conclusion of discussion method of teaching

What is The Discussion Method?

April 15, 2024

The discussion method involves an interactive exchange of ideas and opinions among individuals or groups. It is used to explore a topic and create a deeper understanding through sharing and analyzing different perspectives.

In today’s fast-paced digital world, where communication is often limited to quick text messages or social media posts, the art of discussion is becoming increasingly rare.

In this article, I will explore the benefits of the discussion method and provide tips for facilitating effective discussions.

The Discussion Method Is Important For Teachers

Learning is more than just memorizing facts and figures; it’s about understanding and exploring new ideas. As a teacher, one of the most effective ways to encourage this is by using the discussion method in your classroom.

The discussion method is a teaching technique that facilitates an interactive group conversation where students are encouraged to share their thoughts and opinions on a topic.

Here are some of the benefits of using the discussion method in your classroom:

Fosters critical thinking skills: When students have an opportunity to discuss topics with their peers, they learn to consider different viewpoints, examine evidence, and evaluate arguments. As a result, they develop their critical thinking skills.
Develops communication skills: Through the discussion method, students learn to express their thoughts and communicate them effectively to their peers. As they continue to participate in discussions, they develop their communication skills, which will benefit them in real-life situations as well.
Encourages active participation: In a traditional lecture-style classroom, some students may become disengaged. However, with the discussion method, all students are encouraged to actively participate and engage with the material. This results in a more dynamic and interactive learning experience.
Promotes community building: The discussion method fosters a sense of community within the classroom. It allows students to learn from one another, appreciate different perspectives, and build camaraderie.

Implement The Discussion Method In the Classroom

The discussion method is a powerful technique for teaching interactive and engaging lessons. Here are some steps to help you implement the discussion method in your classroom.

Before starting the discussion method, it is important to prepare well. Here are the key points to keep in mind:

Set clear objectives for the discussion. What do you want your students to learn or achieve? Make sure your objectives are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).
Create discussion prompts that are open-ended and thought-provoking. Avoid questions that have only one correct answer or that are too obvious.
Select appropriate materials to support your discussion prompts. These may include articles, videos, case studies, or other resources that provide different perspectives on the topic.

Ensuring A Safe And Respectful Environment

Creating a safe and respectful learning environment is crucial for successful discussions. Here is what you can do:

Set ground rules for the discussion that promote respect and open-mindedness. These rules may include active listening, avoiding personal attacks, and allowing everyone to speak.
Monitor the discussion to ensure that it stays on track and that everyone has an opportunity to participate. Be prepared to intervene if necessary.
Encourage students to share their diverse perspectives and experiences. Create an inclusive classroom culture that values diversity and promotes empathy.

Encouraging Participation, Guiding The Conversation, And Providing Feedback.

As the facilitator of the discussion, your role is to encourage participation, guide the conversation, and provide feedback. Here are some tips:

Encourage participation by creating a supportive and non-judgmental environment. Use active listening skills to show that you value everyone’s contributions.
Guide the conversation by asking open-ended questions, clarifying misunderstandings, and summarizing key points.
Provide feedback that is constructive and specific. Use positive reinforcement to encourage good participation and critical thinking skills.

By following these steps, you can implement the discussion method in your classroom and foster deeper learning and critical thinking skills among your students.

The Role Of Technology In The Discussion Method

Nowadays, technology is an essential component of modern education and has become an integral part of the discussion method. The use of technology in discussions enhances the learning experience and helps students to engage in critical thinking.

Using Online Tools In A Virtual Classroom

Facilitating online discussions is a great way to keep students engaged and connected. Here are some useful tools to enhance the virtual classroom experience:

Google Classroom: With Google Classroom, teachers can create assignments, post announcements, and interact with students in real time.
Zoom: Zoom is a video conferencing platform that allows for face-to-face conversations, screen sharing, and group chats.
Slack: Slack is a messaging app that makes group discussions more interactive and organized, and it’s perfect for group projects.
Discussion boards: Discussion boards are a great way for students to share their thoughts and ideas and to build on others’ contributions.

Integrating Technology With Peers And Experts

Technology has made it possible for students to learn and collaborate with peers and experts from different parts of the world. Here are some ways to connect students with peers and experts:

Social media: Social media platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram are great tools for connecting students with individuals who share similar interests.
Video conferencing: Video conferencing platforms like Zoom and Skype allow students to communicate and collaborate with experts and peers around the world.
Collaborative platforms: Collaborative platforms like Google Docs and Trello allow students to work together in real time, share notes and ideas, and collaborate on projects.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the discussion method.

The discussion method is a type of teaching method where the students participate actively in the process of learning. In this method, the students share their ideas and thoughts to gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter.

What Are The Benefits Of The Discussion Method?

The discussion method encourages critical thinking, enhances problem-solving skills, develops communication skills, promotes active participation, increases motivation and engagement, and fosters a sense of community and collaboration among students.

How Do You Prepare For A Discussion-Based Class?

To prepare for a discussion-based class, you should assign readings or any materials in advance, set clear expectations, establish ground rules, and pose open-ended and thought-provoking questions that encourage active participation from the students.

The discussion method is an effective way of promoting interaction and engagement among team members. It allows for the sharing of ideas, opinions and solutions, which ultimately leads to better decision-making and successful outcomes. By applying the guidelines discussed in this article, participants can ensure a productive and respectful dialogue. It is important to note that the success of the discussion method relies on the willingness of each participant to contribute positively and actively listen to others’ viewpoints. Through practice and perseverance, teams can learn to overcome common challenges such as interruptions, lack of participation, and conflicts.

What is the Question-Answer Method

Dramatization Method in Teaching

Discussion Method Teaching: A Practical Guide

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Those of you who are interested in discussion method teaching are probably convinced that improving interactive skills in the classroom will improve your teaching. Both learning theory and common sense suggest that finding ways to involve students actively in what they are supposed to be learning is a worthwhile undertaking. The converse makes the point more effectively. There is nothing so depressing as to walk the halls of the contemporary American university and see faculty member after faculty member, barricaded behind lecterns, talking, talking, talking to students slumped in tablet-arm chairs, their body language belying their involvement in the education proffered to them.

What happens in far too many college classrooms in the United States is a poor substitute for education, but most faculty members do not know what to do about it. They blame the university administration for its admission policies, the students for their boorishness and lack of good old-fashioned work ethic, the secondary school system for its failure to instill the basics, the family for its lack of moral fiber, the culture for its rock music and mindless television pap, and on and on. Blaming everything outside might lay a smoke screen around the college classroom so that no one will notice the rapidly expanding educational kill rate in American higher education. But students notice and understand, and parents and state legislatures, who foot the outrageous tuition bills, are beginning to notice as they compare the value added with the costs of a college education.

Most faculty in American colleges and universities teach what they were taught in the way that they were taught. They value content and theory and feel that the most effective way to communicate that is by content-laden, theoretically-based lectures. Even when feeling uneasy about the numbers of students who “aren’t getting it,” there seems no other way. Attempts at discussions degenerate into directionless bull sessions or meaningless debates in which the facts are all wrong and the logic nonexistent. Such discussions usually provoke the best students to complain that they “didn’t pay all this money to hear another student sound off. You can get that for free in the student union.”

I suggest there is a way to energize your classrooms, to excite a much higher percentage of your students, and to add more value to their education. You can get out from behind your lectern and still communicate content and theory. But to do this you will have to pay far more attention than you have in the past to questions of teaching and to the teaching methods you are using. What follows here will help you to begin thinking in an organized way about these process issues.

I came to understand the discussion teaching process through using the case method in my work as a faculty member in a graduate school of business. Much of what I have to say derives from the work of those who have perfected the case method of teaching. It is the premise of this paper that the case method used successfully in business schools can be made applicable to discussion teaching for the arts and sciences, and that those teaching methods that make for successful discussion classes can be learned by interested faculty members. While the “case” may be a Yeats poem or an 18th-century census or a Reagan speech, the discussion process is the same and works by the same rules.

This paper does not contend that discussion teaching is the only, or even the best, pedagogical method available to college teachers. Successful college teaching demands that the teacher have available a number of techniques to use at the proper time and in the proper situation to maximize learning. One of those techniques, underutilized because most faculty do not understand its dynamics, is the discussion. In a sense, the technique described here is really the first step away from the lecture method of teaching, for it is a method of leading a discussion in which a good deal of authority and control remain in the hands of the discussion leader and in which a good deal of content and theory can be imparted by the discussion leader. The authority issue is an important one. Many advocates of discussion method teaching argue that for true learning to take place in the discussion class, the faculty member must relinquish authority and control and seek to help empower students so that they are able to learn for themselves on a continuing basis. I do not dispute that as an ultimate goal, but for the newly converted discussion leader, the method must provide an orderly transition from the lecture method. Once the process becomes more familiar, the teacher may then be willing to consider methods that relinquish more authority to the students. The authority issue is an important one – keep it in mind as you grapple with the suggestions which follow.

Preparation Before Class

When I demonstrate discussion method teaching to colleagues, the question most often asked has to do with pre-class preparation. Let’s begin, then, by taking a look at that process, keeping in mind that preparation for a discussion class needs to marry process and content – we are looking for ways to communicate, to enliven, to bring home the content; we want to find ways to help students to internalize the theory.

Read the Assigned Material

It should go without saying that the teacher must be very familiar with the reading assigned for discussion. He or she must be ready for almost any nuance to be discovered, for almost any connection to be made. The more thinking and reading done about the assigned material, the better prepared the teacher will be for the discussion about it. Most faculty do this as a matter of course, but as you gain experience with the discussion process, you will find that assignments that were once familiar take on new meanings and new connections with other parts of the world as many different, and now inquiring, minds actively grapple with it.

Decide on Important Concepts and Outline

Once you are sure you have a good grasp of the assigned material and its many nuances, decide what important concepts you want to be sure are understood by every student in your class. Ask yourself, “Why did I assign this material?” Important concepts usually have somewhat important sub-concepts, and before long we content-theoretical types are several layers deep in important concepts. Such thoughts usually lead to an outline, and soon there emerges a logical pattern that we can hope the discussion will take. Such an outline should make you more comfortable, but be sure the outline reflects in layers or levels what is most important and what is less, for in the heat of a good discussion you will have to discard getting at some of the less important concepts for the sake of making sure the more important ones are really understood.

At this point you should, as well, make notes about specific facts – important people and their relationships, chronology, sets of figures, any particulars that bear on the matters you feel are important. Nothing destroys the attempt to communicate the necessity of reasoning from the facts as much as a discussion leader who cannot keep the details straight. It is important to communicate this message to your students early in the discussion process, for the euphoria of the free-wheeling exchange of ideas is sometimes so overwhelming that even the best students forget to deal with the concrete aspects of the material.

A Question Outline

Once you are sure of your grasp of the facts, prepare a question outline to match your concept outline. It is important at this stage that you carefully think of questions that will promote discussion, not answers, about the concepts you want understood. If you are having trouble promoting discussion in your classes now, examine the kinds of questions you are asking. Do they signal that you know the answer and are asking to see if the students do? “What did the author say were the causes of the Civil War?” Such questions are the kind that promote participation from only those students anxious to show they know exactly what the teacher is looking for. Most students are programmed to think that there is only one right answer, that the teacher knows it, and that he or she will reward those who know it and punish those who do not. (Guess who programmed them.) Such thinking spells doom for a discussion class. Serious discussion teachers must work at overcoming this mind-set and seek to encourage creative and critical thinking, not memorization and not single solution models. Sometimes, just the way you phrase a question makes a real difference. Instead of asking what the text said were the causes of the Civil War, one might say, “Let’s see if we can understand why the Civil War began. Lori, can you suggest a reason?”

Build your question outline at least as many layers deep as your concept outline – one group of very general questions that covers the whole assignment and serves as a macro-outline to guide you through the class, then groups of more specific questions about different aspects of the outline that will serve to expose important points – probes, they might be called. Try to anticipate possible responses to the questions and think through what can be done with them – how they can be used positively – to move the class toward more understanding. Ask smaller, easier-to-deal-with questions first; work up slowly to global, more thought-provoking questions. For instance, in business cases or teaching cases, I normally start with analysis questions – “What is going on here?” – and use the analysis to move to action questions – “What should the protagonist do? What are the costs and benefits of doing what you suggest?” – and to broader, more philosophical questions – “Should we look to maximize long – or short-term?”

With a general and a specific outline of questions to guide your discussion, you must think carefully about the really important questions – beginning, transition, conclusion – and highlight them in your outline. You should know almost exactly what question, word for word, you are going to use at these important times, and perhaps even whom you are going to ask. Thinking ahead in such careful detail allows the leader more control over the discussion, something the beginning discussion teacher will probably welcome. Ask questions and more questions and still more questions. If you hear yourself making too many declarative statements, the discussion is not going well. In class, instead of talking, you should be listening and formulating your next question. Think of your lecture as becoming a series of interrogative statements. For more specific help, there are several articles listed in the bibliography; the best is the article by John Andrews, which gives specific examples of different kinds of questions. In addition, copies of teaching notes which accompany the cases cited in the bibliography include examples of discussion-provoking questions and question outlines.

A Board Outline

A good discussion leader should make use of the blackboard to help organize the discussion, which at times will seem to be going off in all directions. The board, in fact, is another very powerful control mechanism for the discussion leader. You choose what to write on the board and where to write it. Want to pump up a shy student’s self-confidence? Write his contribution on the board. Even more? Underline it! Want to calm an overly aggressive contributor? Do not bother to inscribe her comments. What is written on the board takes on a huge importance. Early in the semester, when you are still working to build a group’s collective confidence in the discussion process, filling the board with a well-organized analysis of the material will do miracles. “My gosh, look what we did!” students will say as they admire the board at the end of the class period. “And I didn’t think I understood a thing Plato said.”

Whatever you write on the board, and it can’t include everything that is said in a discussion class, you must think ahead of time just how you want the board to look at various times in the class. Therefore, prepare a board outline to help guide what to write down and where. Do not write on the board haphazardly. Do not make “chicken tracks” on the board. Carefully consider what you want on it before you use the chalk. Used carefully, it is a great control mechanism, a great reward/punishment mechanism, and a great guide for inveterate note-takers. You might, for instance, wish to use the board to symbolize how logically the discussion is proceeding by writing things in neat columns from left to right, drawing vertical lines to indicate when to move on to a new topic. Or, you might want to take comments on many different ideas early in the discussion, using several boards to record them, allowing more reflective thought later in the discussion to highlight relationships.You might even want the board to communicate disorder. (In a discussion I have done on the 1981 Reagan economic plan, the class through discussion builds an econometric model that is recorded on the board. By the end of the discussion of the feedback relationships of the various inputs, the board looks something like a Jackson Pollock painting, an effective comment on voodoo economics.)

This ancient audiovisual aide, not subject to the vagaries of modern technology and its minions, is a powerful technological tool for the discussion teacher – more powerful even than Mark Hopkins’ log. Do not use it casually or without thinking through its impact.

Knowing Your Students

You are leading a discussion because you want the students in the class to learn something from that discussion – after all, they are the important ones in the process. To maximize that learning, you must know them as more than a number on your roster. Each is different, each learns differently, each responds differently to the various stimuli of the discussion class. What are their strengths and weaknesses? What kinds of participation will build on their strengths or improve their weaknesses? If you are going to think about whom to ask certain questions, whom to turn to during certain times in the discussion, you need to know what to expect in response. A number of faculty I know were greatly impressed with the performance of the various discussion leaders, including the new president of Yale, who led the seminars on the PBS television series The Constitution: That Delicate Balance a few years ago. One of the keys to the success of those discussions was how much each discussion leader knew about the participants, each of whom was a public figure. To move the discussion one way or another, the leader knew almost exactly whom to ask.

