Topic 1: An assessment of life imprisonment under the European Convention on Human Rights.

Research Aim: The research will be based on fundamental rights, more specifically on the European Convention on Human Rights. The research will use a desk-based approach to assess Article 3 of the ECHR, which prohibits inhuman or degrading treatment and punishment. The research critically assesses how the EU Member States deal with life imprisonment based on their domestic legislation.

Topic 2: Should prisoners be allowed to exercise their right to vote in a democratic society?

Research Aim: Disfranchisement is known as the revocation of the fundamental right to vote in a democratic society. The research will assess if there is a need to make the right to vote a basic fundamental right that can be exercised by prisoners. The research will use be a comparative assessment based on different jurisdictions.

Topic 3: The European Court Of Human Rights and its effectiveness amongst the EU member states

Research Aim: The research will assess the role of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) in safeguarding the rights of EU Citizens. The research will evaluate the EU Supremacy and its authority over the EU Member States regarding human rights. In this line, the research will demonstrate how The ECtHR should balance the EU Law’s fundamental rights and the Member State’s Constitution on fundamental rights.

Topic 4: The link between human rights and same-sex marriage

Research Aim: The Universal Declaration on Human Rights recognises same-sex marriage as a basic right to marriage. However, it can be seen that most countries do not recognise this right. The research will assess different jurisdictions where same-sex marriage is considered legal to enforce this right amongst the signatory countries.

Topic 5: Assessment of human rights in the workplace

Research Aim: Basic Human Rights, such as protection from slavery or inhuman treatment, are available under the Universal Declaration on Human Rights. However, the research will assess human rights’ employment, such as fair treatment, equal pay, and minimum wage. The research will use a comparative analysis to evaluate how different jurisdictions view human rights regarding employment.

Topic 6: The right to life and death penalty in the 21st century

Research Aim: The fundamental right to life is enshrined under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. On the other hand, the death penalty seems to be against the right to life and the protection of life preservation. The research will assess how to strike a balance between the right to life and capital punishment.

Topic 7: Should the death penalty be reinstated in the United Kingdom post-Brexit?

Research Aim: The 13th Protocol of the European Convention on Human Rights has prohibited the restoration of the United Kingdom’s death penalty since 2004. The research will assess if the United Kingdom should reinstate the death penalty after Brexit. Since the United Kingdom will leave the European Union, it will no longer be a party to the convention and will be able to reinstate the death penalty.

Topic 8: Social media and the right to hold an opinion

Research Aim: The research will assess if the current Freedom of Speech and the Right to hold an opinion is adequate to be used online. The research will demonstrate a need to reform the Universal Declaration on Human Rights for online use.

Topic 9: Should Article 14 of the Human Rights Act 1998 be amended to implement more protected characteristics?

Research Aim: Article 14 of the Human Rights 1998 has a minimal number of protected characteristics. Following Brexit, the United Kingdom nationals may lose the protection of the European Convention on Human Rights. In this line, the research will assess whether there is a need to review Article 14 of the Human Rights Act 1998.

Topic 10: Should Human Rights be ignored when taking counter-terrorism measures?

Research Aim: The research will assess if Human Rights should be overlooked when dealing with counter-terrorism measures. The research will aim to demonstrate if there is a need to protect a presumed or prospective terrorist’s basic human rights.

Topic 11: The EU Supremacy and the Constitutional Rights of the Member States

Research Aim: The EU Supremacy imposes authority and control over the EU Member States. In this line, a Member State should remove all conflicting laws that are incompatible with the EU Law. The research will assess the extent to which Member States have accepted the authority of the EU supremacy regarding human rights. In other words, the research will demonstrate if the European Convention on Human Rights has adequate fundamental rights for the Member States.

Topic 12: The importance of Human Rights in a democratic society

Research Aim: The research will assess the importance of human rights, which is a pivotal requirement for democracy. The research will use a comparative analysis of how fundamental rights have been adopted around the world. Furthermore, the research will assess how certain countries that do not follow the Universal Declaration on Human Rights may suffer from the lack of democratisation.

Topic 13: The role of courts in safeguarding fundamental rights in their domestic jurisdiction

Research Aim: The research will demonstrate the courts’ key role in safeguarding the fundamental rights enshrined in a country’s Constitution.

Topic 14: Does the General Data Protection Regulation Act as a Safeguard to the Basic Right To Privacy?

Research Aim: The research will assess the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and its safeguards regarding the right to privacy. The research demonstrates how the GDPR can have an important human rights aspect, such as when dealing with a consumer or an online user.

Topic 15: Should Countries Implement A Constitutional Court for Fundamental Rights Breaches?

Research Aim: The research will assess how each country deals with breaches of fundamental rights. The research aims to provide recommendations in implementing a higher domestic authority to treat only constitutional matters like the Constitutional Court of South Africa.

Topic 16: Can Torture Be Justified Under Human Rights?

Research Aim: Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides that no individual shall be subjected to torture. The research will assess whether torture can ever be justified under the law. For instance, the research will aim to demonstrate whether there are justifiable grounds to inflict torture on criminals in certain cases such as terrorism with the view of getting confessions.

Topic 17: CCTV Surveillance and the Right to Privacy

Research Aim: The Research will assess the use of CCTV surveillance and its effect on Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The research will demonstrate if covert surveillance can either undermine or positively affect the right to privacy. The research will further critically analyse the right to privacy against public policy for the common good.

Topic 18: The Need to Standardise Disability Rights around the World

Research Aim: The Research compares and contrasts different disability rights under certain jurisdictions. The research will assess whether there is a need to standardise disability rights under one convention or treaty.

Topic 19: Should the Right to Education Be Extended to Tertiary Education

Research Aim: The research will access the right to education as found under Article 26 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights. The right to education applies to only fundamental stages of education, such as primary and secondary education. The research will aim to demonstrate if the right to education should be extended to tertiary education.

Topic 20: The Role of Legislators and the Right to Education in the Sub-Saharan Region

Research Aim: The research will assess legislators’ role with regard to the right to education. The research will demonstrate whether Sustainable Development Goal No. 4 (SDG4) is implemented in various sub-Saharan regions. The research will prove whether legislators are implementing appropriate safeguards to remain in line with SDG4 and promote quality education.

How Can ResearchProspect Help?

ResearchProspect writers can send several custom topic ideas to your email address. Once you have chosen a topic that suits your needs and interests, you can order for our dissertation outline service , which will include a brief introduction to the topic, research questions , literature review , methodology , expected results , and conclusion . The dissertation outline will enable you to review the quality of our work before placing the order for our full dissertation writing service !

List of the Best Human Rights Law Dissertation Topics in Critical Issues

• An analysis of the link between human trafficking and armed conflict: trafficking for sexual exploitation and forced recruitment of child soldiers.
• The impact of technology on the protection of human rights in the digital age.
• Exploring the role of international criminal law in prosecuting human rights violations.
• The effectiveness of regional human rights mechanisms in addressing human rights abuses.
• Analysing the relationship between environmental law and human rights protection.
• Investigating the challenges and opportunities of implementing economic, social, and cultural rights.
• Examining the intersection of gender equality and human rights law.
• Assessing the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in advancing human rights agendas.
• The implications of counter-terrorism measures on human rights and civil liberties.

Important Notes:

As a human rights law student looking to get good grades, it is essential to develop new ideas and experiment with existing human rights law theories – i.e., to add value and interest to your research topic.

The field of human rights law is vast and interrelated to so many other academic disciplines like law , business law , cybercrime , and more. That is why it is imperative to create a human rights law dissertation topic that is particular and sound and actually solves a practical problem that may be rampant in the field.

We can’t stress how important it is to develop a logical research topic based on your entire research. There are several significant downfalls to getting your topic wrong: your supervisor may not be interested in working on it, the topic has no academic creditability, the research may not make logical sense, and there is a possibility that the study is not viable.