Before every class, look over your roster and update your knowledge of each student and what you hope to get from him or her in the class you are planning – perhaps even set objectives for each student for each class. You will not meet all your objectives, but it is an important obligation to try. As long as they are sitting in your class, you have the responsibility to help all of your students and to add some value to their education – not just the smart ones or the ones who give you positive feedback, but every one of them.

Looking at the Whole Semester and the Whole Institution

Any single class outline cannot stand alone; it must fit with the plan for the entire semester. This plan must include not only what content to cover, but how the discussion process can be enhanced as the semester progresses. Most of the institutions in which we teach condition students to be passive in class. Therefore, in planning the semester, remember that you are probably struggling with an institutional culture that discourages active participation.Work up to it slowly; schedule topics and discussions keeping in mind that you are reorienting behavior patterns and that this will take more than one class. If you seek to encourage true discussion, you cannot do it by having a discussion here and a discussion there – it has to be a regular and substantial part of the course.

I would suggest a syllabus for a discussion course that errs on the side of complexity and length. I prefer a class-by-class outline that includes several study questions and background readings for each reading assignment to be discussed. The better prepared the participants are, the better the discussion; if the course outline helps this, you have sent the right message.

Physical Setting

All the trouble that you have taken in preparing for the discussion class will be for naught if you are trapped in a physical setting that impairs the discussion process. The best laid plans for the board will be useless if you find a room with flip charts and marking pens. Nailed down tablet-arm chairs in a lecture hall would tax the abilities of Harvard’s finest case instructor. I would strongly advise getting on the friendliest of terms with your institution’s space coordinator and making him or her aware of your special mission and its environmental requirements. Whatever your room assignment, never let the space in which you are scheduled to teach surprise you. Know ahead of time what will be there and what you will need to do to improve it.

To begin with, let’s describe the components of the ideal room for a discussion course: tables and executive-type swivel chairs for the students, arranged in a U-shape; a small table in the front for the instructor; board space on at least two walls; room enough for the instructor to roam around the room. The U-shape is the single most important environmental factor for the discussion class, for it allows all the participants to see each other, therefore promoting interchange, and, by providing a good deal of space for the leader to use, enhancing authority and control in a situation in which many instructors feel powerless. Tables provide the students with a natural protection against the terror of the discussion process (protecting their ideas and their knees from uncomfortable analysis). They can lean forward without threatening others. Discussion leaders welcome the tables as well – there is terror on both sides in the discussion process and the leader can challenge a participant without physical threat. Swivel chairs obviously increase the freedom with which all parts of the room can be used and promote participant interchange.

The discussion leader needs enough space to move about the room in order to energize the discussion when necessary; ideally, enough space to be able to contact every student in the room. The discussion leader must also be able to get to the board whenever he or she wishes without interfering with the discussion flow. If you are going to bring the outline and notes on which you worked so diligently, you need a place to put them, along with watch, rosters, handouts, and so on. A smaller table in the front, not enclosing the U, and certainly not to hide behind, serves the purpose. Psychologically, it is nice to have it there, to know your notes are there, even if you do not refer to them. I would add to this utopia a name card for each student (tent cards made out of oaktag), so that you can refer to each student by name and so that students can refer to each other by name. For ten cents a student, name cards do wonders for group cohesion and mutual respect.

Usual Situation

I’ll wager that 90 percent of American college classrooms were designed and furnished by the same architectural firm that designed and furnished those in which I teach. They are square or rectangular boxes with no windows, with one always-dirty blackboard (green, if it is a new building), tile floors, fluorescent lighting, tablet-arm chairs set in rows, the regularity of which is reinforced daily by the same custodial staff that never cleans the blackboard. Such physical surroundings do not encourage education and are certainly at least partly responsible for the failure of many valiant attempts to make a discussion class work.

I do not think that a discussion class can work in a room in which the students are seated in rows facing an instructor barricaded behind a lectern. The participants must be able to see and to talk to each other, and the leader must be physically able to move to any part of the room and to any student. When the leader stands at the front of rows of students, all discussion comes at him or her; any interchange is always student to instructor to another student. You want to encourage straight-line communication, from student to student. If you are confronted with the typical physical environment, come early and move the furniture to approach the ideal described above. If you cannot come close to the ideal, be ready to compensate in other ways. If you get stuck in a room with fixed seating, get the room changed somehow – the end will justify the means.

Many discussion teachers prefer to arrange the classroom in a circle or to request a “seminar” room with one large table and seats all around it. I do not like the circle shape in either of these variations for several reasons. Most importantly, it inhibits the control that the leader can comfortably exercise. With all seats in a circle or around a table, the leader must sit down; hence, using the board or physical movement to guide and shape discussion becomes a clumsy interruption in the natural discussion process. To me, the center of a circle or most of a large oak table is, at best, a symbolic power vacuum, at worst, wasted space in an environment in which space is a scarce resource. Either situation certainly severely limits the number of students who can participate in the class. Further, outlines and notes of any detail are all but impossible to spread on the tablet of a tablet-arm chair and risk being relied on too heavily if they are in front of you on the seminar table.

Moving to a discussion mode of teaching will not in every case make you the enemy of the administration. Class size need not be limited to the usual “seminar” size. If you have the proper space, classes of 30 to 40 can proceed comfortably. And, if your institution is a Harvard Business School clone with physical facilities built especially to accommodate case discussion, 80 can be an effective class size. Perhaps your vice president for environmental design would be amenable to a deal – better discussion class facilities in exchange for a larger average class size.

If you have followed the procedures suggested so far, you have already spent a good deal of time preparing for a single class and physically exhausted yourself moving furniture. But, as in any endeavor, the better job you do in preparation, the better the actual class should go. Once the discussion begins, so many things will be flying through your mind as you try to keep it on track, you do not want to have to worry about details that could have been worried about before. Arrive early enough to get yourself organized in the classroom – chairs moved, boards erased, lecterns moved out of the way, and notes spread on your table.

Beginning the Class

Thoughts differ on this, but I prefer easing my way into the day’s discussion by talking informally with the class about housekeeping matters and events of the week that might relate in some way to the course, and responding to questions. I think this loosens the tension, both mine and theirs, before we get to the business of the day – discussing the assignment. As a transition into the discussion, a short introduction by the instructor – explaining where the assignment fits in with the overall scheme of the course and making some general opening remarks about it – usually is in order; but the shorter, the better.

Presumably, you have thought through carefully in your preparation just exactly what question you are going to ask. Your choice at this point is an important process question. Do you want to ask for volunteers or do you want to call on someone? If you decide on calling, you have yet another choice – giving the student some time to think about the question or requiring an answer immediately – cool calls or cold calls, as the jargon goes. The choice of volunteering versus calling is an important one for the mood of the class. I prefer to stay with volunteers, hoping to play down the sort of recitation syndrome that you get when you have set up a cold or cool call environment. All things being equal, I would want to think that those students who participated wanted to do so because they had something to contribute, not because I wanted them to participate (to test them, perhaps?). But you have to work hard to create an environment in which a large number of students volunteer. Usually the same hands shoot up in every class in response to, and sometimes before, your first question. In an environment where everybody expects to be called, it is easier to encourage the shy and those who need more help in verbalizing their ideas.

Certainly, the larger the class, the more likely you are to have to force participation, and the earlier you start this in the semester, the easier it is for all concerned. Cool calling at the beginning of such a class, therefore, seems a good compromise. Before you do anything else, state your first question, ask a particular student to think about an answer, and ask another student to serve as a backstop. Then go on to your introductory business and when you get to the discussion, the student has had five to ten minutes to think about an answer. Early in the semester, I begin the class with a question that has accompanied the assignment in the syllabus. As students gain experience in the discussion method, I like to ask a different question, one they have not specifically thought about in their preparation. The discussion proceeds differently depending on which of these choices you make.

Questioning, Listening, Response

Now begins the guts of the discussion class. The student, however he or she got recognized, is talking, and is not answering the question in any of the many ways you so painstakingly thought out the night before. How do you respond? Do you write on the board? Do you try to silence her? Do you correct her? There are no sure answers, and there is a great deal of existential uncertainty. The key skills at this point are listening skills, a set of behaviors that college faculty probably have not practiced since graduate school. You will get plenty of practice if you stick with discussion teaching. Make sure at the first level you are hearing exactly what the speaker is saying. In order to test your hearing, you need to give the speaker some feedback – writing what he says on the board or repeating what is said. Beyond that, one needs to listen to the subtext of the student’s comments – the meaning behind the words, what they reveal about what is important to the speaker.

Discussion teachers can learn much from the counseling profession, especially the process called active listening. In that process, you as teacher must communicate back to the speaker that you understand what was said – text and subtext. But beyond that you must communicate what is important to you, the teacher, so that you and the student can work together to take some action – to learn, in this context. The tricky part in the discussion classroom is that you have 40 other people who have to be listened to and communicated with, and who must learn as well to practice active listening skills. The better you listen and the better you get all your students to listen, the better by the square of that will your discussion go.

What goes on in the discussion class is a very involved and very complex process in which you must use questioning, listening, and response activities to shape the discussion toward the ends you have thought important in your planning. You must intervene at times with a question or a summary or a bridge from an earlier remark to help move the discussion toward your goals. At other times, you must allow discussion to take place without any obvious control on your part. In this sense, this questioning, listening, response process is your ultimate source of power in the discussion classroom, more important than blackboards, U-shapes, tables, and room to roam.

While using questioning and active listening to move the class toward the goal you have set, you have some other objectives to meet as well – which students are understanding, which are not; who needs to be helped, who needs some stroking, who some quieting. In addition, in the concern for keeping the discussion on track, one should not force the outline so much that the free flow of ideas is discouraged. A good discussion leader in this sense encourages a kind of “controlled spontaneity’’ – maintaining a balance between free-wheeling discussion and control. I like to think of the discussion process as a set of concepts that the discussion circles around, gets at an understanding of from one angle, moves away from for a while, and then returns to from another angle – certainly not a linear process, perhaps a more holistic one. The objective, as much as covering your outline, is to engage true discussion, to get the students to talk to each other in a meaningful way. When that begins to happen, back away and let it go – it is an important moment.

Body Language

To teach successfully by the discussion method, especially in the physical environment I have suggested, you must learn to make yourself aware of the message your body is communicating. Nothing conveys more clearly to students the boredom and irrelevance of a modern university education than the lecturer leaning on his lectern. On the other hand, the successful discussion class is led by a person constantly in motion; hence, the need for the space to give the discussion leader the freedom to move toward a speaker or away, to stand between disagreeing parties or behind one party or the other, to rush to the board to write a telling comment, to roam through the aisles in search of new participants or to stir excitement among the alienated or to see how the board looks from the point of view of the back row. The leader can turn up the intensity by more movement or can calm a class into serious reflection by sitting and letting discussion proceed by itself. With more freedom to move, options are expanded. Keep in mind though that each movement you make, each stance that you take, where you put your hands, how your face reacts, in short, everything your body does, communicates something to your audience. You must be aware at all times (like an actor on the stage) what your body is saying.

Sense of Time

One of the most difficult things to control in a discussion is time – nothing seems to disappear so quickly in a good discussion and to last so long in a poor one. Every discussion plan should have a beginning, a middle and an end, with some time targets for each thought out in advance. You have a given amount of time at your disposal. How much will you spend on each major part of your outline? Great teachers, like great athletes, seem to have an internal clock that affords them the knowledge of just how much time is left in the game. But unlike Walt Frazier, Johnny Unitas, or Steve Cauthen, most of us need an external clock. Try using a pocket watch with a large dial placed on the front table. Easy to see at a glance, such a watch allows you to check the time without constantly looking at a wristwatch, body language that says to the speaker, “Hurry up and finish, we’re running out of time.” If the period allotted is more than two hours, think seriously of planning a break, keeping in mind that unless planned for, a break often destroys a discussion. If you have a long period scheduled for one topic, think about a group activity as one kind of natural break.

There is a natural hierarchy in discussion classes, from individual preparation, to small group, to class. At each stage, insights are added that were not apparent at the earlier stage. Class discussions are usually improved if preceded by leaderless small-group sessions. Scheduling those is usually a great problem, but if the subject matter or particular issue seems to lend itself to such sessions, they are often worth the trouble. If students are having trouble with the discussion format, organize smaller study group discussions before class. Small groups are a place where strong students can help weak students and shy students can more comfortably contribute, behaviors that are worth encouraging.

Ending the Class

Discussion classes generally require that the leader formally end the class by summing up the discussion and providing it with some larger meaning in terms of theory and relationship to the rest of the course. Sometimes, however, you might want the discussion to end without any summary, to send the participants away frustrated or confused in hopes that out of that might spring some independent work to clear up the confusion. Like much of discussion pedagogy, the end of class summary has costs and benefits. You want to give some direction and control to the whole discussion, but not so much as to lose individual creativity and risk-taking. You want to convey some theory, but not so much as to suggest that every question has a right answer that can be derived from that theory. Our classes should be rich, full of excitement and intellectual value added, but in the final analysis, we want to empower our students to learn on a continuous basis – and much of that activity is self-directed.

Therefore, think carefully ahead of time whether you want to sum up and how you want to do it. If you decide on a mini-lecture, make it a good one. If you decide the topic lends itself to more reading, this is the time for suggested bibliography. In business cases, students always want to know ‘‘what happened?” Sensing long ago that they were really searching for the “right answer,” I usually resist revealing it, but suggest that they go to the sources and find out, and that time would be reserved at the beginning of the next class if any wanted to report their findings. There are usually several reports. You need also to allow yourself time at the end of class to say a few things about the next discussion assignment – perhaps some added emphasis on one kind of preparation or some hints as to where to go for help in making sense out of the material. Certainly, something needs to be said about how the class just ending will relate to the next.

After Class

The after-class chaos of students looking for individual help, your rush to get to another class or meeting, and the press of students entering for the next class sometimes prevent the very important debriefing activity necessary for every discussion class. Before you get out of the room, take a good look at the board to see what the final result looks like and how it compares to what you had thought out ahead of time in your outline. Ask yourself what was covered well, what not so well, and what was missed. What questions worked and which ones failed? Make notes for yourself as to how you might revise the next time.

You need at this point, or some time shortly after the class ends, to go over each of the students in class and note how they did in the discussion. This review needs to be done for several reasons – to help in your judgment of them, to help get to know them better, and, most importantly, to help you think about strategies to improve individual learning.

Grading classroom participation is another of those very sticky problems for the discussion teacher. To encourage participation, you probably have to do it, but be aware of its costs. Trained as we are to grade written work, most of us have no idea how to judge verbal participation. Do you reward a student who talks a lot, but says little? Do you penalize a student for trying out new ideas that are badly off track? What about the student who just will not or just cannot seem to make any contribution? These are tough issues and go to the heart of the discussion class dilemma. I grade participation, but I can’t quantify it very well. I try to reward continuous informed participation throughout the semester. I try to talk individually with those who do not seem to be participating, either to encourage some participation or to understand why there is none. Grading is a difficult task that none of us does very well. We need to share our concerns and our ideas with our colleagues.

How to Start

This article alone is not going to do much to improve your discussion teaching. Encouraging good discussions is more difficult than that. In the work I do with faculty, I stress that we all should get help from several different sources. First, watch an experienced discussion teacher teach. Sit in on several classes. Discuss the class, particularly its methodological aspects. Second, get somebody you trust to sit in on your classes and give you some honest feedback. To enrich this discussion, have the class videotaped so that you both can see what is happening while you are discussing it. Third, form a discussion group with other interested faculty to share ideas and to talk out the important teaching issues that are highlighted by the discussion method and by your thinking so deeply about the process of teaching. I have used a series of cases (included in the bibliography) about teachers in discussion classes to organize this process. Fourth, seek the feedback of your students, either in formal or informal discussion, or with some well-formulated written mechanism. Find out from them whether they think they are really learning more and enjoying it more. Finally, practice, practice, practice, and be your own best critic.

Bibliography: Case Method and Discussion Method Teaching

Adler, M. (1985). How to speak, how to listen. New York: Collier Books.
Andrews, J.D.W. (1980). The verbal structure of teacher questions: Its impact on class discussion. POD Quarterly, 2, 129-163.
Andrews, K.R. (Ed.). (1953). The case method of teaching human relations and administration. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Argyris, C. (1980). Some limitations of the case method: Experience in a management development program. Academy of Management Review, 5, 291-298.
Berger, M. (1983). In defense of the case method: A reply to Argyris. Academy of Management Review, 8, 329-333.
Brown, S., and Walter, M. (1983). The art of problem posing. Philadelphia: The Franklin Press.
Bruner, J.S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Christensen, C.R. (1986). Teaching and the case method. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing Division.
Copeland, M.T. (1958). The case method of instruction. And mark an era: The story of the Harvard Business School. Boston: Little, Brown.
Elbow, P. (1986). Embracing contraries: Explorations in learning and teaching. New York: Oxford University Press.
Erskine, J.A., Leenders, M.R., and Mauffette-Leenders, LA. (1981). Teaching with cases. London and Ontario, Canada: Research and Publications Division, School of Business Administration, The University of Western Ontario.
Fraser, C.E. (Ed.). (1931). The case method of instruction: A related series of articles. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Frederick, P. (1981). The dreaded discussion: Ten ways to start. Improving College and University Teaching, 29, 109-114.
Freire, P. (1970). The pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Herder & Herder.
Hill, W.F. (1969). Learning through discussion. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Hunt, P. (1951). The case method of instruction. Harvard Educational Review, 21, 2-19.
Hyman, R.T. (1980). Improving discussion leadership. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.
Kasulis, T. (1986). Questioning. In M. M. Gilette (Ed.), The art and craft of teaching. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Lang. C. (1986). Case method teaching in the community college. Newton, MA: Educational Development Center. (Comes with videotape of case teaching session. Available from Educational Development Center, 55 Chapel St., Newton, MA 02160.)
McNair, M.P., and Hersum, A.C. (1954). The case method at the Harvard Business School. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Miner, F.C. (1978). An approach for increasing participation in case discussions. Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal, 3, 41-42.
Reynolds, J.I. (1980). Case method in management development: Guide for effective use. Geneva, Switzerland: Management Development Series No.17, International Labour Office.
Reynolds, J.I. (1978). There is method in cases. The Academy of Management Review, 3, 129-133.
Roethlisberger, FJ. (1977). Teaching by the case method. In G.F.F. Lombard (Ed.), The Elusive Phenomena. Boston: Division of Research, Harvard University Graduate School of Business Administration.
Rogers, C.R. (1969). Freedom to learn. New York: Chas. Merrill.
Rogers, C.R. (1965). Student-centered teaching. In C.R. Rogers (Ed.), Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications, and theory. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Sanders, N. (1966). Classroom questions: What kinds? New York: Harper & Row.
Tedesco, P.H. (1974). Teaching with case studies. Boston: Public Information Center, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston.
Wiggins, G.P. (1988). Creating a thought-provoking curriculum. (Working Paper). Providence, RI: Coalition of Essential Schools.

The following articles are available from HBS Case Services, Harvard Business School, Boston, MA 02163:

Andrews, Kenneth. The role of the instructor in the case method.
Corey, E. Raymond. Case method teaching.
Corey, E. Raymond. The use of cases in management education.
Gragg, Charles A. Because wisdom can’t be told.
Gragg, Charles A. Teachers must also learn.
Hammond, John S. Learning by the case method.
Hanson, Abby. A note to discussion teachers: Power in the classroom.
Hanson, Abby. A note to teachers on self management.
McNair, Malcom. Tough-mindedness and the case method.
Mason, Charles. Notes to a beginning case method teacher. Shapiro, Benson. An introduction to cases.
Shapiro, Benson. An introduction to the case method.
Shapiro, Benson. Hints for case teaching.

The following Teaching Cases are available from HBS Case Services, Harvard Business School, Boston, MA 02163:

Assistant Professor Graham and Ms. Macomber (A, B, C)

A shy student takes a position on a case in conflict with the other students. The professor believes her position to be correct but does not indicate so in class. As a result, the student withdraws from participation in subsequent class discussions.

Bill Jones (A, B)

A young female student makes a disparaging remark about blacks during a case discussion.

Bob Thompson (A, B, C)

A young instructor is faced with the request for a grade to be raised so that a foreign student may graduate.

Case of the Dethroned Section Leader (A, B)

A young English instructor is “deposed” by members of her discussion section.

Class on World Hunger (A, B)

A disruptive incident in a case discussion class.

Day the Heat Went On (A, B)

A young female instructor hears a wolf whistle from the back of her classroom when she takes off her blazer.

Ernie Budding (A, B, C, D)

An instructor attempts to motivate his section to raise its classroom performance.

French Lesson (A, B)

A French teacher asks a student who is not performing well in class if he has prepared for the class. The student is so upset that he leaves the room.

Kurt Jacobs

A foreign student misunderstands the nature of the class discussion and explodes in an emotional outburst against his classmates.

Handicapped Heckler (A, B, C)

A paraplegic student in a wheelchair repeatedly and belligerently interrupts a young English instructor’s discussion class. Because of his condition, she hesitates to confront him.

Henry Jasper (A, B)

A new female instructor in a large university tries to help a struggling male student who reacts negatively in class to her concern.

I Felt as if My World Had Just Collapsed (A, B, C)

An instructor attempts a class exercise involving black and white students. A confrontation ensues and the instructor has to deal with a difficult classroom situation.

Night School Episode (A, B)

A female instructor is challenged by an older conservative student about her use of sexually explicit words in her classroom.

One Teacher’s Nightmare (A, B)

A young history teacher in a large southern university is pressured to raise the grade of a member of the football team.

Section Just Took Over

A section of MBA’s discussing a functional business problem becomes interested in a related question of social responsibility and proceeds to run its own discussion, ignoring the instructor’s attempts to get the class back on track.

Suzie Simons (A, B)

A female student admits to her instructor that her previous work had been prepared by her boyfriend.

The Offended Colonel (A, B)

A student is offended by the use of profanity in a case discussion.

Trevor Jones

A role-playing exercise turns into a real-life drama as a student takes his role too personally.

We’re lust Wasting Our Time

An instructor is having a particularly difficult time getting his class to engage in productive case discussion.

The following paper is available from Center for Applied Research, Lubin Schools of Business, Pace University, New York, NY 10038:

A collection of cases set in elementary and secondary schools posing teaching problems revolving around mainstreaming issues. These cases are designed to be used in undergraduate education classes. Teaching notes to accompany the collection are available on request.

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Resources and Guides

Learning Through Discussion

Discussions can be meaningful and engaging learning experiences: dynamic, eye-opening, and generative. However, like any class activity, they require planning and preparation. Without that, discussion challenges can arise in the form of unequal participation, unclear learning outcomes, or low engagement. This resource presents key considerations in class discussions and offers strategies for how instructors can prepare and engage in effective classroom discussions.

Identifying your Course Context

Plan for Classroom Discussion
Warm up Classroom Discussion
Engage in Classroom Discussion
Wrap up Classroom Discussion

Leveraging Asynchronous Discussion Spaces

References and Further Reading

The CTL is here to help!

Seeking additional support with discussion pedagogy? Email [email protected] to schedule a 1-1 consultation. For support with any of the Columbia tools discussed below, email [email protected] or join our virtual office hours .

Interested in inviting the CTL to facilitate a session on this topic for your school, department, or program? Visit our Workshops To Go page for more information.

Cite this resource: Columbia Center for Teaching and Learning (2021). Learning Through. DIscussion. Columbia University. Retrieved [today’s date] from https://ctl.columbia.edu/resources-and-technology/resources/learning-through-discussion/

The What and Why of Class Discussion

Class discussion can take many forms, from structured prompts and assignments to more casual or informal conversations. Regardless of class context (e.g.: a seminar, large lecture, or lab course) or the form (e.g.: in-person or asynchronous) discussion takes, it offers a number of benefits to students’ learning. As an active learning technique, class discussion requires students to be co-constructors of their learning. Research shows that students learn more when they actively participate in their learning, rather than passively listen. Furthermore, studies have also shown that “student participation, encouragement, and peer-to-peer interaction was consistently and positively related to the development of critical thinking skills” (Howard, 2015, pp. 6). Class discussion has also been linked to greater student motivation, improved communication skills, and higher grades (Howard, 2015). But just like effective lectures or assignments require planning and preparation, so too does class discussion.

The following sections offer a framework and strategies for learning through discussion. These strategies are organized around four key phases: planning for classroom discussion, warming up for classroom discussion, engaging in classroom discussion, and wrapping up classroom discussion.

While the strategies and considerations provided throughout this resource are adaptable across course contexts, it is important to recognize instructors’ varied course formats, and how discussion might differ across them. This section identifies a few of these contexts, and reviews how these contexts might shape instructors’ engagement with both this resource and class discussion more broadly.

I teach a discussion-based course

Small classes and seminars use discussion-based pedagogies, though it can be challenging to get every student to contribute to discussions. It is important to create multiple opportunities for engagement and not just rely on whole group discussion. Pair and small group discussions can create trust among students and give them the confidence to speak up in the larger group. Instructors of discussion-based courses can extend in-class discussions into the asynchronous space. These inclusive moves allow students to contribute to discussions in multiple ways.

I do not teach a discussion-based course

Whether teaching a large lecture course, a lab course, or other non-discussion based course, students will still benefit from interacting with each other and learning through discussion. Small group or pair discussion can be less intimidating for students regardless of class size and help create a sense of community that impacts learning.

I teach a course that may have some Hybrid/HyFlex meetings.

In-person classes might sometimes offer hybrid or HyFlex opportunities for students to accommodate extenuating circumstances. In a hybrid/HyFlex course session, students participating in-person and remotely should have equal opportunities to contribute to discussions. To make this a reality, advanced preparation involves thinking through the logistics using discussion activities, roles and responsibilities (if working with TA(s)), classroom technologies (e.g., ceiling microphones available in the classroom; asking in-person students to bring a mobile device and headset if possible to engage with their remote peers), and determining the configurations if using discussion groups or paired work (both in a socially distanced classroom, and if asking both in-person and remote students to discuss together in breakout groups).

Planning for Classroom Discussion

Regardless of your course context, there are some general considerations for planning a class discussion; these considerations include: the goals and expectations, the modality of discussion, and the questions you might use to prompt discussion. The following section offers some questions for reflection, alongside ideas and strategies to address these considerations.

Goals & Expectations

What is the goal of the discussion? How will it support student learning? What are your expectations of student participation and contributions to the discussion? How will you communicate the goals and expectations to students?

Articulate the goals of discussion : Consider both the content you want your students to learn and the skills you want them to apply and develop. These goals will inform the learner-centered strategies and digital tools you use during discussion.

Communicate the purpose (not just the topic) of discussion: Sharing learning goals will help students understand why discussion is being used and how it will contribute to their learning.

Specify what you expect of student contributions to the discussion and how they will be assessed: Be explicit about what students should include in their contributions to make them substantive, and model possible ways of responding. Guide students in how they can contribute substantively to their peers’ live responses or online posts. You might consider asking students to use the 3CQ model:

Compliment—I like that ___ because…;
Comment—I agree/disagree with (specific point/idea) because…;
Connection—I also thought that…;
Question—I wonder why…

Establish discussion guidelines: Communicate expectations for class discussion. Be sure to include desired behaviors/etiquette and how technologies and tools for discussion will be used. Students in all classes can benefit from discussion guidelines as they help to clearly identify and establish expectations for student success. For more support with getting started, see the Barnard Center for Engaged Pedagogy’s resource on Crafting Community Agreements . Additionally, while there are some shared general discussion guidelines, there are also some specific considerations for asynchronous discussions:

Sample Discussion Guidelines:

Refer to classmates by name.
Allow everyone the chance to speak (“Take Space, Make Space”).
Constructively critique ideas, not individuals.
Listen actively without interrupting.
Contribute questions, ideas, or resources.

Sample Asynchronous Discussion Guidelines:

Respond to discussion posts within # of hours or days.
Review one’s own writing for clarity before posting, being mindful of how it may be interpreted by others.
Prioritize building upon or challenging the strongest ideas presented in a post instead of only focusing on the weakest aspects.
Acknowledge something someone else said.
Build on their comment by connecting with course content, adding an example or observation.
Conclude with critical thinking or socratic questions.

Invite students to revise, contribute to, or co-create the guidelines. One way to do this is to facilitate a discussion about discussions, asking students to identify what the characteristics of an effective discussion are. This will encourage their ownership of the guidelines. Post the guidelines in CourseWorks and refer to them as needed.

In what modality/modalities will the discussion take place (in-person/live, asynchronous, or a blend of both)?

The modality of your class discussion may determine the tools and technologies that you ask students to engage with. Thus, it is important to determine early on how you would like students to engage in discussion and what tools you will use to support their engagement. Consider leveraging your asynchronous course spaces (e.g., CourseWorks), which can help students both prepare for an in-class discussion, as well expand upon and continue in-class discussions. For support with setting up asynchronous discussions, see the Leveraging Asynchronous Discussion Spaces section below.

What prompts will be used for discussion? Who will come up with those prompts (e.g.: instructor, TA, or students)?

The questions you ask and how you ask them are important for leading an effective discussion. Discussion questions do not have to be instructor-generated; asking students to generate discussion prompts is a great way to engage them in their learning.

Draft open-ended questions that advance student learning and inspire a range of answers (avoiding closed-ended, vague, or leading questions). Vary question complexity over the course of a discussion. If there’s one right answer, ask students about their process to get to the right answer.

The following table features sample questions that increase in cognitive complexity and is based on the six categories of the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Warming up for Classroom Discussion

Get students comfortable talking with their peers, you, and the TA(s) (as applicable) from the start of the course. Create opportunities for students to have pair or small group conversations to get to know one another and connect as a community. Regardless of your class size or context (i.e.: seminars, large-lecture classes, labs), for discussions to become a norm in your course, you will need to build community early on in the course.

Get students talking early and often to foster community

How will you make peer-to-peer engagement an integral part of your class? How can you get students talking to each other?

To encourage student participation and peer-to-peer interaction, create early and frequent opportunities for students to share and talk with each other. These opportunities can help make students more comfortable with participating in discussion, as well as help build rapport and foster trust amongst class members. Icebreakers and small group discussion opportunities provide great ways to get students talking, especially in large-enrollment classes where students may feel less connection with their peers (see sample icebreakers below ). For additional support with building community in your course, see the CTL’s Community Building in Online and Hybrid (HyFlex) Courses resource. (Although this resource emphasizes online and hybrid/HyFlex modalities, the strategies provided are applicable across all course modalities.)

Establish class norms around discussion and participation

How can you communicate class norms around discussion and participation on day one?

The first class meeting is an opportunity to warm students up to class discussion and participation from the outset. Rather than letting norms of passivity establish over the first couple of weeks, you can use the first class meeting to signal to students they will be expected to participate or interact with their peers regularly. You might ask students to do a welcoming icebreaker on the first day, or you might invite questions and syllabus discussion. No matter the activity, establishing a norm around discussion and participation at the outset will help warm students up to participating and contributing to later discussions; these norms can also be further supported by your discussion guidelines . Icebreakers: Icebreakers are a great way to establish a positive course climate and encourage student-student, as well as instructor-student, interactions. Some ideas for icebreaker activities related to discussion include:

(Meta)Discussion about Discussions: In small groups during class, or using a CourseWorks discussion board , students introduce themselves to each other, and share their thoughts on what are the qualities of good and bad discussions.
Course Content: Ask students to share their thoughts about a big question that the course addresses or ask students what comes to mind when they think of an important course concept. You could even ask students to scan the syllabus and share about a particular topic or reading they are most excited about.