This impacts your time and efforts in writing your dissertation , as you may end up in a cycle of rejection at the initial stage of the dissertation. That is why we recommend reviewing existing research to develop a topic, taking advice from your supervisor, and even asking for help in this particular stage of your dissertation.

While developing a research topic, keeping our advice in mind will allow you to pick one of the best human rights law dissertation topics that fulfil your requirement of writing a research paper and add to the body of knowledge.

Therefore, it is recommended that when finalising your dissertation topic, you read recently published literature to identify gaps in the research that you may help fill.

Remember- dissertation topics need to be unique, solve an identified problem, be logical, and be practically implemented. Please look at some of our sample human rights law dissertation topics to get an idea for your own dissertation.

How to Structure Your Human Rights Law Dissertation

A well-structured dissertation can help students to achieve a high overall academic grade.

• A Title Page
• Acknowledgements
• Declaration
• Abstract: A summary of the research completed
• Table of Contents
• Introduction : This chapter includes the project rationale, research background, key research aims and objectives, and the research problems. An outline of the structure of a dissertation can also be added to this chapter.
• Literature Review : This chapter presents relevant theories and frameworks by analysing published and unpublished literature on the chosen research topic to address research questions . The purpose is to highlight and discuss the selected research area’s relative weaknesses and strengths whilst identifying any research gaps. Break down the topic and key terms that can positively impact your dissertation and your tutor.
• Methodology : The data collection and analysis methods and techniques employed by the researcher are presented in the Methodology chapter, which usually includes research desig n, research philosophy, research limitations, code of conduct, ethical consideration, data collection methods, and data analysis strategy .
• Findings and Analysis : The findings of the research are analysed in detail under the Findings and Analysis chapter. All key findings/results are outlined in this chapter without interpreting the data or drawing any conclusions. It can be useful to include graphs, charts, and tables in this chapter to identify meaningful trends and relationships.
• Discussion and Conclusion : The researcher presents his interpretation of the results in this chapter and states whether the research hypothesis has been verified or not. An essential aspect of this section of the paper is to link the results and evidence from the literature. Recommendations with regard to the implications of the findings and directions for the future may also be provided. Finally, a summary of the overall research, along with final judgments, opinions, and comments, must be included in the form of suggestions for improvement.
• References : This should be completed following your University’s requirements
• Bibliography
• Appendices : Any additional information, diagrams, and graphs used to complete the dissertation but not part of the dissertation should be included in the Appendices chapter. Essentially, the purpose is to expand the information/data.

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LL.M thesis topics

On this page you can find an overview of all our LL.M thesis topics or Master theses in English.

Do you want to write your LL.M thesis on a human rights topic? Choose one of these topics and contact the relevant supervisor. Do you want to write a Master thesis in English? First consult the Plato list.

All subjects in the domain of human rights or transitional justice in which the student applies a socio-legal perspective ann integrates a substantial empirical component (qualitative and/or quantitative) to examine the law “in practice”.

Across Europe and around the world, issues of memory and old monuments are being revisited. The shift of historical narratives resulted in the loss of social consensus about the past and interpretation of history. Since monuments are among the most visible expressions of history they have appeared in the middle of contestation and heated debates. […]

This research deals with the impact of prosecution of “minor offences” on people living in poverty in Europe. Through case studies (criminalization of beggars, SyRI case in the Netherlands etc. ), it explores whether minor offences – which are usually punished by outstanding fines with minimum procedural rights – are compatible with the ECHR (more […]

The sovereign debt crisis could have a direct impact on human rights, especially when they are framed within a programme of austerity, and tension between the ‘market justice’ and ‘social justice’ occurs. The aim of the thesis is to study the different human rights legal discourses surrounding the latest cases of sovereign debt restructurings.

Lately, the ‘Facebook Oversight Board’ and other private mechanisms of human rights accountability have been established. The Oversight Board of Facebook was created to review the lawfulness of certain ‘emblematic’ content moderation decisions taken by the social media platform. The Board comprises 20 representatives of civil society, including academics, human rights experts, and journalists. It […]

Regional human rights courts can organize so-called fact-finding missions when confronted with human rights violations. Both the Inter-American and African Court of Human Rights may, if necessary, organize such missions when confronted with cases involving gross and/or large-scale violations of human rights, while the European Court of Human Rights seems to have become rather  reticent […]

Human rights defenders around the world are being killed, especially in Latin-American countries. How is the Inter-American human rights system responding to this cruel reality?

During the past years worldwide human rights defenders are being targeted for doing their job. Such attacks may be of a physical, but also of a psychological nature, and they may target the human rights defenders themselves and/or their families. This study aims to evaluatie what kinds of legal mechanisms exist under international law, i.e. […]

Particular focus on Myanmar/Sri Lanka or Cambodia. Language requirement ENG.

Focus on the Mediterranean or boat pushbacks in Southeast Asia. Language requirement Eng.

Study of the marginalisation of certain regions in the TJ process, looking into the importance of socio-economic rights in ICL. Language requirement ENG.

In 2010 Marie-Benedicte Dembour published an article entitled ‘What are Human Rights? Four Schools of Thought’ in Human Rights Quarterly. Her model posits that we do not all conceive of human rights in the same way, but that there are four main conceptions of human rights. She proposes that those who hold a ‘natural’ view […]

The summer of 2015 saw Europe hit by a refugee crisis – or some commentators say – more accurately a crisis in refugee protection. Marie-Benedicte Dembour asserts in an article forthcoming in Questions of International Law that, due to the relative weakness of its past jurisprudence concerning migrants’ rights, the European Court of Human Rights […]

Judges have to act in an impartial manner while deciding cases. The research will examine the breadth of the right to freedom of expression of judges from a cross-cutting international and regional human rights perspective, with possibly a case study.

Suggested by and with cosupervision from PICUM, the Platform for International Cooperation on Undocumented Migrants. How does the package, comprised of the Council’s Facilitation Directive and the Framework Decision, impact undocumented children and families’ ability to secure adequate housing? This research would (i) look at the EU and national legal framework criminalising landlords renting to […]

For many centuries, citizenship has been regarded as the highest degree of affiliation between an individual and a ‘self-governing’ political community’. However, in the last years, the development of programs around the globe are seeking to attract flows of foreign capital by different incentives, including granting legal membership with society in exchange for diverse types […]

During the past decades social rights have become more prominently part of legal studies. However, most studies deal with substantial violations of social rights. This study takes a procedural turn by looking at the instrument of interim measures awarded by international monitoring bodies, thereby focussing on the different UN Treaty Bodies and regional human rights […]

In present-day society indigenous peoples are one of the most vulnerable groups. This study assesses to what extent such groups can rely on interim measures before international human rights monitoring bodies, both at the UN and regional level and to what extent such measures effectively protect their rights.

Worldwide, but especially in the America’s, women human rights defenders are being targeted. Such attacks may be of a physical, but also of a psychological nature, and they may target the human rights defenders themselves and/or their families. This study aims to evaluatie what legal mechanisms are available in the ambit of the Inter-American Human […]

Could be further narrowed down to a particular focus on the UN, European or Inter-American standards of protection. Language requirement ENG & Spanish.

‘Universal jurisdiction’ is a principle of international law based on the recognition that certain crimes are so horrific that they affect the international community as a whole. Universal jurisdiction is therefore a key component in the fight against impunity. This thesis will analyze specific recent cases (for example, concerning Syria) where the principle of universal […]

Study of development of strategic litigation, the possibilities and limitations of using this approach. Language requirement ENG & Spanish.

Case study of the Tunisian court establised to adjudicate cases related to gross violations of human rights. Language requirement ENG.

This thesis will explore the interaction of the United States with the Inter-American System. In particular, it will analyse the Inter-American approach regarding migrants who are minors.