Engaging in Classroom Discussion

With all of your preparation and planning complete, there are some important considerations you will need to make with both your students and yourself in mind. This section offers some strategies for engaging in classroom discussion.

Involve students in discussion

How will you engage all of your students in the discussion? How will you make discussion and your expectations about student participation explicit and integral to the class?

Involving your students in class discussion will allow for more student voices and perspectives to be contributed to the conversation. You might consider leveraging the time before and after class or office hours to have informal conversations and build rapport with students. Additionally, having students rotate roles and responsibilities can keep them focused and engaged.

Student roles: Engage all students by asking them to volunteer for and rotate through roles such as facilitator, summarizer, challenger, etc. In large-enrollment courses, these roles can be assigned in small group or pair discussions. For an asynchronous discussion, roles might include: discussion starter / original poster, connector to research, connector to theory. Additional roles might include: timekeeper, notetaker, discussion starter, wrapper, and student monitor:

Discussion starter / original poster: Involve students in initiating the discussion. Designate 2–3 students per discussion to spark the conversation with a question, quotation, an example, or link to previous course content.
Discussion wrapper: Engage students in facilitating the discussion. Help students grasp take-aways. Designate 2-3 students per discussion to wrap up the discussion by identifying themes, extracting key ideas, or listing questions to explore further.
Student monitor: Ask a student (on a rotating basis) or TA(s) if applicable, to monitor the Zoom chat (in hybrid/HyFlex courses) or the CourseWorks Discussion Boards (when leveraging asynchronous discussion spaces). The monitors can then flag important points for the class or read off the questions that are being posed.

Student-generated questions: Prepare students for discussion and involve them in asking and answering peer questions about the topic. Invite students to post questions to a CourseWorks Discussion before class, or share their questions during the discussion. If students are expected to respond to their peer’s questions, they need to be told and guided how to do so. Highlight and use insightful student questions to prime or further the discussion.

Student-led presentations: In smaller seminar-style classes or labs, invite students to give informal presentations. You might ask them to share examples that relate to the topic or concept being discussed, or respond to a targeted prompt.

Determine your role in discussion

How will you facilitate discussion? What will your presence be in asynchronous discussion spaces? What can students expect of your role in the discussion?

Make your role (or that of your co-instructor(s) and/or TA(s)) in the discussion explicit so that students know what to expect of your presence, reinforcement of the discussion guidelines, and receipt of feedback.

Actively guide the discussion to make it easy for students to do most of the talking and/or posting. This includes being present, modeling contributions, asking questions, using students’ names, giving timely feedback, affirming student contributions, and making inclusive moves such as including as many voices and perspectives and addressing issues that may arise during a conversation.

For in-class discussions , additional strategies include actively listening, giving students time to think before responding, repeating questions, and warm calling. (Unlike cold calling, warm calling is when students do pre-work and are told in advance that they will be asked to share their or their group’s response. This technique can minimize student anxiety, as well as produce higher quality responses.)
For asynchronous discussions , additional strategies include having parallel discussions in small groups on CourseWorks, and inviting students to post videos, audio clips, or images such as drawings, maps, charts, etc.

Manage the discussion and intervene when necessary : Manage dynamics, recognizing that your classroom is influenced by societal norms and expectations that may be inherently inequitable. Moderate the ongoing discussion to make sure all students have the opportunity to contribute. Ask students to explain or provide evidence to support their contributions, connect their contributions to specific course concepts and readings, redirect or keep the conversation on track, and revisit discussion guidelines as needed.

For large-enrollment courses, you might ask TAs or course assistants to join small groups or monitor discussion board posting. While it’s important for students to do most of the talking and posting, TAs can support students in the discussion, and their presence can help keep the discussion on track. If you have TAs who lead discussion sections, you might consider sharing some of these discussion management strategies and considerations with them, and discuss how the discussion sections can and will expand upon discussions from the larger class.

Give students time to think before, during, and after the discussion

Thinking time will allow students to prepare more meaningful contributions to the discussion and creates opportunities for more students, not just the ones that are the quickest to respond, to contribute to the conversation. Comfort with silence is important following a posed question. Some thinking time activities include:

“ Silent meeting ” (Armstrong, 2020): Devote class time to students silently engaging with course materials and commenting in a shared document. You can follow this “silent meeting” with small group discussions. In a large enrollment class, this strategy can allow students to engage more deeply and collaboratively with material and their peers.
Think-Pair-Share : Give students time to think before participating. In response to an open-ended question, ask students to first think on their own for a few minutes, then pair up to discuss their ideas with their partner. Finally, ask a few pairs to share their main takeaways with the whole class.
Discussion pause : Give students time to think and reflect on the discussion so far. Pause the discussion for a few minutes for students to independently restate the question, issue, or problem, and summarize the points made. Encourage students to write down new insights, unanswered questions, etc.
Extend the discussion: Encourage students to continue the class discussion by leveraging asynchronous course spaces (e.g.: CourseWorks discussion board). You may ask students to summarize the discussion, extend the discussion by contributing new ideas, or pose follow-up questions that will be discussed asynchronously or used to begin the next in-class discussion.
Polls to launch the discussion : Pose a poll closed-ended question and give students time to think and respond individually. See responses in real time and ask students to discuss the results. This can be a great warm up activity for a pair, small group, or whole class discussion, especially in large classes in which it may be more challenging to engage all students.

Wrapping up Classroom Discussion

Ensure that the discussion meets the learning objectives of the course or class session, and that students are leaving the discussion with the knowledge and skills that you want them to acquire. Give students an opportunity to reflect on and share what they have learned. This will help them make connections between other class material and previous class discussions. It is also an opportunity for you to gauge how the discussion went and consider what you might need to clarify or shift for future discussions.

Debrief the Discussion

How will you know the discussion has met the learning objectives of the course or class session? How will you ensure students make connections between broader course concepts and the discussion?

Set aside time to debrief the discussion. This might be groups sharing out their discussion take-aways, designated students summarizing the key points made and questions raised, or asking students to reflect and share what they learned. Rather than summarizing the discussion yourself, partner with your students; see the section on Student Roles above for strategies.

Closing Reflection: Ask students to reflect on and process their learning by identifying key takeaways. Carve out 2-5 minutes at the end of class for students to reflect on the discussion, either in writing or orally. You might consider collecting written reflections from students at the end of class, or after class through a Google Form or CourseWorks post. Consider asking students to not only reflect on what they learned from the discussion, but to also summarize key ideas or insights and/or pose new questions.

Collect Feedback, Reflect, Iterate

How will you determine the effectiveness of class discussion? How can you invite students into creating the learning space?

Feedback: Student feedback is a great way to gauge the effectiveness and success of class discussion. It’s important to include opportunities for feedback regularly and frequently throughout the semester; for feedback collection prompts and strategies, see the CTL’s resource on Early and Mid-Semester Student Feedback . You might collect this through PollEverywhere, a Google Form, or CourseWorks Survey. Classes of all sizes and modalities can benefit from collecting this type of feedback from students.

Reflect: Before you engage with your students’ feedback, it’s important to take time and reflect for yourself: How do you think the discussion went? Did your students achieve the learning goals that you had hoped? If not, what might you do differently? You can then couple your own reflection with your students’ feedback to determine what is working well, as well as what might need to change for discussions to be more effective.

Iterate: Not all class discussions will go according to plan, but feedback and reflection can help you identify those key areas for improvement. Share aggregate feedback data with your students, as well as what you hope will go differently in future discussions.

Asynchronous discussion spaces are an effective way for students to prepare for in-class discussion, as well as expand upon what they have already discussed in class. Asynchronous discussion boards also offer a great space for students to reflect upon the discussion, and provide informal feedback.

Columbia Tools to Support Asynchronous Discussion

There are a number of Columbia tools that can support asynchronous discussion spaces. Some options that instructors might consider include:

CourseWorks Discussion boards : CourseWorks discussion boards offer instructors a number of customizable options including: threaded or focused discussions , post “like” functionality , graded discussion posts , group discussions , and more. For further support with your CourseWorks discussion board, see the CTL’s CourseWorks Support Page or contact the CTL at [email protected] to set up a consultation.
Ed Discussion (via CourseWorks): Starting in Fall 2021, instructors will have access to Ed Discussion within their CourseWorks site. For support on getting started with Ed Discussion, see their Quick Start Guide , or contact the CTL at [email protected] . For strategies and examples on how to enhance your course’s asynchronous discussion opportunities using Ed Discussion’s advanced features, refer to Enhance your Course Discussion Boards for Learning: Three Strategies Using Ed Discussion .

References and Further Reading

Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.

Armstrong, B. (2020). To Spark Discussion in a Zoom Class, Try a ‘Silent Meeting .’ The Chronicle of Higher Education. November 18, 2020.

Barkley, E.F. (2010). Student Engagement Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty . Jossey-Bass.

Barkley, E.F.; Major, C.H.; and Cross, K.P. (2014). Collaborative Learning Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty . Second Edition. Jossey-Bass.

Barnard Center for Engaged Pedagogy. (2021). Crafting community agreements .

Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (2016). The Discussion Book: 50 Great Ways to Get People Talking . Wiley.

Cashin, W.E. (2011). Effective Classroom Discussions . IDEA Paper #49. Retrieved from www.ideaedu.org

Center for Research on Teaching and Learning. Guidelines For Classroom Interactions. Retrieved from http://www.crlt.umich.edu/examples-discussion-guidelines

Davis, B.G. (2009). Tools for Teaching , 2 nd Edition.

Hancock, C., & Rowland, B. (2017). Online and out of synch: Using discussion roles in online asynchronous discussions. Cogent Education, 4(1).

Howard, J.R. (2015). Discussion in the College Classroom: Getting Your Students Engaged and Participating in Person and Online . Wiley.

Howard, J.R. (2019) How to Hold a Better Class Discussion: Advice Guide. Chronicle of Higher Education. https://www.chronicle.com/interactives/20190523-ClassDiscussion

The K. Patricia Cross Academy. Making Good Use of Online Discussion Boards. Retrieved from https://kpcrossacademy.org/making-good-use-of-online-discussion-boards/

Read more about Columbia undergraduate students’ experiences with discussion

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Discussion methods are a variety of forums for open-ended, collaborative exchange of ideas among a teacher and students or among students for the purpose of furthering students thinking, learning, problem solving, understanding, or literary appreciation. Participants present multiple points of view, respond to the ideas of others, and reflect on their own ideas in an effort to build their knowledge, understanding, or interpretation of the matter at hand.

Discussions may occur among members of a dyad, small group, or whole class and be teacher-led or student-led. They frequently involve discussion of a written text, though discussion can also focus on a problem, issue, or topic that has its basis in a “text” in the larger sense of the term (e.g., a discipline, the media, a societal norm). Other terms for discussions used for pedagogical purposes are instructional conversations (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988) and substantive conversations (Newmann, 1990).

A defining feature of discussion is that students have considerable agency in the construction of knowledge, understanding, or interpretation. In other words, they have considerable “interpretive authority” for evaluating the plausibility or validity of participants responses.

Source: ASHA Education

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Discussion as a teaching and learning strategy

A guide for classroom teachers, teacher aides and school managers.

Discussions – an interactive activity where students talk with each other about a central topic, problem or concept (sometimes, but not always, to find a consensus or solution).

Teacher assistant reading and discussing a book with students.

A discussion is the exchange of ideas by 2 or more people related to a central topic or problem. In the classroom setting, discussions mainly refer to whole-of-class activities facilitated or led by the teacher. Students may or may not be seeking an answer to a problem. Ideally, a classroom discussion consists mainly of student participation; the teacher merely facilitates and prompts students to keep the discussion flowing. Discussions are a great activity that add vibrancy, excitement, engagement, social interaction, reflection and introspection to the classroom dynamic. In a well-planned and executed discussion activity, students build on each other’s ideas and provide suggestions to each other. Discussions are similar to brainstorms in that students’ collective knowledge is pooled and shared for the benefit of the group. Many teachers use discussions as a formative assessment task – asking questions and posing ideas to check the current level of understanding.

In a well-planned and executed discussion activity, students build on each other’s ideas and provide suggestions to each other.

Students may need to learn how to participate in a discussion. This includes learning about the purpose of discussions, how to contribute and how to communicate their ideas effectively. Shy students need to learn how to ensure that they are heard. Loud students need to learn how to moderate their dominance. All students can learn how to engage in back-and-forth dialogue in a collegial manner. Students can also be taught how to appropriately reply to opinions and comments that they disagree with.

Finally, students can be taught how to ask thought-provoking questions to the class, such as ‘but if that is the case then why does…’ or ‘I agree but then what if … happens?’. One way to achieve this is to show students short clips of people engaged in respectful discussions and disagreements followed by a few questions and a hopefully a short class discussion. Allocating 5-10 minutes to teach these interpersonal skills is time well spent.

It’s important for teachers to consider the following when planning a discussion:

Will it be a whole-of-class activity or small group?
How long will it go for?
How much will you contribute during the discussion?
What will it be based around (for example, questions, issues, concepts, ideas, case studies, etc.)?
What is the point of the discussion? How does it help students meet their goals?

Hint: visualise what you want the discussion to look like and plan to achieve that image. Following the discussion, spend a couple of minutes thinking about how it went and how you could improve the process next time.

Once these questions have been answered, the planning phase can begin. Small group discussions are the easiest. They usually involve dividing learners into groups of 3-5 and providing 1 or more questions or topics to discuss. Discussion topics should not be too specific or too broad. Advise students if a solution is expected or if multiple answers are acceptable. Each group can be asked to present their ideas to the class. Consider the amount of time given for small-group discussions: an exact timeframe (such as 4 minutes) is better than an open-ended timeframe. A sand timer adds a sense of drama. Group discussions are often combined with a graphic organiser of some kind such as a brainstorm or jigsaw template (a large piece of paper that each group adds to).

Hint: class discussions can be as short as a few minutes or as long as an entire lesson.

Whole class discussions are much more challenging. Begin by outlining the purpose of the discussion, such as ‘today I want us to talk about… and there are 3 key questions that we need to answer…’. Setting clear expectations is also important – ‘I hope everyone has at least 2-3 things to say. Please be respectful and don’t interrupt each other – hands up to speak and I will point at you when it is your turn.’ While some discussions naturally flow, others are hard to get going. A simple technique to encourage free flowing discussions is as follows:

Pose a question.
Ask for a response (and wait for it).
Bounce to the next student (‘what do you think Peter?’).
Continue bouncing for 4-6 students.
Pose another question.

Remember to praise any student’s attempt to take part in the discussion. This will encourage future participation. At the end of the discussion, spend time reviewing the activity with your students. Ask your students how they think they went, whether they think they contributed enough and how they could do better next time.

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Teaching with Discussions

Resource overview.

Leading discussions can be one of the most rewarding, and most challenging, teaching methods. Using discussions as a primary teaching method allows you to stimulate critical thinking. As you establish a rapport with your students, you can demonstrate that you appreciate their contributions at the same time that you challenge them to think more deeply and to articulate their ideas more clearly.

Getting Started

Create a comfortable, non-threatening environment. Introduce yourself and explain your interests in the topic on the first day. Encourage questions from the outset. For example, require each student to submit a question about the course during the first day or week. Students can submit these questions via an online discussion forum; this assignment can also serve as a way for you to ensure that they have each figured out how to log on to a discussion forum that you are using throughout the course.