The research should focus on a legal analysis of Strasburg case law on history, when the Court was asked to rule on the so-called ‘historical situations’ (to bring justice to those accused of war crimes, to protect the rights of mass atrocities victims and their relatives, to deal with Holocaust and genocide deniers, to punish […]

Needless to say, having evidence being declared inadmissible can be devastating to a case. Two cases which ended up before the European Court of Human Rights due to the inadmissibility being contested are Cwik v Poland and R.B. v Estoni. In Cwik, the ECtHR agreed that the tape of the interrogation by a gang of […]

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Human Rights Thesis by Abdeta Emana

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HUMAN RIGHTS: BETWEEN UNIVERSALISM AND CULTURAL RELATIVISM

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The concept of human rights over time has gained popularity and recognition. It has been observed that the evolution of human rights in the present era has aroused a lot of debate and controversy as regard its justification and applicability to a human being, by virtue of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the United Nations Conference in Vienna 1993. These international treaties reconfirmed the validity of the universality of human rights, which has attracted criticizing from cultural relativist scholars like Renteln that it is based on western origin. This paper adopted the doctrinal and analytical research method in examining cultural relativist views such as Renteln's argument on the Universality of Human Rights and Cultural Relativism if Universalism of Human Rights is Western Imperialism? Weakness and Challenges of cultural relativist View on human rights. It was therefore recommended that, in order to end the endless arguments on whether or not human rights are universal, there is a need to convene an international forum where at least a more significant number percentage of nations can form a quorum in resolving the issue.

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The consolidation of relations of global society requires the progressive establishment of a global legal system, consisting of a system of rules-precisely, human rights-as the source and evaluation criteria of positive national rights. This essay aims to contribute to some extent using reflective dialectical methodology, establishing logical-argumentative criteria, based on the dialogue between authors to exercise a critical reflection of the official narrative on the universality of human rights, in addition overcoming the universalism/relativism dichotomy eurocentricaly established by a theory of human rights between universalism and cultural relativism. Introdution There are strong criticisms of the attempts to create a world political order based on the defense of human rights, allowing international organizations and major powers to implement a centralized policy of "humanitarian" intervention, situated above the sovereignty of States, using even of war resources if necessary. In this line of argument, there are those who accuse the West of using "human rights rhetoric" to cover up their true political and economic interests and, through that discourse, impose its policies on the rest of the world. The process leading to the creation and consolidation of human rights is contemporary to the expansion of Europe and the West over the whole world and inextricably linked to this process and its contradictions. If, in the so-called West, the consolidation of some fundamental rights was the result of many struggles and conflicts and wars, non-European countries excluded from this process since the beginning and not infrequently participated as victims. The approach to the issue of human rights comes as a more tortuous issue to jurists faced with dilemmas that have assumed an enormous degree of importance with the intra-frontier and international community and which, at the same time, have not yet achieved unity of thought that allows its organization to ensure universal protection. It is, therefore, relevant to the establishment of a set of universal human rights to try to find, at least, a minimum set of guarantees capable of assuring the dignity of the human person. The very notion of dignity is problematic for the solution of this impasse, as each country, and within each of these countries, each culture sheltered by them, tends to establish its own conception of human dignity. To discuss a theory of human rights necessarily leads to a reference to the juridical theory of this class of rights, enshrined by a range of treaties, conventions and

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The Global Campus Human Rights Journal (GCHRJ) is established as a peer-reviewed bi-annual publication dedicated to serving as a forum for rigorous scholarly analysis and critical commentary in the fields of human rights and democratisation at the local, national, regional and global levels. We particularly encourage multi- and inter-disciplinary perspectives and a range of methodological approaches. GCHRJ also aims to foster interdisciplinary dialogue and collaboration between stakeholders, including academics, activists in human rights and democratisation, NGOs and civil society. GCHRJ is an open access journal published under the auspices of the Global Campus of Human Rights and supported financially by the European Union.

Awarded Masters’ Theses

Every year the regional master’s programmes also select the best master thesis of the previous academic year that is published online as part of the GC publications. The selected seven GC master theses cover a range of different international human rights topics and challenges. Adding to the GC master theses, are selections of Master’s theses which most Programmes award on a yearly basis (e.g. E.MA Awarded theses).

The reports constitute the chief result of the work of over a hundred of scholars gathered under the umbrella of FRAME project researching the means to foster human rights among European policies. FRAME was a large-scale, collaborative research project (2013-2017) funded under the EU’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) coordinated by the Leuven Centre for Global Governance Studies and conducted by 19 research institutes from around the world.

The European Yearbook on Human Rights adopts a holistic, critical perspective on recent developments in the area of human rights, particularly in Europe. It contains extensive sections on the three main organisations charged with securing human rights in Europe: EU, Council of Europe and OSCE. The Yearbook also typically addresses the role of civil society in human rights protection and covers a broad range of other multidisciplinary topics. The impressive array of authors – academics and diplomats, practitioners and human rights experts – makes the Yearbook essential reading for anyone interested in human rights in Europe and beyond.

The Global Campus Open Knowledge Repository is a digital service that collects, preserves, and distributes all digital materials resulting from the rich and varied production of the Global Campus of Human Rights. It is an ever-growing collection which aims to give visibility to our research outputs, educational content, and multimedia materials; sustain open access for knowledge transfer; and foster communication within and beyond academia.

Publications by GC Scholars

Scholars affiliated with the Global Campus participating universities regularly publish monographies, anthologies and journal articles on topics related to human rights and democracy. An overview of selected recent publications can be found at our recent publications section.

The academic year 2016/2017 marked the 20 th anniversary of EMA cooperation, which was initiated in 1997 in the context of the UN Decade for Human Rights Education. The anniversary publication 20 Years of EMA celebrates this remarkable accomplishment with a rich collection of articles, photos, testimony by contributors and beneficiaries of this innovative and influential undertaking.

Seven Theses on Human Rights: (1) The Idea of Humanity

by Costas Douzinas | 16 May 2013

If ‘humanity’ is the normative source of moral and legal rules, do we know what ‘humanity’ is? Important philosophical and ontological questions are involved here. Let me have a brief look at its history.

Pre-modern societies did not develop a comprehensive idea of the human species. Free men were Athenians or Spartans, Romans or Carthaginians, but not members of humanity; they were Greeks or barbarians, but not humans. According to classical philosophy, a teleologically determined human nature distributes people across social hierarchies and roles and endows them with differentiated characteristics. The word humanitas appeared for the first time in the Roman Republic as a translation of the Greek word paideia. It was defined as eruditio et institutio in bonas artes (the closest modern equivalent is the German Bildung ). The Romans inherited the concept from Stoicism and used it to distinguish between the homo humanus, the educated Roman who was conversant with Greek culture and philosophy and was subjected to the jus civile , and the homines barbari, who included the majority of the uneducated non-Roman inhabitants of the Empire. Humanity enters the western lexicon as an attribute and predicate of homo , as a term of separation and distinction. For Cicero as well as the younger Scipio, humanitas implies generosity, politeness, civilization, and culture and is opposed to barbarism and animality. 1 Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (New York: Viking Press, 1965), 107. “Only those who conform to certain standards are really men in the full sense, and fully merit the adjective ‘human’ or the attribute ‘humanity.’” 2 B.L. Ullman, “What are the Humanities?” Journal of Higher Education 17/6 (1946), at 302. Hannah Arendt puts it sarcastically: ‘a human being or homo in the original meaning of the word indicates someone outside the range of law and the body politic of the citizens, as for instance a slave – but certainly a politically irrelevant being.’ 3 H.C. Baldry, The Unity of Mankind in Greek Thought , (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1965), 201.

If we now turn to the political and legal uses of humanitas , a similar history emerges. The concept ‘humanity’ has been consistently used to separate, distribute, and classify people into rulers, ruled, and excluded. ‘Humanity’ acts as a normative source for politics and law against a background of variable inhumanity. This strategy of political separation curiously entered the historical stage at the precise point when the first proper universalist conception of humanitas emerged in Christian theology, captured in the St Paul’s statement, that there is no Greek or Jew, man or woman, free man or slave (Epistle to the Galatians 3:28). All people are equally part of humanity because they can be saved in God’s plan of salvation and, secondly, because they share the attributes of humanity now sharply differentiated from a transcended divinity and a subhuman animality. For classical humanism, reason determines the human: man is a zoon logon echon or animale rationale . For Christian metaphysics, on the other hand, the immortal soul, both carried and imprisoned by the body, is the mark of humanity. The new idea of universal equality, unknown to the Greeks, entered the western world as a combination of classical and Christian metaphysics.

The divisive action of ‘humanity’ survived the invention of its spiritual equality. Pope, Emperor, Prince, and King, these representatives and disciples of God on earth were absolute rulers. Their subjects, the sub-jecti or sub-diti , take the law and their commands from their political superiors. More importantly, people will be saved in Christ only if they accept the faith, since non-Christians have no place in the providential plan. This radical divide and exclusion founded the ecumenical mission and proselytizing drive of Church and Empire. Christ’s spiritual law of love turned into a battle cry: let us bring the pagans to the grace of God, let us make the singular event of Christ universal, let us impose the message of truth and love upon the whole world. The classical separation between Greek (or human) and barbarian was based on clearly demarcated territorial and linguistic frontiers. In the Christian empire, the frontier was internalized and split the known globe diagonally between the faithful and the heathen. The barbarians were no longer beyond the city as the city expanded to include the known world. They became ‘enemies within’ to be appropriately corrected or eliminated if they stubbornly refused spiritual or secular salvation.

The meaning of humanity after the conquest of the ‘New World’ was vigorously contested in one of the most important public debates in history. In April 1550, Charles V of Spain called a council of state in Valladolid to discuss the Spanish attitude towards the vanquished Indians of Mexico. The philosopher Ginés de Sepulveda and the Bishop Bartholomé de las Casas, two major figures of the Spanish Enlightenment, debated on opposite sides. Sepulveda, who had just translated Aristotle’s Politics into Spanish, argued that “the Spaniards rule with perfect right over the barbarians who, in prudence, talent, virtue, humanity are as inferior to the Spaniards as children to adults, women to men, the savage and cruel to the mild and gentle, I might say as monkey to men.” 4 Ginés de Sepulveda, Democrates Segundo of De las Justas Causa de la Guerra contra los Indios (Madrid: Institute Fransisco de Vitoria, 1951), 33 quoted in Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America trans. Richard Howard (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 153.  The Spanish crown should feel no qualms in dealing with Indian evil. The Indians could be enslaved and treated as barbarian and savage slaves in order to be civilized and proselytized.

Las Casas disagreed. The Indians have well-established customs and settled ways of life, he argued, they value prudence and have the ability to govern and organize families and cities. They have the Christian virtues of gentleness, peacefulness, simplicity, humility, generosity, and patience, and are waiting to be converted. They look like our father Adam before the Fall, wrote las Casas in his Apologia, they are ‘unwitting’ Christians. In an early definition of humanism, las Casas argued that “all the people of the world are humans under the only one definition of all humans and of each one, that is that they are rational … Thus all races of humankind are one.” 5 Bartholomé de las Casas, Obras Completas , Vol. 7 (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1922), 536–7.  His arguments combined Christian theology and political utility. Respecting local customs is good morality but also good politics: the Indians would convert to Christianity (las Casas’ main concern) but also accept the authority of the Crown and replenish its coffers, if they were made to feel that their traditions, laws, and cultures are respected. But las Casas’ Christian universalism was, like all universalisms, exclusive. He repeatedly condemned “Turks and Moors, the veritable barbarian outcasts of the nations” since they cannot be seen as “unwitting” Christians. An “empirical” universalism of superiority and hierarchy (Sepulveda) and a normative one of truth and love (las Casas) end up being not very different. As Tzvetan Todorov pithily remarks, there is “violence in the conviction that one possesses the truth oneself, whereas this is not the case for others, and that one must furthermore impose that truth on those others.” 6 Todorov, The Conquest of America 166, 168.

The conflicting interpretations of humanity by Sepulveda and las Casas capture the dominant ideologies of Western empires, imperialisms, and colonialisms. At one end, the (racial) other is inhuman or subhuman. This justifies enslavement, atrocities, and even annihilation as strategies of the civilizing mission. At the other end, conquest, occupation, and forceful conversion are strategies of spiritual or material development, of progress and integration of the innocent, naïve, undeveloped others into the main body of humanity.

These two definitions and strategies towards otherness act as supports of western subjectivity. The helplessness, passivity, and inferiority of the “undeveloped” others turns them into our narcissistic mirror-image and potential double. These unfortunates are the infants of humanity. They are victimized and sacrificed by their own radical evildoers; they are rescued by the West who helps them grow, develop and become our likeness. Because the victim is our mirror image, we know what his interest is and impose it “for his own good.” At the other end, the irrational, cruel, victimizing others are projections of the Other of our unconscious. As Slavoj Žižek puts it, “there is a kind of passive exposure to an overwhelming Otherness, which is the very basis of being human … [the inhuman] is marked by a terrifying excess which, although it negates what we understand as ‘humanity’ is inherent to being human.” 7 Slavoj Žižek, “Against Human Rights 56,” New Left Review (July–August 2005), 34.  We have called this abysmal other lurking in the psyche and unsettling the ego various names: God or Satan, barbarian or foreigner, in psychoanalysis the death drive or the Real. Today they have become the “axis of evil,” the “rogue state,” the “bogus refugee,” or the “illegal” migrant. They are contemporary heirs to Sepulveda’s “monkeys,” epochal representatives of inhumanity.

A comparison of the cognitive strategies associated with the Latinate humanitas and the Greek anthropos is instructive. The humanity of humanism (and of the academic Humanities) 8 Costas Douzinas, “For a Humanities of Resistance,” Critical Legal Thinking, December 7, 2010, https://www.criticallegalthinking.com/2010/12/07/for-a-humanities-of-resistance/ unites knowing subject and known object following the protocols of self-reflection. The anthropos of physical and social anthropology, on the other hand, is the object only of cognition. Physical anthropology examines bodies, senses, and emotions, the material supports of life. Social anthropology studies diverse non-western peoples, societies, and cultures, but not the human species in its essence or totality. These peoples emerged out of and became the object of observation and study through discovery, conquest, and colonization in the new world, Africa, Asia, or in the peripheries of Europe. As Nishitani Osamu puts it, humanity and anthropos signify two asymmetrical regimes of knowledge. Humanity is civilization, anthropos is outside or before civilization. In our globalized world, the minor literatures of anthropos are examined by comparative literature, which compares “civilization” with lesser cultures.

The gradual decline of Western dominance is changing these hierarchies. Similarly, the disquiet with a normative universalism, based on a false conception of humanity, indicates the rise of local, concrete, and context-bound normativities.

In conclusion, because ‘humanity’ has no fixed meaning, it cannot act as a source of norms. Its meaning and scope keeps changing according to political and ideological priorities. The continuously changing conceptions of humanity are the best manifestations of the metaphysics of an age. Perhaps the time has come for anthropos to replace the human. Perhaps the rights to come will be anthropic (to coin a term) rather than human, expressing and promoting singularities and differences instead of the sameness and equivalences of hitherto dominant identities.

Cos­tas Douz­i­nas is Pro­fessor of Law and Dir­ector of the Birk­beck Insti­tute for the Human­it­ies, Uni­ver­sity of London.