Arrange the chairs in a configuration that will allow students to see and speak with one another. Move the chairs back to their standard configuration after the class session has ended. (In University-managed classrooms, the standard configuration is displayed on a diagram posted near the door.)

Get to know your students and the skills and perspectives they bring to the discussions. Learn your students’ names during the first week of class. Consistently use their names when calling on them and when referring to comments they have made in class or in threaded email discussions. Using their names will convince them that you see them each as individuals with something valuable to add, thus creating an environment of mutual trust and interest. This strategy will also encourage the students to refer to one another by name.

You can start learning your students’ names before the semester begins by using WebFAC to print your roster (with photos). Bring the printed roster to class and use it to take attendance on the first day. After class and before the next one, refresh your memory of names and faces by looking over the roster again.

Understanding your students’ skills and perspectives can help you to develop specific ways of challenging each of them to think critically and express ideas clearly.

Clarify the rules and expectations for discussions at the outset. Define what you think of as a successful discussion (for example, one that includes participation by all group members, stays on topic, and explores issues in-depth and from a variety of perspectives.) Make it clear that good discussions rarely happen without effort. Distribute or post on the board a list of rules and expectations that will promote successful discussions. For example, to discourage students from monopolizing the discussion or interrupting one another, indicate whether it will be necessary for students to raise their hands and be called on before speaking; this decision will depend on your preference and on the size of the class.

You might also consider opening the discussion on the first day of class with small-group discussions about effective discussions and how to achieve them. Then, reconvene the class as a whole to formulate together the guidelines for discussion that the class will follow the rest of the semester. Less experienced students will require more guidance with this task. For all groups, however, having the students take a role in formulating the rules will mean that they will be more invested in following them.

Communicate to students the importance of discussion to their success in the course as a whole. If you use discussions on a regular basis, assign grades for student participation. Inform students of the specific criteria that you will use. For example, will you evaluate the frequency and quality of their contributions, as well as how effectively they each respond to others’ comments? Will you include in each participation grade the student’s performance on informal writing, online discussions, minor group projects, or other work? If you grade class participation, give students preliminary grades and brief written evaluations as early as 3-4 weeks into the semester and at midterm so that they will know where they stand. Your written evaluation can be designed to encourage the quiet students to talk more often and the verbose students to hold their comments to give others a chance to participate).

No matter how often you use discussions in your course, you can underscore their importance by ensuring that you discuss material that later appears on exams and by integrating students’ contributions (with attribution) into subsequent lectures, discussions, and assignments.

Plan and prepare the discussion. Develop clear goals and a specific plan for each session. Compose specific questions that will move the discussion forward, illuminate major points, and prompt students to offer evidence for their assertions and to consider other points of view.

Provide a structure. Write an outline or list of guiding questions on the board before you begin the discussion. Each session should have a clear beginning, middle, and end. Respond to student contributions in ways that move the discussion forward and keep it focused on the topic at hand.

Throughout the Discussion

At appropriate points in the session, summarize the major ideas and write them on the board. If you do not do this, students will have a hard time picking out the most important ideas from the discussion and understanding their significance. Writing on the board is particularly helpful for students who are visual learners.

Combine discussions with other methods. Plan to use brief lectures to introduce complex topics or to clarify the larger concepts that the current set of readings investigates (see Teaching with Lectures). Beginning on the first day, use frequent small-group work: divide the class into groups of 2-4 students, then give each group a focused assignment, with specific objectives and roles that they should each take on in order to complete the assignment. Assign students brief writing assignments, such as writing a set of questions or a brief reflective piece that will serve as the basis for in-class discussions. Consider supplementing class discussions with threaded, online discussions that you monitor. Small-group discussions, writing assignments, and online discussions can be effective methods for encouraging participation by students who are uncomfortable speaking in large groups and for enabling students to learn from one another.

Integrate student responses into the discussion without making the discussion merely a student-teacher interaction. Ask students to respond directly to one another’s ideas. The use of small-group discussions will allow students to become better acquainted and thus facilitate their communication with one another.

Use verbal and non-verbal cues to encourage participation. Especially near the beginning of the semester, call on all students to answer questions, not just those who consistently raise their hands. Make eye contact and move around the room to engage the attention of all the students and to communicate that you expect each of them to participate.

Create a balance between controlling the group dynamic and letting group members speak. While you are charged with facilitating the discussion from the perspective of an expert knowledgeable in the subject, the aim of the discussion is not to bring students around to your way of thinking, but rather to create the opportunity for students to think critically—to question assumptions, to consider multiple viewpoints, and to develop knowledge of the subject. Actively seek contributions from as many students as possible in a given session; if a few students want to speak all the time, remind them that you value their contributions but would like to hear from others as well.

Show respect for all questions and comments. Listen carefully. Thank students for their contributions. Point out what is valuable about your students’ arguments, whether or not you agree with them. Develop helpful responses to incorrect answers or comments that are not sufficiently related to the issue currently being discussed. Take students’ ideas seriously: help them clarify their thinking by asking them to provide evidence for their arguments and to respond to ideas and arguments offered by other students.

Do not answer your own questions. Give students 5-10 seconds to think and formulate a response. If 10-15 seconds pass without anyone volunteering an answer and the students are giving you puzzled looks, rephrase your question. Do not give in to the temptation to answer your own questions, which will condition students to hesitate before answering to see if you will supply “the answer.” Patience is key; do not be afraid of silence. The longer you wait for students to respond, the more thoughtful and complex their responses are likely to be.

After the Discussion

Rethink, retool, revise. Each time you facilitate a discussion, you learn something about how best to approach the topic. Take brief notes on how each discussion went and use these as the basis for reorganizing your plan for the discussion, improving your presentation skills, rethinking the material included or developing ideas for future teaching and research projects. Include these notes in your file for the course so that they are readily accessible the next time you teach the course.

Speak with your colleagues about their approaches and ideas. Stay abreast of new scholarship on teaching and teaching with technology. Arrange to have one of your classes observed or videotaped so that an observer can help you evaluate what went well and what you can do to improve student learning. To schedule a class observation or videotaping, contact The Teaching Center at 935-6810.

Leading discussions can be a stimulating, enjoyable way to teach. Keep in mind, however, that many students—especially those who are new to a university environment—will not come into your course with highly developed discussion skills. Moreover, leading an effective discussion does not always come naturally to the instructor. No matter what level of students you are teaching, you must carefully prepare and actively facilitate the discussions to ensure that they are disciplined and inclusive and that they promote learning.

Brookfield, Stephen D. and Stephen Preskill. Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2005.

Davis, Barbara Gross. Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993.

“Encouraging Interaction in Science and Engineering Classes.” The McGraw Center. Princeton University. https://mcgraw.princeton.edu/node/661 .

“Facilitating Discussions in Humanities and Social Science.” The McGraw Center. Princeton University. https://mcgraw.princeton.edu/node/656 .

McKeachie, Wilbert, et al. McKeachie’s Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers. 12th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005.

Warren, Lee. “Managing Hot Moments in the Classroom.” Derek Bok Center for Teaching and Learning. Harvard University. http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/html/icb.topic58474/hotmoments.html .

“What to Do When Class Discussion Stalls.” The McGraw Center. Princeton University. https://mcgraw.princeton.edu/node/1271 .

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Discussion is important to learning in all disciplines because it helps students process information rather than simply receive it. Leading a discussion requires skills different from lecturing. The goal of a discussion is to get students to practice thinking about the course material. Your role becomes that of facilitator. You design and facilitate the discussion rather than convey information. If you want to hold a discussion, don’t do all the talking yourself; don’t lecture to the group or talk to one student at a time.

Preparing for Discussions

To start planning a discussion (or any instruction, for that matter) decide what you want your students to get out of the discussion. For example, do you want them to share responses, make new connections, and articulate the implications of a text? Should they be able to work certain problems by the end of the hour? Should they be able to interpret and critique a journalistic photograph or a piece of art? Deciding on and articulating the objective for the discussion will help you decide what kinds of discussion activities will best help your students reach that objective. Remember that you can organize a discussion in many different ways: you can have students work in small groups, role-play, choose sides for a debate, or write and share a paragraph in response to the theme in question 1 . You will also want to leave time to wrap up and summarize the discussion for your students (or have students summarize it), or to debrief after activities such as debates or role-plays.

Develop a Clear Goal for the Discussion

Knowing the content to be covered is not enough. Naming the chapter your students will read is not enough. If you’ve only thought as far as, “I want students to know ...” you haven't thought through enough what needs to be accomplished. You should be able to articulate what the students will be able to do with the information or ideas. For example, in a philosophy class for which students have read a chapter on epistemologies or theories of knowledge, you might want students to be able to construct legitimate arguments for and against any epistemology about which they have read.

Problematize the Topic

Having a clear goal in mind makes it much easier to plan a discussion. You know what you want students to get out of it. But it is not enough: An instructor at IU several years ago told the story of how she wanted her students to deal with the issue of prejudice. She tried to start discussion merely by saying “Discuss prejudice.” No one spoke. She then asked if anyone had seen prejudice. One student raised a hand. When she asked what it was like, the student merely said “awful.” She had a goal, but not a problem or an activity to get the students to engage the ideas to achieve the goal.

The opposite end of the spectrum is also a problem. While “Discuss prejudice” is too open-ended, merely asking for the basic facts won’t work either. You’ve probably heard a professor rattle off a list of questions that require only brief factual replies and little student involvement:

Q. When was the Battle of Hastings? A. 1066.

The result could hardly be called a discussion. So, give your students an open-ended problem to solve, a task to complete, a judgment to reach, a decision to make, or a list to create—something that begs for closure.

Select a Discussion Format

Many discussion activities can be used in the classroom. Choose one that will help your students meet your goals for the discussion. The more specific you can be in assigning the task, the more likely your students will be to succeed at it. Consider the protocols for tasks such as Think-Pair-Share, Affinity Mapping, Chalk Talk and other conversation structures.

Choose a Method to Assign Students to Groups

When assigning students to groups, consider the following questions.

How big should the groups be: Two to six is ideal. Smaller groups (two-three) are better for simple tasks and reaching consensus. Also, students are more likely to speak in smaller groups. Larger groups of four-five are better for more complex tasks and generating lots of ideas.
How should students be assigned to groups: Randomly assigning students to groups avoids the problem of friends wanting to get off track. For long-term groups, you may want to select for certain attributes or skills (e.g. a statistician, a geology major, and a writer) or by interest in the topic, if different groups have different tasks.
How long should the groups meet: Just for this activity or for all semester. Stop the discussion groups while they are still hard at work; next time, they will work doubly hard. Long-term groups allow students to practice collaborative skills and make stronger bonds, but sometimes they get tired of each other.

Choose a Debriefing Method

Always debrief students; it is the most important part of a discussion, the time to summarize and synthesize. Most of learning in discussions happens during debriefing, so don't squeeze it in—a rule of thumb is to use one-third of the total discussion time for debriefing.

You can use debriefing to correct incorrect notions. You can slip in any points that students neglected but that are important. You can pick which student reports from each group, though you should tell them in advance that you plan to do this. This makes everyone in the group responsible. You don’t have to hear back from every group, but can instead choose a few at random. When groups start repeating ideas, it’s time to stop.

Many techniques can get students to share what their smaller groups have done with the entire class: verbally, on newsprint/flipchart, blackboard or overhead, ditto/photocopy, etc. And you don't have to hear from everyone; calling on a few groups at random to report works quite well. To encourage student cross-team competition in Team-Based Learning, reporting out from groups is simultaneous. Answers can be posted to a Powerpoint slide or pieces of newsprint hung on walls of class.

Problems with Discussion

Getting Started: Students are often reluctant to get down to work in a discussion. Students are more likely to join in discussion if you divide them into pairs or small groups and assign a specific discussion question. After a few minutes of small group discussion, ask several groups to report out their ideas to the entire class. This often helps to get discussion going because students have had a chance to “try out” their ideas on their peers. Alternatively, give students time to write individually before opening up a discussion; they are much more likely to speak up if they have some notes to speak from. Further, by allowing for this kind of pre-discussion activity, you will be able to ask more complex and interesting questions. At the same time you will be promoting equity in the conversation, allowing everyone in the class to gather his or her thoughts before speaking rather than privileging the bold or the entitled, who can otherwise dominate the discussion.
Attendance: Despite the fact that discussion section participation is a requirement for many introductory courses, students may believe that their attendance is not mandatory since the AI rather than the professor is in charge. Therefore you may want to devise a way to structure required assignments, projects or presentations into your sections so that section participation will be a part of the final course grade. If students know that the AI has some responsibility for determining their grades, that AI will have considerably more authority in the classroom or in any interactions with students.
Losing Control: One fear about discussion is the possibility that the discussion will be TOO enthusiastic or not remain civil. Develop ground rules as a class. Gently, students can be reminded that behavior X (e.g., interrupting, blatantly ignoring the conversation, showing disrespect) is not appropriate in the context of the rules the class agreed on. If no rules have been established, or if the inappropriate behavior doesn’t seem to fit under the rules, you should address it immediately. Otherwise, you send a message to the students that such behavior is acceptable. Often, simply walking toward the student(s) will resolve the problem, as they will see that you are paying attention. Sometimes, however, you will need to address the problem directly. Try not to get rattled—take a deep breath, allow some silence, and then respond. This gives you some time to plan a response that models for the students how to handle a difficult situation. Remember: never shame or humiliate a student, and don’t take student remarks personally—although an attack may seem personal, it may be directed at authority figures in general rather than at you in particular.
Discussion Monopolizers: If the same students answer all the time, you might say, “Let’s hear from someone else.” Then don’t call on students who have already spoken. Do not allow one student to speak for an inordinate amount of class time. Take that person aside and ask him or her to limit comments in class. If the student does not respond to this hint, tell him or her an exact number of times he or she will be allowed to respond in class, and do not call on him or her after that number has been reached in any class period.
Controversial Topics: If you teach charged topics, prepare students for discussing them. For an article about how to build up the skills necessary to discuss sensitive topics, see “ Controlled Fission: Teaching Supercharged Subjects ” (Pace, 2003).

Strategies for Building Discussion throughout a Class Session

Delay the problem-solving part until the rest of the discussion has had time to develop. Start with expository questions to clarify the facts, then move to analysis, and finally to evaluation, judgment, and recommendations.
Shift points of view : “Now that we’ve seen it from [W’s] standpoint, what’s happening here from [Y’s] standpoint?” "What evidence would support Y’s position?" "What are the dynamics between the two positions?"
Shift levels of abstraction : if the answer to the question above is “It’s just a bad situation for her,” quotations help: "When [Y] says “_____,” what are her assumptions?" Or seek more concrete explanations: "Why does she hold this point of view?”
Ask for benefits/disadvantages of a position for all sides.
Shift time frame —not just to “What’s next?” but also to “How could this situation have been different?” "What could have been done earlier to head off this conflict and turn it into a productive conversation?" "Is it too late to fix this?" "What are possible leverage points for a more productive discussion?" "What good can come of the existing situation?"
Shift to another context : "We see how a person who thinks X would see the situation. How would a person who thinks Y see it?" "We see what happened in the Johannesburg news, how could this be handled in [your town/province]?" "How might [insert person, organization] address this problem?"
Follow-up questions : “What do you mean by ___?” Or, “Could you clarify what you said about ___?” (even if it was a pretty clear statement—this gives students time for thinking, developing different views, and exploration in more depth). Or “How would you square that observation with what [name of person] pointed out?”
Point out and acknowledge differences in discussion —“that’s an interesting difference from what Sam just said, Sarah. Let’s look at where the differences lie.” (Let sides clarify their points before moving on).
Compare topics from a previous week —“Use the four systems of though/intellectual movements we have studied to create a slide that answers the following questions...”