• 1 Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (New York: Viking Press, 1965), 107.
• 2 B.L. Ullman, “What are the Humanities?” Journal of Higher Education 17/6 (1946), at 302.
• 3 H.C. Baldry, The Unity of Mankind in Greek Thought , (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1965), 201.
• 4 Ginés de Sepulveda, Democrates Segundo of De las Justas Causa de la Guerra contra los Indios (Madrid: Institute Fransisco de Vitoria, 1951), 33 quoted in Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America trans. Richard Howard (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 153.
• 5 Bartholomé de las Casas, Obras Completas , Vol. 7 (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1922), 536–7.
• 6 Todorov, The Conquest of America 166, 168.
• 7 Slavoj Žižek, “Against Human Rights 56,” New Left Review (July–August 2005), 34.
• 8 Costas Douzinas, “For a Humanities of Resistance,” Critical Legal Thinking, December 7, 2010, https://www.criticallegalthinking.com/2010/12/07/for-a-humanities-of-resistance/

12 Comments

Good morning Costas! Does the problem lie, as you write, with “the idea of humanity”? Or does it instead lie with isolating and examining the history of ANY social or ethical concept in this step-by-step way? Is there any meaningful normative concept for which we can NOT perform the same kind of history, only to find that it, too, rests on millennia of manipulation, hierarchy and oppression? Suppose I do the same kind of geneology of the concept of “liberation”, or “tolerance”, or “cosmopolitanism”, or “open-mindedness”, or “love”, or “altruism”, or “empathy”, or “non-discrimination”, or “receptiveness”, or indeed even “revolution”. Won’t I obviously get the same kind of result? Does the history of a concept equate with some a priori meaning and necessary destiny? Are we no longer active agents over the concepts we use? Are we no longer able to intervene in history? Perhaps the concept of “human rights” collapses because ANY axiomatised ethical system collapses. Any ethics is always manipulable. Can we, or rather should we try, to imagine some “purer” one that isn’t? Isn’t “purity” the most manipulable notion of all? After Wittgenstein and Heidegger, can any analysis of such a deeply political concept as “humanity” really be plucked out and placed under a historical microscope in such a straightforward way? Is the problem, then, that any isolation of such a concept will inevitably deliver the same result, namely, a necessarily contingent history, which is then presented as a priori and unalterable? Doesn’t this style of analysis fall into the binarist trap it seeks to overcome, namely, of opposing a faulty concept to some un-stated assumption of an impeccable one, a “pure” one? I might even stray so far as to argue that injustice is not, as this analysis suggests, the opposite of justice, but rather its constant product. Hugs from Eric.

PS: As to the conclusion, “Per­haps the rights to come will be anthropic (to coin a term) rather than human, express­ing and pro­mot­ing sin­gu­lar­it­ies and dif­fer­ences instead of the same­ness and equi­val­ences of hitherto dom­in­ant identities.” But don’t countless philosophies promise to “express­ and pro­mot­e sin­gu­lar­it­ies and dif­fer­ences instead of the same­ness and equi­val­ences.” (Some might call it the stock formula of run-of-the-mill liberalism!) How, then, will the “anthropic” avoid the fate of the “human” as narrated here? E

A small historical aside; in a legend recorded in Mesopotamian literature, the Akkadian king Naram Sin is engaged in a battle with the ‘Umman Manda’, incredibly powerful creatures of distinct physiognomy. Wondering if they are humans, he orders one of his officials to try and hit them to see if they bleed and are humans. Indeed, one of the proposed etymologies for their name is ‘humans? maybe’. I guess this shows how ancient is our preoccupation with ‘humanity’ and ‘human nature.’

IT IS DIFFERENT FROM OTHER , ACCORDING TO HUMAN NATURE IT FULFILL ALL THINGS

And what of the ancient Greek word ἄνθρωπος?

“Human­ity is civil­iz­a­tion, anthro­pos is out­side or before civil­iz­a­tion.”

I don’t think that is how the Greeks used ἄνθρωπος at all. And what about the Greek concept of ‘mortals’ (βροτῶν), which includes men both inside and outside civilization. See Book 6 of the Odyssey (for example): ὤ μοι ἐγώ, τέων αὖτε βροτῶν ἐς γαῖαν ἱκάνω; ἦ ῥ᾽ οἵ γ᾽ ὑβρισταί τε καὶ ἄγριοι οὐδὲ δίκαιοι, ἦε φιλόξεινοι καί σφιν νόος ἐστὶ θεουδής;

Plato uses ἄνθρωπος a lot, but he certainly does NOT use it to mean ‘outside or before civilization’.

Can you give examples of where the Greeks used the word this way?

Dingus: Brilliant, and probative, point about Plato. I would argue that Plato has no real concept of “civilisation” at all, and certainly not in the way Aristotle does, or in the way early European modernity would later develop. Aristotle tells what we would today call an “Enlightenment narrative”, clearly referring to “primitive” and “advanced” stages of human society (with Greeks at the summit), and he repeats that point constantly. Plato, by contrast, tends to narrate history far more sceptically (or, as in Τίμαιος, cyclically).

Plato certainly (perhaps self-parodically) constructs notions of superior and inferior humans (infamously in Πολιτεία), but mostly in his oddly meritocratic scheme. He discusses differences between Greeks and non-Greeks, but never in Aristotle’s stringent, emphatic terms, nor does he really share Aristotle’s categorical notions of natural slaves. (Nor of women’s inferiority. After all, a woman can in theory become a philosopher ruler.)

And remember the “mere slave” who performs an extended dialectical operation in Μένων), of the type Plato thought appropriate only to philosophers. Curiously, then, Plato (even if he does pointedly ask whether that slave “speaks Greek”) does not so rigidly construct notions of humanity or civilisation in ethnic terms.

Thanks very much for your observation. Eric

I was thinking about the slave in Meno the other day. It’s a really remarkable and beautiful passage. I don’t think I understand the dialogue – or how that scene in particular fits into the whole corpus – but it would be a rich topic of research re: natural equality. It’s always unclear what Plato is actually saying and how much is ironic or eristic.

Really, the concept “Greek” is not really clear in a lot of ancient sources. It’s definitely non-existent in Homer. When Odysseus shows up somewhere, he doesn’t wonder ‘are they Greeks or not?’, he wonders if they are good to strangers and respect the gods (that is, civilization is defined ethically, not ethnically).

Hello again. I think there’s no doubt that Plato has a strong notion of dialectic as non-eristic (although we could certainly doubt its plausibility!), as emerges, for example, in the contrast with speech-making in Πρωταγόρας. Arguably the criticism of Plato in those “pure” dialectical passages is not against its dialectical artifice per se, but against its dialogical artifice — Socrates makes every point, and the interlocutor mostly just agrees (although I think that pattern does become a bit more complex in some passages in the other dialogues). So many have argued that Plato lacks any real notion of a participatory dialectic, i.e., that his dialectic is really just a monologue. That criticism will later come back to haunt figures as different as Aquinas, Hegel, and, I think, at least some of Marx.

Part of the significance of the slave in Μένων might have to do with Plato’s constant sarcasm about Athenian democracy, and its “free” citizens, having sacrificed any interest in truth-seeking (and therefore in justice), by throwing it open to a “mob” who, within that populist and market-driven context, merely end up seeking individual gain, and end up, so to speak, “lost to truth”, and “lost” to its primary tool, i.e., dialectic.

The character Socrates certainly has a strong notion of dia­lectic as non-​eristic in some dialogues, but I’m hesitant to say what Plato’s position was. The way the dialogues are written seems to undermine the seemingly protreptic nature of the speeches. What do you make of the Euthydemus? Or the horribly unreliable narrator of the Symposium? It’s very unclear to me what Plato was doing.

In any case, the original blog post overstates its case against the Greeks and doesn’t provide evidence for its strong claims. I think it’s clear from Homer (to give one example) that there was an ancient conception of humanity that was not connected to ethnicity or ‘cultural superiority’. The split was between mortals and gods or man and beast. Even the Phaeacians, who are totally cut off from other people and compared to the Cyclops and Giants, are considered part of humanity.

Another (related) question is: how “Platonic” or “Aristotelian” was ancient Athens? How accepted were their ideas? There probably isn’t enough evidence to say.

What I do think is clear is that the ancient world – indeed, even Aristotle himself – was not “Aristotelian” in the same way as his Medieval followers (either Christian or Islamic).

G’morning again. Many 5th century Athenians certainly become chauvinist after the Persian wars. But with important dissenters. Plato, and probably Socrates, pokes fun at Athenian supremicism. They ironise it and parody it. And Plato, like Thucydides, certainly warns against its dangers, even seeing in it a crucial cause of Athens’s demise. Plato’s refusal to qualify Athenians, or even Greeks, as superior, in the categorical way that Aristotle does, is certainly no oversight.

(PS — I certainly agree that Plato and Aristotle do not play the role in Athens that they would later play in the Middle Ages, either in influence or in substance. The staunch democratic faction of Anytus and Meletus would have fallen dumbstruck reading Augustine and Aquinas!).

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5 Universities Where You Can Download Human Rights Theses for Free

Most university students are accustomed to finding research at their own university library, either online or physically hunting out research papers. Although many universities have a wealth of research available for their students, it is also well worth your time to expand your search to other universities which allow you to download research papers online. By expanding your research to other universities, you will be able to include a wider range of ideas in your own thesis. Furthermore, the breadth of human rights as an area of study requires very in-depth research which can be enhanced by studying theses from different universities. Here are a few universities which allow you to download whole theses for free.

University of Oxford, the United Kingdom

The University of Oxford is one of the top universities in the UK. The university has published substantial research as part of Oxford University Press, the largest university press in the world, since 1586. Oxford offers masters programmes in International Human Rights Law from a faculty which is comprised of internationally recognised human rights scholars and advocates. Needless to say, the research papers that are published are often of excellent quality and you can download many of them for free. Simply search for Oxford University Research Archive and from there you will be able to enter the topic of the research paper, such as Human Rights , and select Thesis under Item Type on the left-hand menu of the screen.

From here you will be able to download any paper that is marked with an open, green padlock. The papers with closed, red padlocks are currently under embargo and will ask you to request access. There is a varied selection of human rights papers that you can download instantly, and for free, including papers on women’s rights and globalisation of universal human rights in the Middle East. You can further refine your search by adding more filters in the left-hand menu which makes finding relevant theses quick and simple.

Yale University, the United States of America

This Ivy League University in Connecticut is globally recognized for both its university and law school and possesses the third largest academic library in the USA. For this reason, you can also find a lot of research online using their database EliScholar . Some items require login details for access, but many of the papers are available to download for free. Type human rights in the search bar and refine your search by adding specifications such as Theses/Dissertation which you can find under Publication Type on the left-hand search menu. You can also further refine your search based on Discipline and Keywords . Here you will find papers related to human rights such as women’s participation and the health of the community in Uttar Pradesh, India.

Yale university offers an undergraduate programme in human rights which is heavily career focused, connecting students with faculty peers who can support them with internship opportunities. The programme adopts a multidisciplinary approach including areas such as anthropology, area studies, law, literature, philosophy and political science, covering a range of aspects necessary for the study of global human rights. The human rights programme recognises the complexity and diversity of this area of study and, subsequently, produces world class research which you can access for free.

University College London, the United Kingdom

Ranking 10 th in the UK according to The Guardian University league tables for 2019 , University College London is another reputable source of human rights theses. The institute of human rights at UCL is multidisciplinary and promotes cutting edge research. They focus on interpretation and application of human rights both internationally and domestically contributing to UCL’s role as a global university.

Search for UCL discovery , enter Human Rights in the search menu and refine your search by selecting thesis under Type. The texts with an open green padlock are available to download for free. Here you will find full doctoral theses for example ‘ Should international human rights law be extended to apply to multinational corporations and other business entities?’ by Sabina Anne Espinoza. A doctoral thesis would provide a lot more information, compared to an undergraduate or master’s thesis, as most are around 200 pages long. You can also select Detailed Search from the left-hand menu to add specific details about the type of paper you are looking for and from here you can select Full text available in order to see only the papers that you can download for free.

University of Vienna (Universität Wien), Austria

The University of Vienna or Universität Wien also has an impressive database of theses available to download for free. You can access the database by searching for Universität Wien E-theses and selecting Search Repository . Here you can use the advanced search options to specify your topic.

This university offers a masters in Human Rights programme which accepts students from different personal and professional backgrounds allowing students to develop an international network which will be essential in future careers. The faculty is made up of human rights practitioners who have experience working in the field meaning research papers are based on real life knowledge. The programme also offers field experience in the post conflict situation in Kosovo as well as internship and research placements. Thus, the research papers produced by this faculty are of high quality as well as being easily accessible.

University of Toronto, Canada

Another very inclusive database has been created by the University of Toronto, which is ranked 21 st in the world according to The Times World University Rankings for 2019 . Search for the University of Toronto Tspace and from this page you can search for faculty and student research. Within the faculty of law, this University offers an International Human Rights programme. Since 1988, they have placed over 145 law students in internships in countries around the world. Students taking part in these internships have the opportunity to work with governmental and non-governmental organisations, which provides vital experience in the field of human rights.

This career focused programme has subsequently produced some thoroughly detailed papers such as ‘Recognizing a sustainable relationship between International Human Rights and International Trade Law in a pursuit to have human rights taken more seriously: A case study of the People’s Republic of China and the WTO’ by Jessica Crystal Antoine. This is one of the many papers you can access for free on Tspace by selecting the paper and clicking Download Thesis from the menu entitled Files on the right-hand side of the screen.

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• Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a milestone document in the history of human rights. Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds from all regions of the world, the Declaration was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948 ( General Assembly resolution 217 A ) as a common standard of achievements for all peoples and all nations. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected and it has been translated into over 500 languages . The UDHR is widely recognized as having inspired, and paved the way for, the adoption of more than seventy human rights treaties, applied today on a permanent basis at global and regional levels (all containing references to it in their preambles). 

Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,

Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,

Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,

Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,

Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,

Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms,

Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge,

Now, therefore,

The General Assembly,

Proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction. 

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.

No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.

Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.

Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.

• Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.
• No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

• Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state.
• Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.
• Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
• This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
• Everyone has the right to a nationality.
• No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.
• Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
• Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.
• The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.
• Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
• No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.

• Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
• No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
• Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.
• Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
• The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.

Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.

• Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
• Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
• Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection.
• Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.

Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.

• Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.
• Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
• Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
• Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
• Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.
• Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
• Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.

Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.

• Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible.
• In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.
• These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

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2023: UDHR turns 75

What is the Declaration of Human Rights? Narrated by Morgan Freeman.

UN digital ambassador Elyx animates the UDHR

To mark the 75th anniversary of the UDHR in December 2023, the United Nations has partnered once again with French digital artist YAK (Yacine Ait Kaci) – whose illustrated character Elyx is the first digital ambassador of the United Nations – on an animated version of the 30 Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

UDHR Illustrated

Read the Illustrated edition of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

UDHR in 80+ languages

Watch and listen to people around the world reading articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in more than 80 languages.

Women Who Shaped the Declaration

Women delegates from various countries played a key role in getting women’s rights included in the Declaration. Hansa Mehta of India (standing above Eleanor Roosevelt) is widely credited with changing the phrase "All men are born free and equal" to "All human beings are born free and equal" in Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

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Essay on Human Rights: Samples in 500 and 1500

• Updated on  
• Jun 20, 2024

Essay writing is an integral part of the school curriculum and various academic and competitive exams like IELTS , TOEFL , SAT , UPSC , etc. It is designed to test your command of the English language and how well you can gather your thoughts and present them in a structure with a flow. To master your ability to write an essay, you must read as much as possible and practise on any given topic. This blog brings you a detailed guide on how to write an essay on Human Rights , with useful essay samples on Human rights.

This Blog Includes:

The basic human rights, 200 words essay on human rights, 500 words essay on human rights, 500+ words essay on human rights in india, 1500 words essay on human rights, importance of human rights, essay on human rights pdf, what are human rights.