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Chapter 3: Methods of teaching: campus-focused

3.8 Main conclusions

3.8.1 relating epistemology, learning theories and teaching methods, 3.8.1.1 pragmatism trumps ideology in teaching.

Although there is often a direct relationship between a method of teaching, a learning theory and an epistemological position, this is by no means always the case. It is tempting to try to put together a table and neatly fit each teaching method into a particular learning theory, and each theory into a particular epistemology, but unfortunately education is not as tidy as computer science, so it would be misleading to try to do a direct ontological classification. For instance a transmissive lecture might be structured so as to further a cognitivist rather than a behaviourist approach to learning, or a lecture session may combine several elements, such as transmission of information, learning by doing, and discussion.

Purists may argue that it is logically inconsistent for a teacher to use methods that cross epistemological boundaries (and it may certainly be confusing for students) but teaching is essentially a pragmatic profession and teachers will do what it takes to get the job done. If students need to learn facts, principles, standard procedures or ways of doing things, before they can start an informed discussion about their meaning, or before they can start solving problems, then a teacher may well consider behaviourist methods to lay this foundation before moving to more constructivist approaches later in a course or program.

3.8.1.2 Teaching methods are not determined by technology

Secondly technology applications such as MOOCs or video recorded lectures may replicate exactly a particular teaching method or approach to learning used in the classroom. In many ways methods of teaching, theories of learning and epistemologies are independent of a particular technology or medium of delivery, although we shall see in Chapters 8, 9 and 10 that technologies can be used to transform teaching, and a particular technology will in some cases further one method of teaching more easily than other methods, depending on the characteristics or ‘affordances’ of that technology.

Thus, teachers who are aware of not only a wide array of teaching methods, but also of learning theories and their epistemological foundation will be in a far better position to make appropriate decisions about how to teach in a particular context. Also, as we shall see, having this kind of understanding will also facilitate an appropriate choice of technology for a particular learning task or context.

3.8.2 Relating teaching methods to the knowledge and skills needed in a digital age

The main purpose of this chapter has been to enable you as a teacher to identify the classroom teaching methods that are most likely to support the development of the knowledge and skills that students or learners will need in a digital age. We still have a way to go before we have all the information and tools needed to make this decision, but we can at least have a stab at it from here, while recognising that such decisions will depend on a wide variety of factors, such as the nature of the learners and their prior knowledge and experience, the demands of particular subject areas, the institutional context in which teachers and learners find themselves, and the likely employment context for learners.

First, we can identify a number of different types of skills needed:

conceptual skills, such as knowledge management, critical thinking, analysis, synthesis, problem-solving, creativity/innovation, experimental design;
developmental or personal skills, such as independent learning, communications skills, ethics, networking, responsibility and teamwork;
digital skills, embedded within and related to a particular subject or professional domain;
manual and practical skills, such as machine or equipment operation, safety procedures, observation and recognition of data, patterns, and spatial factors.

We can also identify that in terms of content, we need teaching methods that enable students to manage information or knowledge, rather than methods that merely transmit information to students.

There are several key points for a teacher or instructor to note:

the teacher needs to be able to identify/recognise the skills they are hoping to develop in their students;
these skills are often not easily separated but tend to be contextually based and often integrated;
teachers need to identify appropriate methods and contexts that will enable students to develop these skills;
students will need practice to develop such skills;
students will need feedback and intervention from the teacher and other students to ensure a high level of competence or mastery in the skill;
an assessment strategy needs to be developed that recognises and rewards students’ competence and mastery of such skills.

In a digital age, just choosing a particular teaching method such as seminars or apprenticeship is not going to be sufficient. It is unlikely that one method, such as transmissive lectures, or seminars, will provide a rich enough learning environment for a full range of skills to be developed within the subject area. It is necessary to provide a rich learning environment for students to develop such skills that includes contextual relevance, and opportunities for practice, discussion and feedback. As a result, we are likely to combine different methods of teaching.

Secondly, this chapter has focused mainly on classroom or campus-based approaches to teaching. In the next chapter a range of teaching methods that incorporate online/digital technologies will be examined. So it would be foolish at this stage to say that any single method, such as seminars, or apprenticeship, or nurturing, is the best method for developing the knowledge and skills needed in a digital age. At the same time, the limitations of transmissive lectures, especially if they are used as the main method for teaching, are becoming more apparent.

Key Takeaways

This list of classroom or campus-based teaching methods is not meant to be exhaustive or comprehensive. The aim is to show that there many different ways to teach, and all are in some ways legitimate in certain circumstances. Most instructors will mix and match different methods, depending on the needs of both the subject matter and the needs of their students at a particular time. There are though some core conclusions to be drawn from this comparative review of different approaches to teaching.

No single method is likely to meet all the requirements teachers face in a digital age.
Nevertheless, some forms of teaching fit better with the development of the skills needed in a digital age. In particular, methods that focus on conceptual development, such as dialogue and discussion, knowledge management (rather than information transmission), and experiential learning in real-world contexts, are all methods more likely to develop the high level conceptual skills required in a digital age.
It is not just conceptual skills though that are needed. It is the combination of conceptual, practical, personal and social skills in highly complex situations that are needed. This again means combining a variety of teaching methods.
Nearly all of these teaching methods are media or technology independent. In other words, they can be used in classrooms or online. What matters from a learning perspective is not so much the choice of technology as the efficacy and expertise in appropriately choosing and using the teaching method.
Nevertheless, we shall see in the next chapter that new technologies offer new possibilities for teaching, including offering more practice or time on task, reaching out to new target groups, and increasing the productivity of both teachers and the system as a whole.

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Discussions

Whole-class discussions can encourage students to learn from one another and to articulate course content in their own words. While generally not conducive to covering large amounts of content, the interactive dynamic of discussion can help students learn and motivate them to complete homework and to prepare for class. Leading discussions in which students contribute meaningfully requires a great deal of instructor forethought and creativity. The suggestions below can help you to facilitate good class discussions and improve your classroom climate , a piece of the Fearless Teaching Framework.

Devote a moment to communicating the value of discussion to your students. It may help to convey your rationale for discussion, perhaps deepening not only their sense of why they are expected to engage in active learning but also their engagement with the course.

Before Class

Learn students’ names.
Review lesson-related material, even if you have already mastered content. Extemporaneous recall can breed trouble.
Plan. Write out more discussion questions than you think you will need before class begins, but don’t treat your questions like a to do list. Your questions should be a resource for you; they should not inhibit your students from taking the discussion in a productive direction.
If students were assigned reading prior to a class meeting, plan to use the text. You may want to begin class with a short reading from the text and have discussion flow from that reading.

During Discussion

Every student should have an opportunity to speak.
Encourage students to look and talk to each other rather than to just look and talk to you. Too often “discussions” take the format of a dialogue between teacher and a series of students.
Before the discussion starts, ask your students to take several minutes to write down everything they know about the topic of the discussion. This will prime them for the discussion.
If possible, make the class space more conducive to discussion. Arrange seats in a circle or in a manner that enables students to see each other easily. Don’t let students sit in seats that are outside this discussion space.
After asking a question, wait at least eight to ten seconds before calling on someone to answer it (measure the time by counting silently to yourself). Otherwise, you signal they need only wait a few seconds for the “right” answer to discussion questions.

Posing discussion questions

Ask questions that encourage responses from several people (“What do the rest of you think about that?”)
Use phrasing that implies that the students are a learning community (“Are we in agreement?” / “Do we have any differences of opinion?”)
Recall specific information
Describe topics and phenomena
Apply abstract concepts to concrete situations
Connect the general with the specific
Combine topics or concepts to form new topics or concepts
Evaluate information
Avoid yes/no questions – Don’t phrase questions in a way that the students can answer in one word (“Is X true?”). Open-ended questions elicit student thought (“In what way has X impacted Y?”)
Avoid asking, “Are there any questions?” This implies you have finished talking about a topic. Sensing that you have said your piece, students may only ask questions about minor points of clarification or will simply hope that rereading the textbook will answer their questions. Consider asking instead, “Is there anything that is unclear or needs further clarification?”
Avoid dissertation questions. If you want your students to entertain broad questions, break the question down into smaller queries that students are more able to address.

Dignify your students

Avoid a style of questioning that is designed to punish inattentive or lazy students.
Refer to your students by name. This models the intellectual community.
Treat your students like experts. If a student makes a good comment, refer back to that comment in subsequent discussions (e.g., “Do you recall what Henry said last week? How does this new information confirm or deny his conclusion?”).
Allow a student to “pass” on a question, but come back to him or her later in class.
Admit when you make a mistake in class. Similarly if a student asks you a question to which you do not know the answer, promise to research the question after class or to provide students with appropriate resources to find the answer him or herself.
Keep the discussion focused.
State the discussion topic at the beginning of the class.
Periodically summarize the main themes/points brought out in discussion. Consider writing these main themes/points on the board.

End discussion smoothly

Review the main points of the discussion or ask a student, notified previously, to review the main points.
At the end of the discussion, allow students to write down any conclusions or lingering questions they have. Perhaps, ask them how the discussion affected their views on a topic or their understanding of a concept. Ask several students to share these.
Point out how the day’s discussion will tie in with the next discussion.

Specific Types of Large Group Discussions

Developmental Discussion is a technique in which a large group breaks down the problem-solving process into stages that approximate the scientific method. In the first part of class, students collectively identify a problem. Next, they suggest hypotheses concerning the problem, muster relevant data, evaluate alternative interpretations of the data, and assess the ability of the data to address the problem they identified at the beginning of class.

When using Discussion Clusters , members of a class are divided into smaller groups of four to six people, and the clusters are given one or two questions on a subject. One member of the cluster is chosen to record and report the group’s ideas to the entire class. This technique is particularly useful in larger classes and can encourage shy students to participate.

In a Panel Discussion , a selected group of students act as a panel, and the remaining class members act as the audience. The panel informally discusses selected questions. A panel leader is chosen and he/she summarizes the panel discussion and opens discussion to the audience.

Debate Discussion is a technique appropriate for discussing a controversial issue. The class is divided into two sides of pro/con or either/or, and each side and each speaker has a limited amount of time to speak. The object of the activity is to construct reasoned arguments that address the material and consider the arguments of the other side. Beware not to allow students to discredit fellow class members with ad hominem attacks.

Role Playing is a technique used to develop clearer insights into stakeholder positions and the forces that facilitate or hinder positive interactions or relations. Selected group members assume assigned roles (e.g., lawyer, doctor, engineer, diplomat, etc.) and act out an instructor-created scenario (e.g., a town-hall meeting on the ethics of stem cell research). The whole group then analyzes the roles and characteristics of the various players.

Challenges to Discussions

Students who do not contribute : Be attentive to the sensibilities of shy and quiet students; integrate them into the discussion with support. Nervous or inarticulate students may be greatly aided by writing down some thoughts before contributing (even before the class meeting). Encourage them to try that approach.

Students who contribute more than appropriate : Approach students who dominate the discussion. You might suggest they develop some of their discussion points with you via ELMS or email or during office hours or that their contributions are limiting the ability of others to contribute to class discussion. Alternatively, you might resort to restructuring the discussion a little. Make other students responsible for presenting small group discussions, require students to raise their hands, or begin calling on individual students.

Students who fail to respect the discussion and their peers: Make the group responsible for controlling unproductive antagonists by structuring a group response, i.e. articulate the student’s position (on the chalkboard, perhaps), and ask for a response. Of course, students who violate University codes of conduct should be referred to the Office of Student Conduct.

Students who are unprepared: Quizzes or reflections to stimulate out-of-class reading may be effective. Make sure questions are structured to foster discussion based on comprehension.

Eberly Center

Teaching excellence & educational innovation, discussions.

(Some sections adapted from Davis, 1993; Brookfield and Preskill, 1999)

Discussions can be an excellent strategy for enhancing student motivation, fostering intellectual agility, and encouraging democratic habits. They create opportunities for students to practice and sharpen a number of skills, including the ability to articulate and defend positions, consider different points of view, and enlist and evaluate evidence.

While discussions provide avenues for exploration and discovery, leading a discussion can be anxiety-producing: discussions are, by their nature, unpredictable, and require us as instructors to surrender a certain degree of control over the flow of information. Fortunately, careful planning can help us ensure that discussions are lively without being chaotic and exploratory without losing focus. When planning a discussion, it is helpful to consider not only cognitive, but also social/emotional, and physical factors that can either foster or inhibit the productive exchange of ideas.

Cognitive factors:

Determine and communicate learning objectives, plan a strategy.

Ask good questions
Provide direction and maintain focus
Bring closure

Social/emotional factors:

Demonstrate relevance
Encourage participation
Make high-quality participation “count”

Evaluate the discussion

Physical factors:.

Creating a setting conducive for discussion

Cognitive Factors

For discussions to accomplish something valuable, they must have a purpose. Consider your goals for each discussion. How do the ideas and information to be discussed fit into the course as a whole? What skills, knowledge, perspectives, or sensibilities do you want students to walk away from the discussion with? Your goals for a particular discussion should be consistent with your course objectives and values as an instructor. You might, for example, want students to be able to:

Articulate the arguments made by the authors of two assigned readings and assess the evidence used to support them. Evaluate the arguments alone and in comparison with one another and discuss their contemporary policy implications. Or…
Formulate arguments and counter-arguments for a legal position. Or…
Imagine a particular approach to the design of cities and discuss the impact such a design would have on the lives of people in different socioeconomic categories. Suggest and justify design changes to optimize the benefits for the most number of people.

When you can clearly envision the purpose of the discussion, it is easier to formulate stimulating questions and an appropriate strategy for facilitating the discussion. Communicating your objectives to your students, moreover, helps to focus their thinking and motivate participation.

After determining the objectives for your discussion, ask yourself: How will I make sure that students meet these objectives? Plan the discussion out, even if you end up deviating from your plan. Some of the questions to consider when formulating a plan include:

How do I want students to prepare: read a case study? (if so, in class or as homework?) do a team exercise? watch a documentary? reflect on a set of questions?
What questions will I pose to spark or guide discussion? to encourage deeper analysis?
Will I open the discussion to the entire class or ask students to discuss the issue in pairs, small groups, or some combination of the above?
What will I do if students simply aren’t participating? If certain students dominate the discussion?
How will I allocate and manage the time I have?
How will I deal with digressions or unanticipated shifts in topic?
How will I correct students’ misconceptions or inaccuracies without stifling participation?
How will I (or my students) synthesize the ideas at the end of the class period?

Your answers to these questions will depend on your goals. For example, correcting factual inaccuracies might be critical in some circumstances, less so in others. Digressions may be productive if your primary purpose is to explore connections, and undesirable if the goal of your discussion is more focused.

One of the most important things to consider when formulating a strategy is how to get the discussion jump-started. Davis (1993) and Frederick (1981) provide a number of excellent suggestions.