Human rights mark everyone as free and equal, irrespective of age, gender, caste, creed, religion and nationality. The United Nations adopted human rights in light of the atrocities people faced during the Second World War. On the 10th of December 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Its adoption led to the recognition of human rights as the foundation for freedom, justice and peace for every individual. Although it’s not legally binding, most nations have incorporated these human rights into their constitutions and domestic legal frameworks. Human rights safeguard us from discrimination and guarantee that our most basic needs are protected.

Also Read: Essay on Yoga Day

Also Read: Speech on Yoga Day

Before we move on to the essays on human rights, let’s check out the basics of what they are.

Also Read: What are Human Rights?

Also Read: 7 Impactful Human Rights Movies Everyone Must Watch!

Here is a 200-word short sample essay on basic Human Rights.

Human rights are a set of rights given to every human being regardless of their gender, caste, creed, religion, nation, location or economic status. These are said to be moral principles that illustrate certain standards of human behaviour. Protected by law , these rights are applicable everywhere and at any time. Basic human rights include the right to life, right to a fair trial, right to remedy by a competent tribunal, right to liberty and personal security, right to own property, right to education, right of peaceful assembly and association, right to marriage and family, right to nationality and freedom to change it, freedom of speech, freedom from discrimination, freedom from slavery, freedom of thought, conscience and religion, freedom of movement, right of opinion and information, right to adequate living standard and freedom from interference with privacy, family, home and correspondence.

Also Read: Law Courses

Check out this 500-word long essay on Human Rights.

Every person has dignity and value. One of the ways that we recognise the fundamental worth of every person is by acknowledging and respecting their human rights. Human rights are a set of principles concerned with equality and fairness. They recognise our freedom to make choices about our lives and develop our potential as human beings. They are about living a life free from fear, harassment or discrimination.

Human rights can broadly be defined as the basic rights that people worldwide have agreed are essential. These include the right to life, the right to a fair trial, freedom from torture and other cruel and inhuman treatment, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the right to health, education and an adequate standard of living. These human rights are the same for all people everywhere – men and women, young and old, rich and poor, regardless of our background, where we live, what we think or believe. This basic property is what makes human rights’ universal’.

Human rights connect us all through a shared set of rights and responsibilities. People’s ability to enjoy their human rights depends on other people respecting those rights. This means that human rights involve responsibility and duties towards other people and the community. Individuals have a responsibility to ensure that they exercise their rights with consideration for the rights of others. For example, when someone uses their right to freedom of speech, they should do so without interfering with someone else’s right to privacy.

Governments have a particular responsibility to ensure that people can enjoy their rights. They must establish and maintain laws and services that enable people to enjoy a life in which their rights are respected and protected. For example, the right to education says that everyone is entitled to a good education. Therefore, governments must provide good quality education facilities and services to their people. If the government fails to respect or protect their basic human rights, people can take it into account.

Values of tolerance, equality and respect can help reduce friction within society. Putting human rights ideas into practice can help us create the kind of society we want to live in. There has been tremendous growth in how we think about and apply human rights ideas in recent decades. This growth has had many positive results – knowledge about human rights can empower individuals and offer solutions for specific problems.

Human rights are an important part of how people interact with others at all levels of society – in the family, the community, school, workplace, politics and international relations. Therefore, people everywhere must strive to understand what human rights are. When people better understand human rights, it is easier for them to promote justice and the well-being of society. 

Also Read: Important Articles in Indian Constitution

Here is a human rights essay focused on India.

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. It has been rightly proclaimed in the American Declaration of Independence that “all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Created with certain unalienable rights….” Similarly, the Indian Constitution has ensured and enshrined Fundamental rights for all citizens irrespective of caste, creed, religion, colour, sex or nationality. These basic rights, commonly known as human rights, are recognised the world over as basic rights with which every individual is born.

In recognition of human rights, “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was made on the 10th of December, 1948. This declaration is the basic instrument of human rights. Even though this declaration has no legal bindings and authority, it forms the basis of all laws on human rights. The necessity of formulating laws to protect human rights is now being felt all over the world. According to social thinkers, the issue of human rights became very important after World War II concluded. It is important for social stability both at the national and international levels. Wherever there is a breach of human rights, there is conflict at one level or the other.

Given the increasing importance of the subject, it becomes necessary that educational institutions recognise the subject of human rights as an independent discipline. The course contents and curriculum of the discipline of human rights may vary according to the nature and circumstances of a particular institution. Still, generally, it should include the rights of a child, rights of minorities, rights of the needy and the disabled, right to live, convention on women, trafficking of women and children for sexual exploitation etc.

Since the formation of the United Nations , the promotion and protection of human rights have been its main focus. The United Nations has created a wide range of mechanisms for monitoring human rights violations. The conventional mechanisms include treaties and organisations, U.N. special reporters, representatives and experts and working groups. Asian countries like China argue in favour of collective rights. According to Chinese thinkers, European countries lay stress upon individual rights and values while Asian countries esteem collective rights and obligations to the family and society as a whole.

With the freedom movement the world over after World War II, the end of colonisation also ended the policy of apartheid and thereby the most aggressive violation of human rights. With the spread of education, women are asserting their rights. Women’s movements play an important role in spreading the message of human rights. They are fighting for their rights and supporting the struggle for human rights of other weaker and deprived sections like bonded labour, child labour, landless labour, unemployed persons, Dalits and elderly people.

Unfortunately, violation of human rights continues in most parts of the world. Ethnic cleansing and genocide can still be seen in several parts of the world. Large sections of the world population are deprived of the necessities of life i.e. food, shelter and security of life. Right to minimum basic needs viz. Work, health care, education and shelter are denied to them. These deprivations amount to the negation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Also Read: Human Rights Courses

Check out this detailed 1500-word essay on human rights.

The human right to live and exist, the right to equality, including equality before the law, non-discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth, and equality of opportunity in matters of employment, the right to freedom of speech and expression, assembly, association, movement, residence, the right to practice any profession or occupation, the right against exploitation, prohibiting all forms of forced labour, child labour and trafficking in human beings, the right to freedom of conscience, practice and propagation of religion and the right to legal remedies for enforcement of the above are basic human rights. These rights and freedoms are the very foundations of democracy.

Obviously, in a democracy, the people enjoy the maximum number of freedoms and rights. Besides these are political rights, which include the right to contest an election and vote freely for a candidate of one’s choice. Human rights are a benchmark of a developed and civilised society. But rights cannot exist in a vacuum. They have their corresponding duties. Rights and duties are the two aspects of the same coin.

Liberty never means license. Rights presuppose the rule of law, where everyone in the society follows a code of conduct and behaviour for the good of all. It is the sense of duty and tolerance that gives meaning to rights. Rights have their basis in the ‘live and let live’ principle. For example, my right to speech and expression involves my duty to allow others to enjoy the same freedom of speech and expression. Rights and duties are inextricably interlinked and interdependent. A perfect balance is to be maintained between the two. Whenever there is an imbalance, there is chaos.

A sense of tolerance, propriety and adjustment is a must to enjoy rights and freedom. Human life sans basic freedom and rights is meaningless. Freedom is the most precious possession without which life would become intolerable, a mere abject and slavish existence. In this context, Milton’s famous and oft-quoted lines from his Paradise Lost come to mind: “To reign is worth ambition though in hell/Better to reign in hell, than serve in heaven.”

However, liberty cannot survive without its corresponding obligations and duties. An individual is a part of society in which he enjoys certain rights and freedom only because of the fulfilment of certain duties and obligations towards others. Thus, freedom is based on mutual respect’s rights. A fine balance must be maintained between the two, or there will be anarchy and bloodshed. Therefore, human rights can best be preserved and protected in a society steeped in morality, discipline and social order.