Ask Good Questions

Good questions are the key to a productive discussion. These include not only the questions you use to jump-start discussion but also the questions you use to probe for deeper analysis, ask for clarification or examples, explore implications, etc. It is helpful to think about the various kinds of questions you might ask and the cognitive skills they require to answer. Davis (1993) lists a range of question types, including:

Exploratory questions: probe facts and basic knowledge
Challenge questions: interrogate assumptions, conclusions or interpretations
Relational questions: ask for comparisons of themes, ideas, or issues
Diagnostic questions: probe motives or causes
Action questions: call for a conclusion or action
Cause-and-effect questions: ask for causal relationships between ideas, actions, or events
Extension questions: expand the discussion
Hypothetical questions: pose a change in the facts or issues
Priority questions: seek to identify the most important issue(s)
Summary questions: elicit synthesis

These question types can be mapped onto Bloom’s taxonomy of learning objectives, which shows increasing levels of cognitive complexity as students move from fairly simple tasks (such as recall of information) to more complex tasks (such as synthesis, evaluation, or creation.) While you might frame the entire discussion in terms of a Big Question to grapple with, it is a good general strategy to move from relatively simple, convergent questions (i.e., questions with correct answers, such as “According to this treatise, what is Argentina’s historical claim on the Falklands?” or “What kinds of tax cuts does this bill propose?”) to more complex, divergent questions (i.e., questions with many valid answers, such as “Why did Argentina invade the Falklands?” or “To what extent would this bill’s proposed tax increases resolve the budget deficit?”) (examples from Davis, 1993). Starting with convergent questions helps discussion participants to establish a base of shared knowledge and builds student confidence; it also gives you, the instructor, the opportunity to correct factual inaccuracies or misconceptions before the discussion moves into greater complexity and abstraction. Asking a variety of types of questions can also help to model for students the ways that experts use questions to refine their analyses. For example, an instructor might move an abstract discussion to a concrete level by asking for examples or illustrations, or move a concrete discussion to a broader level by asking students to generate a generalization or implication.

When instructors are nervous that a discussion might flag, they tend to fall prey to some common questioning errors. These include:

Asking too many questions at once: Instructors often make the mistake of asking a string of questions together, e.g., “What do you think the author is trying to say here? Do you agree with him? Is his evidence convincing? Did you like this article?” Students may get confused trying to figure out which question to address first. Asking a number of questions together may also conflate issues you really want to help students distinguish (for example, the author’s thesis versus the kinds of evidence he uses to support it).

Asking a question and answering it yourself: We have all had the experience of asking a question only to encounter blank stares and silence. The temptation under these circumstances is to jump in and answer your own question, if only to relieve the uncomfortable silence. Don’t assume, though, that students’ silence necessarily indicates that they are stumped (or unprepared); sometimes they are simply thinking the question through and formulating an answer. Be careful not to preempt this process by jumping in too early.

Failing to probe or explore the implications of answers: One mistake instructors can make in leading a discussion is not to follow up sufficiently on student contributions. It is important not only to get students talking, but to probe them about their reasoning, ask for evidence, explore the implications of what they say, etc. Follow-up questions push students to think more deeply, to substantiate their claims, and consider the practical impact of particular perspectives.

Asking unconnected questions: In the best discussions, there is a logical progression from question to question so that, ultimately, the discussion tells (or reveals) a story. When you are planning your discussion questions, think about how they fit together.

Asking yes/no or leading questions: Asking questions with a yes/no answer can be the starting point of a good discussion, but only if there is a follow-up question that calls for explanation or substantiation. Otherwise, yes/no questions tend to be conversation-stoppers. By the same token, discussions can stall if the instructor’s questions are overly leading, i.e., if there is clearly an answer the instructor wants, and the students’ task is simply to guess it, rather than to think for himself.

Ignoring or failing to build on answers: If students do not feel like their voices have weight in discussion, their motivation to participate drops. Thus, it is important to acknowledge student contributions, responding enthusiastically when they are insightful (“That’s an excellent point, Sarah; could you elaborate further?”) and pointing out when they contain inaccuracies or problematic reasoning (“Take another look at the article, Tranh; is that really what the author is claiming?”). If you do not wish to play such a directive role yourself – and want students to develop the habit of assessing and responding to one another’s contributions – you can throw student comments back to the class for evaluation (for example, “Do the rest of you agree with John’s recommendation? What would be some possible consequences if this plan of action were followed?”)

Provide Direction and Maintain Focus

Discussions tend to be most productive when they have a clear focus. It may be helpful to write out a few questions that the discussion will address, and return to those questions periodically. Also, summarize key issues occasionally as you go and refocus student attention if the discussion seems to be getting off track (for example, “How do the issues that have just been raised relate to the question originally posed?” or “That’s an interesting point, Alexis, and one we will return to later in the course.”)

While some lulls in discussion are to be expected (while participants are thinking, for example) the instructor must be alert to signs such as these that a discussion is breaking down (Davis, 1993):

Excessive hair-splitting or nit-picking
Repetition of points
Private conversations
Participants taking sides and refusing to compromise
Apathetic participation

If the discussion seems to be flagging, it can help to introduce a new question or alter the task so as to bring a fresh kind of thinking or a different group dynamic to bear. For example, you might switch from discussing an ethical issue in the abstract to a concrete case study, or shift from large-group discussion to small group or pair-work.

Bring Closure

It is important to leave time at the end of the discussion to synthesize the central issues covered, key questions raised, etc. There are a number of ways to synthesize. You could, for example, tell students that one of them (they won’t know who in advance) will be asked at the end of every discussion to identify the major issues, concerns and conclusions generated during discussion. You could also ask students individually to write down what they believe was the most important point, the overall conclusion, and/or a question the discussion raised in their mind (these can be collected and serve as the basis of a follow-up lecture or discussion.) You might also provide students with a set of 2 or 3 “take-home” points synthesizing what you thought were the key issues raised in discussion. Synthesizing the discussion is a critical step for linking the discussion to the original learning objectives and demonstrating progress towards meeting those objectives.

Social and Emotional Factors:

Demonstrate relevance.

While students generally enjoy discussions, they may have difficulty recognizing what they gain from participating in them – in contrast with lectures, in which students may take copious notes and have a sense of having covered clearly discernable ground. This can be particularly true for international students from cultures <link to Cultural Variations> in which discussions are not a regular or valued part of the educational curriculum.

It is helpful to tell students up front how you think the skills they gain from participating in discussion will help them in academic and future pursuits. For example: “The ability to articulate and defend a position thoughtfully and respectfully will serve you well in the work world when you are arguing for a particular policy solution or course of action. Discussions for this class will give you the opportunity to practice that skill.”

Beyond explaining the relevance of discussion in general, it is a good idea to point out the relevance of particular discussions vis-à-vis contemporary social issues, your students’ future plans, etc. For example, “Today we’ll be discussing the advantages of Chinese traditional medicine over Western medicine in the treatment of pain and chronic illness. As we talk, think about a conversation with a colleague in medical school and imagine how you would articulate this argument and suggest a productive fusion of both approaches to medicine.”

Encourage Participation

Many issues can affect students’ willingness to participate in discussions, from cultural background (Are discussion classes new and unfamiliar to them?) to preparedness (Have they done the background work – reading, for example – to prepare for the discussion?) to the kinds of questions asked (Are the questions too difficult or, alternatively, are the answers too obvious?). Below are some strategies that can help encourage meaningful student participation.

Create a discussion climate early. If you want to use discussion in your class, encourage active student participation from the first day of class <link to first day of class html page>. Plan an icebreaker early in the semester that gets students talking and interacting, preferably while doing an activity that is integral to the content material for the course. Also, create a climate in which students feel comfortable taking intellectual risks: respond to their comments respectfully, even when you correct or challenge them, and make sure (perhaps by establishing clear behavioral ground rules) that their peers do as well.

Require students to prepare for discussion. Discussions often break down because students simply haven’t done the reading or work upon which the discussion is based. Discussions tend to be most productive when students have already done some preparatory work for them. It can be helpful to give assignments to help students to prepare for discussion. This could be a set of questions to answer, a question or two to write, an informal one-page (or paragraph) “reflection” on a reading, film, work of art, etc. Brookfield and Preskill (1999), for example, recommend “structured, critical pre-reading” focused on these kinds of questions:

Epistemological questions probe how an author comes to know or believe something to be true
Experiential questions help the student review the text through the lens of his/her relevant personal experiences
Communicative questions ask how the author conveys meaning and whether the forms clarify or confuse
Political questions ask how the work serves to represent certain interests and challenge others

Preparatory assignments help students focus their reading and their thinking, thus facilitating a higher-quality discussion. It is important to note that assigning preparatory work does not necessarily add significant extra work for the instructor, who can collect student prep assignments, glance over them quickly to assess overall comprehension or to identify questions to address in class, and simply mark them Credit/No Credit.

Get to know your students. Students are more likely to participate if they feel that they are recognized as individuals. If at all possible, learn your students’ names and encourage them to learn and use one another’s names. Some faculty members require individual students (or groups of students) to come to their office hours once early in the semester, to get to know them better; others use ice-breaking exercises <link to> early in the semester to lower inhibitions and encourage interaction.

Model exemplary discussion behavior. Often, students must learn how to enter meaningfully into a discussion. One way to encourage students to engage in the style of intellectual exchange you desire is to model good discussion techniques in your own behavior, using language that demonstrates, among other things:

how to build on another individual’s contribution (“As Sunil pointed out…”)
how to ask for clarification (“I’m not sure what you mean, Allie. Can you give a concrete example from one of the readings we’ve had?”)
how to disagree politely (“I’ve got a different take on that issue…”)
how to marshal evidence to support a position (“There are three things in the book that led me to this conclusion. They are…”)

In the interests of modeling a particular style of intellectual exchange, some instructors invite a colleague to their class and engage in a scholarly discussion or debate for the benefit of their students.On its own, instructor modeling is not likely to affect student behavior, however. It is also important to explicitly point out the kinds of discussion skills illustrated above and to distinguish high-quality contributions (e.g. claims that are substantiated with evidence, comments which effectively build on other student comments) from lower-quality contributions (e.g. unsubstantiated claims, opinions based purely on personal taste, etc.)

Create ground rules. Explicit ground rules or guidelines can help to ensure a respectful environment for discussion. The ground rules you use will depend on your class size and goals, but may include provisions such as these:

speak respectfully to one another, even when disagreeing
avoid using put-downs (even humorous ones)
avoid disrupting the flow of thought by introducing new issues before the discussion of the previous issue has come to its natural end
keep in confidence any information shared by a student in class

You can set these ground rules yourself and specify them in your syllabus, or have students help create them. Click on these links to see examples of ground rules and a template for creating student-generated ground rules.

Monitor group dynamics. One of the instructor’s responsibilities is to manage the personalities and dynamics within the discussion group, so that all students feel that their contributions (if thoughtful and appropriate) are welcome. Cultural <link to CV doc> as well as personality differences influence the ways in which students enter into (or hesitate to enter into) the discussion.If a subset of students seems reluctant to speak up in class, you might consider ways for them to share their ideas and engage with the material in an alternative forum, such as via discussion board or e-mail. You can then bring these students’ contributions to the attention of the class as a way of acknowledging their perspectives and encouraging further participation (“Felipe made an interesting observation in a post to the discussion board yesterday. He pointed out that…”). Giving students time to write down their thoughts before opening the floor to discussion can also help quiet students get more involved. So too can the use of pair-work and small-group discussions. While some faculty are reluctant to call on quiet students for fear of embarrassing them, it should be pointed out that calling on students can also liberate them: not all students who are quiet are shy; they may simply have trouble finding a way into the discussion.Sometimes the problem is not shy students but overly domineering or aggressive students who monopolize discussion. Sometimes a subtle approach to reining in these students can be effective (for example: “Jake, I see your hand and want to hear your perspective, but I’d like to give some of the other students a chance to answer first.”); other times it may be necessary to take a domineering student aside after class to discuss changing the behavior.Handling strong emotions and disagreement that arise in a discussion can be a challenge for instructors. A certain amount of disagreement is desirable, yet if the conversation gets too heated or antagonistic, it can inhibit participation and squelch a productive exchange of ideas. When emotions are high, remind students to focus on ideas and refrain from personal comments (this stipulation can be included in your ground rules as well). You might also consider asking students to take a minute to write about their reactions to what has been said so they can cool off, focus their thoughts, and consider one another’s perspectives before re-entering the discussion.Also, consider in advance how you will handle sensitive discussion topics. Certainly one of the goals of education is to challenge and unsettle students’ assumptions and beliefs. Discussions that do so may not be comfortable for some participants yet still have the desired effect. On the other hand, done poorly such discussions can stifle rather than stimulate engagement and learning. Thus, it is important to anticipate where the “hot spots” will be and make sure you accord them the time and sensitivity they deserve. Also, think about whether the discussion environment in your classroom is sufficiently inclusive of all your students, regardless of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, political persuasion, religion, etc. (link to principle about inclusivity).

Assign pair and small-group work. As a prelude or addition to full-class discussion, consider giving pairs or small groups of students the task of discussing a question or problem. Group work tends to work best when the task is clearly defined and concrete. It can facilitate group work to assign roles within the group. For example, one member of the group could be charged with breaking the task down into steps and posing questions to the group; another could be charged with managing time and keeping the group on task; another could have the job of recording the group’s thoughts or recommendations and reporting back to the full class. (Assigning this last task to a quiet student can help to draw him or her out.) Click on this link for more on group work.

Make high-quality participation count

While we all want students to participate in discussions for the sheer joy of intellectual exchange, not all students may be equally motivated to jump in – at least not initially. Providing extrinsic motivations can be helpful to establish the behavioral patterns that lead, ultimately, to intrinsic motivations. For this reason, many instructors include a participation grade as part of the reward structure of their courses.

In making participation “count”, however, one runs the risk of encouraging talk for the sake of talk, rather than for the purpose of meaningful and thoughtful exchange. For this reason it can be helpful to define what you consider high-quality contributions to discussions and distinguish them from low-quality contributions by using a rubric for discussion that makes your expectations and grading criteria clear. One instructor, for example, defines high-quality participation as: “raising thoughtful questions, analyzing relevant issues, building on others’ ideas, synthesizing across readings and discussions, expanding the class’ perspective, and appropriately challenging assumptions and perspectives.” She assesses student discussion performance on the basis of whether they make such contributions to discussion regularly, sometimes, rarely, or never.

How will you know if a discussion accomplished what you hoped it would? How will you assess your own performance as a discussion leader? There are a number of ways to evaluate discussions. For example, immediately following the discussion, you might ask students to write briefly about what they learned, how their thinking changed, or how the discussion relates to other course materials. An alternative is to ask students to reflect on the quality of the discussion, answering questions such as: What kinds of contributions were and were not helpful? When were and weren’t digressions productive? Did everyone who wanted to get a chance to speak? If not, why not?

Brookfield and Preskill suggest that students “keep a weekly audit of their participation in class discussions and then summarize and analyze their entries in an end-of-semester learning portfolio” (1999, p. 218). Another possibility is to videotape the discussion and analyze it after the fact; this can be helpful because instructors facilitating a discussion are busy juggling many things at once (time management, the flow of ideas, group dynamics), and often cannot assess the discussion as a whole. Davis provides a useful inventory for analyzing the behavior of discussion participants in videotaped discussions (1993, p.72).

Of course, discussions can be evaluated less formally, simply by asking yourself a set of questions after the fact, for example: Who participated? Who didn’t? What might explain the patterns of participation? What questions proved most fruitful and why? How might the discussion be improved to promote deeper inquiry, more student-student interaction, etc.?

Physical Factors

Try to arrange the physical set-up of your classroom so that it is conducive to discussion. Some instructors prefer that chairs be in a circle, others in a U-shape, while for small group discussions or debates chairs must be moved and assembled differently. Our intention here is not to recommend a “best way” of organizing the discussion space, but to raise some questions to consider when determining how to arrange your classroom.

First, what are your objectives? If one of your goals is for students to enter into a dialog with one another, then it is particularly important that they be able see and address each other directly. Obviously, the traditional classroom arrangement, with the instructor positioned before rows of student chairs does not serve this objective. On the other hand, if the style of discussion (or quasi-discussion) is Socratic, with the instructor asking questions and students answering, then a more traditional seating arrangement could be successful. In keeping with your objectives, you might also ask yourself what the arrangement of physical space communicates. Do you want to set yourself apart from other discussion participants, or position yourself as one of them? Do you want to make it difficult for students to avoid participation or do you believe they have the right to opt out? (Some authors, for example, have applied a Foucaultian analysis to discussions, arguing that the traditional circle-format is coercive in that students cannot hide from the instructor’s disciplinary gaze! (citation).