Violation of human rights is most common in totalitarian and despotic states. In the theocratic states, there is much persecution, and violation in the name of religion and the minorities suffer the most. Even in democracies, there is widespread violation and infringement of human rights and freedom. The women, children and the weaker sections of society are victims of these transgressions and violence.

The U.N. Commission on Human Rights’ main concern is to protect and promote human rights and freedom in the world’s nations. In its various sessions held from time to time in Geneva, it adopts various measures to encourage worldwide observations of these basic human rights and freedom. It calls on its member states to furnish information regarding measures that comply with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights whenever there is a complaint of a violation of these rights. In addition, it reviews human rights situations in various countries and initiates remedial measures when required.

The U.N. Commission was much concerned and dismayed at the apartheid being practised in South Africa till recently. The Secretary-General then declared, “The United Nations cannot tolerate apartheid. It is a legalised system of racial discrimination, violating the most basic human rights in South Africa. It contradicts the letter and spirit of the United Nations Charter. That is why over the last forty years, my predecessors and I have urged the Government of South Africa to dismantle it.”

Now, although apartheid is no longer practised in that country, other forms of apartheid are being blatantly practised worldwide. For example, sex apartheid is most rampant. Women are subject to abuse and exploitation. They are not treated equally and get less pay than their male counterparts for the same jobs. In employment, promotions, possession of property etc., they are most discriminated against. Similarly, the rights of children are not observed properly. They are forced to work hard in very dangerous situations, sexually assaulted and exploited, sold and bonded for labour.

The Commission found that religious persecution, torture, summary executions without judicial trials, intolerance, slavery-like practices, kidnapping, political disappearance, etc., are being practised even in the so-called advanced countries and societies. The continued acts of extreme violence, terrorism and extremism in various parts of the world like Pakistan, India, Iraq, Afghanistan, Israel, Somalia, Algeria, Lebanon, Chile, China, and Myanmar, etc., by the governments, terrorists, religious fundamentalists, and mafia outfits, etc., is a matter of grave concern for the entire human race.

Violation of freedom and rights by terrorist groups backed by states is one of the most difficult problems society faces. For example, Pakistan has been openly collaborating with various terrorist groups, indulging in extreme violence in India and other countries. In this regard the U.N. Human Rights Commission in Geneva adopted a significant resolution, which was co-sponsored by India, focusing on gross violation of human rights perpetrated by state-backed terrorist groups.

The resolution expressed its solidarity with the victims of terrorism and proposed that a U.N. Fund for victims of terrorism be established soon. The Indian delegation recalled that according to the Vienna Declaration, terrorism is nothing but the destruction of human rights. It shows total disregard for the lives of innocent men, women and children. The delegation further argued that terrorism cannot be treated as a mere crime because it is systematic and widespread in its killing of civilians.

Violation of human rights, whether by states, terrorists, separatist groups, armed fundamentalists or extremists, is condemnable. Regardless of the motivation, such acts should be condemned categorically in all forms and manifestations, wherever and by whomever they are committed, as acts of aggression aimed at destroying human rights, fundamental freedom and democracy. The Indian delegation also underlined concerns about the growing connection between terrorist groups and the consequent commission of serious crimes. These include rape, torture, arson, looting, murder, kidnappings, blasts, and extortion, etc.

Violation of human rights and freedom gives rise to alienation, dissatisfaction, frustration and acts of terrorism. Governments run by ambitious and self-seeking people often use repressive measures and find violence and terror an effective means of control. However, state terrorism, violence, and human freedom transgressions are very dangerous strategies. This has been the background of all revolutions in the world. Whenever there is systematic and widespread state persecution and violation of human rights, rebellion and revolution have taken place. The French, American, Russian and Chinese Revolutions are glowing examples of human history.

The first war of India’s Independence in 1857 resulted from long and systematic oppression of the Indian masses. The rapidly increasing discontent, frustration and alienation with British rule gave rise to strong national feelings and demand for political privileges and rights. Ultimately the Indian people, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, made the British leave India, setting the country free and independent.

Human rights and freedom ought to be preserved at all costs. Their curtailment degrades human life. The political needs of a country may reshape Human rights, but they should not be completely distorted. Tyranny, regimentation, etc., are inimical of humanity and should be resisted effectively and united. The sanctity of human values, freedom and rights must be preserved and protected. Human Rights Commissions should be established in all countries to take care of human freedom and rights. In cases of violation of human rights, affected individuals should be properly compensated, and it should be ensured that these do not take place in future.

These commissions can become effective instruments in percolating the sensitivity to human rights down to the lowest levels of governments and administrations. The formation of the National Human Rights Commission in October 1993 in India is commendable and should be followed by other countries.

Also Read: Law Courses in India

Human rights are of utmost importance to seek basic equality and human dignity. Human rights ensure that the basic needs of every human are met. They protect vulnerable groups from discrimination and abuse, allow people to stand up for themselves, and follow any religion without fear and give them the freedom to express their thoughts freely. In addition, they grant people access to basic education and equal work opportunities. Thus implementing these rights is crucial to ensure freedom, peace and safety.

Human Rights Day is annually celebrated on the 10th of December.

Human Rights Day is celebrated to commemorate the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UNGA in 1948.

Some of the common Human Rights are the right to life and liberty, freedom of opinion and expression, freedom from slavery and torture and the right to work and education.

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Sonal is a creative, enthusiastic writer and editor who has worked extensively for the Study Abroad domain. She splits her time between shooting fun insta reels and learning new tools for content marketing. If she is missing from her desk, you can find her with a group of people cracking silly jokes or petting neighbourhood dogs.

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Understanding Cruel and Unusual Punishment in Modern Legal Context

This essay about the concept of cruel and unusual punishment explores its significance in justice and human rights. It highlights the Eighth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, emphasizing that punishments must be proportionate to the crime and avoid excessive harshness and suffering. The essay discusses the evolving interpretations of this principle in judicial decisions and societal norms, and the influence of international human rights standards in preventing inhumane state punishments. It underscores the commitment to justice, equity, and human dignity across different legal systems.

How it works

Cruel and unusual punishment declares, that a foundational concept deeply built to the ideal of justice and human rights within the limits of legal frames globally. Then marks punishments, what is considered superfluously strict or barbarian in relation to nature of crime. Constitutions and systems of justice through people often keep this principle to the individuals of guarantee from incommensurable or inhumane state approvals.

For example, Eighth Amendment of Constitution of the states united obviously hides taxation of cruel and unusual punishments.

But more wide social consent of mirrors of amendment, that punishments must avoid too late strictness, unnecessary suffering, and degradation of human dignity. Through some time, interpretations of what is appointed by cruel and unusual punishment evolved through judicial managements and social moving.

Critical aspect in determination of such punishment is a proportion idea, that punishments must answer the gravitation of offense without shock of social conscience. For example, applying capital punishment, because insignificant violations today probably would be such, what is considered cruel and unusual, excelling, what is justified by a sin.

In addition, developing standards to respectability within the limits of society influence on these determinations. Practices accept once, presumably, now examined how cruel and unusual from development of norms and value. Courts often give other translation of additions of punishment in the light of modern standards. Additionally, an attentive review reaches after terms under that punishments take place, by the way treatment within the limits of correctional resources. Practices like overfilled, inadequate access of curative business, whether prolonged solitary confinement, presumably, examined by cruel and unusual depending on a context.

International, human norms of rights for example those in Universal Declaration of Human and International Agreeing Rights to Civil and Political Laws universally forbid tortures and cruel, superhuman, whether worsening treatment. These structures underline a global consent to the guard of human dignity and limitation of excessive state punishments.

In a sum, while interpretations of cruel and unusual punishment, presumably, change among the systems of justice, principle supports universally, that o?wiadczy?-obci??one of punishment must not vainly harm, to get worse, whether to be incommensurable to offense. Then principle of underscores obligation is before a justice, equity, and by human rights through societies. As norms evolve and interpretations adjust, a concept guarantees, that a justice evens with the movement of standards of respectability and human dignity.

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