Second, what discussion format(s) will you use? If you are engaging in a brainstorming session and plan to write on the board, you will need to have students sit where they can see the board. If you want students to work in small groups, you might consider how chairs and tables can be positioned so that you can walk from group to group, or have students do so if the task demands it. If your discussion is part of a group project that involves hands-on construction or manipulation (perhaps of a flow-chart or design), the physical space must be organized accordingly.

As a general rule, it is a good idea to set up the classroom so that students can (a) see each other and (b) see progress (e.g., to watch an evolving list of brainstormed ideas take shape, to focus their participation around a central question, to see several synthesizing points written on the board.) Clearly, the configuration of the room itself can limit your options, as can class size. If you are teaching a class of 120 in an auditorium with bolted-down seats and poor acoustics, the traditional circular discussion arrangement is untenable. However, you would be surprised how much discussion can be accomplished even in large classes (link to lament) and sub-optimal physical settings.

In conclusion…

While there are a lot of issues to consider when planning and leading a discussion, the time you spend up-front thinking through the cognitive, social/emotional, and physical aspects of discussion will pay off later in more lively, productive, and rewarding discussions as well as greater student learning.

Brookfield, S. D. & Preskill, S. (1999) Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Davis, B. G. (1993) Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Frederick, P. (1981) “The Dreaded Discussion: Ten Ways to Start”. Improving College and University Teaching. 29(3).

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Discussion Method of Teaching | Types of Discussion Method

Table of Contents

Meaning Discussion Method of Teaching

Hello and Welcome, readers!

By separating discuss from the discussion, we are able to read and comprehend its meaning. The Latin verb “ discutere ,” which meant to shake things or knowledge and hit again , is the root of the English word “discuss.” Communicate with one another and exchange knowledge, just as students do with their teachers and fellow pupils.

Therefore, the term “discussion” refers to comprehensively examining a topic in order to draw a conclusion. A discussion occurs when two or more people gather to talk about a particular topic.

The discussion method has a variety of fundamentals. For example, a teacher might lead a discussion to introduce a new concept or object, or it might be necessary to comment on and critique a topic. However, in all scenarios, the teacher should adopt a responsible attitude toward his role and educational goals.

These procedures provide the discussion method with a place to start.

Organizing the discussion method with regular planning makes it effective.

The purpose of the discussion is for students to share their opinions while working together to discover the truth. As a consequence, it develops imaginative thinking and a sense of acceptance for others who they may disagree with.

“The Discussion Method of Teaching” is also characterized as a positive process that involves the student’s ability to listen, observe, read, thinking, and talks, Respond, express, react”.

“The Teacher and the Student participate in a group activity called the Discussion Method of Teaching to define the problem and look for a solution”.

The discussion method of instruction is utilized in different subjects and topics.

For example:

A teacher can discuss this subject with the class if we wish to explain the comparison between student and teacher-centered curricula.

Objectives of Discussion Method

Discussion-based instruction allows for both agreement and disagreement, and it is built on democratic principles.

Since the teaching method is entirely discussion-based, if a student provides the right answer, he or she can share it with the teacher if the teacher makes a mistake in the classroom.

The discussion method of instruction is used to teach specific subjects and to enhance lectures, observations, site visits, and case studies.

Adds to a lecture.
Facilitates the sharing of collective experiences and ideas.
Clarification of concepts and information.
Aids in knowledge exchange and enhancement.
Makes the students more interested.
Make sure everyone participates as much as possible.
The chance for critique and review is given to the students.

Types Of Discussion Method Of Teaching

The following two categories can be used to classify discussion methods:

Small Group Discussion
Large Group Discussion

Small Group Discussion Method Of Teaching

For people to be actively involved, a small group of twenty or fewer members meets for a small meeting or as the foundation for a bigger gathering. This group offers a variety of chances for meaningful interaction and innovative discussion.

Small-group discussions are preferable for in-class discussions; the number of group members depends on the time allotted, the sensitivity of the topic, and how complex it is.

A specific group of students participates in a role-play discussion in which they are assigned various assignments and pretend to be other students in order to solve the difficulties.

They can cooperate with one another in this and act out scenarios while observing the issues.

Participatory Learning Approach:

Through being assigned an activity that the entire group of students can complete together, the kids in this situation become deeply bonded with one another.

For example, a teacher assigned a group in his class the duty of planting a plant.

All of the pupils in the group can take part in this activity to take care of it.

Large Group Discussion Method of Teaching

Large Group discussion method of Teaching Categories includes:

Formal Group Discussion

In discussions of this environment:

The class is broken up into smaller groups.
Each group is assigned a topic to discuss.
Each group chooses its own leaders and assigns tasks to each member.
Groups of students take part in the conversation.

Seminar Discussion

“A seminar is a discussion led by a respected resource person and built around knowledge delivered by specialists for the benefit of the participants”.

“It is a method that works well as a tool for educating an audience discussion. The process resembles a traditional lecture format”.

Panel Discussion Method

A panel discussion often has four to eight members, all of whom are knowledgeable individuals who discuss certain topics.

We may use the Punjab Public Service Commission as an example. If we go in for an interview, there will be a panel of four to five people with whom we will communicate.

Another example of this can be that the talk shows on the news channel also consist of a panel discussion in which four to eight people sit together and discuss political and non-political topics.

Preparation and Conduct of Discussion Method

There are three stages for preparing and conducting the discussion method:

Orientation

Orientation:

Give the topic for the discussion.
Clearly state what the question is.
Describe the discussion preparation requirements for students.
Describe the procedure for the discussion.
Students should be encouraged to think.

Engagement:-

Creating a better learning environment in the classroom allows all of the teachers and students to carry on the teaching and learning process in a comfortable setting.
Ask a focused question to keep the discussion on the topic.
Start off by having the pupils define the terms.
When a student is working on an assignment, if the student needs assistance at any point, the teacher should talk with the student right away and work toward a solution.
A good teacher will know when to move on from a subject and when to wait for a response from the students.
Reorient the discussion.
Keep a record of your progress.
Concluding the debate with a summary or assessment.
The teacher should allow the student’s time to make notes during discussions between the students and or in class when it is necessary to do so. The retention of handwritten notes is improved.
Encourage the reflection of the students on their lessons.

Importance of discussion Method of Teaching

The value of the discussion method cannot be underestimated, therefore let’s talk about it in more detail now:

Expressing thoughts or opinions:

People engage with one another most of the time in some way. They participate in debate, which is the exchanging of ideas or viewpoints, and talk about a variety of topics.

In the classroom, teachers use a variety of methods. The conversational tone plays a big role. The way teachers behave in class discussions deviates significantly from the definition of discussion. As evidenced by the outcomes of the discussion in the classroom.

Two-Way Communication:

Discussion is a process of two-way communication and dialogue between the teacher and the learner.

In this approach, the teacher’s verbal or nonverbal feedback is of the utmost significance since it helps the students achieve the targeted learning outcomes.

If the lesson doesn’t go well, the student is told to put in more effort and present the information in a different way.

Helpful for all members:

Discussions are considered very important not only for students but also for teachers. It gives students an opportunity to explain their ideas. Facilitates logical examination and understanding of different points of view.

It not only ensures students’ participation in activities but also creates an atmosphere of reflection on important teaching points, creating understanding an understanding of new ideas and causing a change in the behavior of students.

Guidelines for improving the effectiveness of the discussion method

Students and teachers should interact in a friendly environment where they may accept one another. Students should be free to express themselves without inhibition.
The teacher must be completely knowledgeable about the subject being discussed and be ready for the discussion.
Students must be ready to participate in discussions at a high level. In this regard, the teacher should plan teaching activities relating to the topic before the discussion so that the students can be completely prepared for the discussion, and students should be encouraged to participate in the discussion.
Once there is sufficient time to complete the learning objective, the discussion activity should begin. In general, subject teaching goals for discussion involve gaining advanced skills.
The discussion topic should be introduced by the teacher by writing it on the whiteboard.
The teacher should devote enough time to thoroughly explain every topic while establishing a psychologically secure environment in the classroom.
It is advisable to have several types of discussions.
The teacher should summarize the entire conversation for the students when the discussion is finished, although it is preferable if a student does this.

Advantages of Discussion Method of Teaching

Leadership Quality:

Students can develop this leadership quality through discussion, for example, if a school conducts student council elections, where each candidate can visit each class one at a time and gain votes for themselves through campaigning.

As it involves both challenging and delicate discussions at every stage, the competition will be a welcome opportunity to encourage the development of future leaders for the nation.

Expression Ability:-

Ability is the capacity to perform a task. Similar to how different types of talents might arise from the discussion approach depending on the student’s intellectual capabilities and age especially. The teacher can determine their ability by doing this.

Students communicate with their classmates and teachers about their ideas and abilities.

Develops Study Habits:-

If a teacher engages with the students in a nice manner and works to improve their study habits, they can be motivated to learn by employing the discussion method. If done, it has a significant impact on the entire discussion and develops virtuous educational habits.

Creative ability:-

Students participate in debates and share their opinions as part of the discussion method used to initiate change, practically preparing their minds for the response that varied viewpoints would generate. You can fix challenges and find better solutions by using your creative thinking.

Problem-Solving Ability:-

In the discussion method, a teacher provides a variety of problems to the class and invites each student to come up with a solution on their own. This helps pupils learn how to solve problems on their own.

Develop a democratic way of thinking:-

The discussion approach is based on democratic principles, which instill democratic thinking in the students and provide them the freedom to express disagreement on any aspect of the topic being discussed in class.

Developing Communication Skills:

Each student is allowed to participate in a discussion on the subject under the discussion method, which helps pupils improve their speaking and listening skills.

Enhance Your Motivation and Confidence:

Through the discussion approach, pupils communicate with one another, which boosts their self-assurance and encourages them to take action and move forward to realize their objectives.

Disadvantages of Discussion Method of Teaching

Time Consuming:

The discussion method takes up a lot of time.

Irritating Topics:

Because of the uninteresting topic and the student’s lack of engagement, the discussion frequently ends up being meaningless and confusing.

Avoid contributing to the discussion.

There are certain students who are unable to participate in class discussions, which has an impact on their academic performance.

Conflict among members:

Conflicting viewpoints can frequently arise during a discussion, which could have an impact on the discussion’s central issue.

Pauses in Discussion:

There are numerous minor and significant pauses in the discussion that disrupt its flow, forcing the teacher to step in at some point.

Failure to obtain the expected outcomes:

When the discussion is unproductive or the desired results are not obtained, the teacher must deal with a lot of difficulties.

Pointless discussion:

The talk frequently has no purpose because of the pupils’ immaturity and their misunderstanding of the suitors’ true backgrounds.

Discussion evaluation difficulty:

The assessment of student engagement in the debate is another significant issue that teachers frequently encounter.

Challenge, Discussion and Conclusion: an active teaching strategy to turn traditional lectures into collaborative classes

Desafio, discussão e respostas: estratégia ativa de ensino para transformar aulas expositivas em colaborativas.

Andragogy (the field of knowledge dedicated to the study of learning and education of adults, similar to pedagogy, which is focused on children and adolescents) has progressed ever more closely to neuroscience in terms of understanding the learning process. Many works have shown in a robust way that the students who best understand and retain most of the content are those encouraged and challenged to have a participative attitude, and have their emotions triggered during classes. ( 1 – 3 ) This is a moment of science in which what was intuitively believed is confirmed, day after day, by data and measurements. ( 4 , 5 ) In the same way a medication becomes obsolete and is contraindicated when evidence shows it is no longer the best option for patients, we can consider as an irresponsibility the fact that lecturers insist on teaching their classes in the old way, i.e ., merely lectures, in light of vast literature demonstrating that active methods of teaching are more powerful and efficient than passive approaches. ( 4 , 5 )

This wave brings with it a requirement: lecturers must modify their form of teaching, and students need to take on new roles in and out of classrooms. To this end, both parties in the teaching process must receive information and training, since changes in historical paradigms are not made overnight; it is a process that some excellent professionals still find it difficult.

Although students have an essential participation in the active classes, lecturers are the major protagonists within this new scenario. It is their role to manage the learning process, prepare themselves, prepare that class, and provide all conditions necessary for students to also prepare and take on their roles. Well-planned and managed classes have more chances of success, and this includes student participation and efficient learning.

Considering this great and urgent need for change, the first step is to encourage lecturers to transform their excellent classes and lectures (already prepared in presentation form for courses previously given) into interactive, provocative classes with an innovative format that includes pauses, challenges, group discussions, and precise presentations by the teacher (namely, an active and collaborative class).

With this purpose, we present, below, a class preparation guiding structure for an active teaching strategy we developed at the Medical Undergraduate Course of the Faculdade Israelita de Ciências da Saúde do Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein , entitled in Brazilian Portuguese D2R , for Desafio, Discussão e Respostas . Although its core is the philosophy of the classic Flipped Classroom, ( 6 ) D2R proposes some details that, when followed by the lecturers, allow preparing very organized and efficient interactive classes that meet the objectives of both teachers and students.

D2R: step by step

Just as with other active strategies, a D2R interactive class requires some pillars that enable preparing the students (therefore it is necessary to provide study material in advance), group projects (it is fundamental to divide the students into teams before class), and practical application of the content (the teacher prepares and presents cases and issues that simulate the practical application of the class, avoiding the valid question of students “Why do I need to learn this?”). Next, the steps of a D2R class.

Stage 1: prior study

The students need to receive the study material ahead of time, so they can prepare for the class (approximately 7 days). According to our experience, the best use of this material is when:

– It is accompanied by learning objectives and a study outline, detailing “themes the student must be confident about after prior preparation.”
– Reading is objective, with no useless excesses, not requiring time from students not matched with what they have of protected time to prepare themselves. Supplementing the texts with video classes and internet videos is a strategy that increases compliance with prior study and helps the learning process.

Stage 2: challenges followed by discussion and conclusions

The interactive class must depend on a guided discussion among the students of the same group, among different groups, and between students and the teacher. We suggest the following flow to produce these dynamics:

– Different from beginning the class with slides and explanations, the teacher should start by making questions (one at a time) as to basic concepts of the material studied. It is a way to check reading and comprehension, projecting the question and giving the students a few minutes to discuss in each group and define an answer. Next, the teacher calls one group to explain their answer, and the other groups can supplement it or disagree with it.
– After collecting some answers (which generally are correct, since the initial questions are simpler), the teacher shows some slides with topics, figure, graphs, data, and outlines (the use of texts is not recommended) to clarify aspects of the question. Once the concept is clear, the teacher presents a new question and repeats the flow described, following the stages of student discussion, debate among groups, and the lecturer´s explanation.
– In this stage, discourse questions are better than objective questions, since the concepts are Cartesian and direct, and there is no margin for many variations.
– After proposing to the students a small series of basic and conceptual questions, the class should evolve with the same dynamics, but now with deeper questions that associate different concepts and aspects of the material studied, demonstrating a more practical application of the content. The students should discuss the case within the group once again, so that the teacher might pick up the answers and propose discussion and debate among the groups. To close the challenge, the teacher presents a few slides and defines the correct answer.
– Practical application cases should have a moderate to high degree of complexity, besides demanding of the students the association of concepts, and the connection of information contained in the prior reading and in the initial questions. In this way, the cases allow sedimentation of the contents and demonstrate to the student why they should be learning such a theme.
– Interesting and challenging cases maintain group adhesion. If this step maintains the basic level of the initial questions, the students disperse when they perceive they have already exhausted the theme.
– At this time, the case questions can be objective or discursive, emphasizing that objective questions maintain the direction of the class better and leave less margin for deviations from the objectives.
– Cases can be presented with the projection of slides or printed on paper, at the tables. When a small text is made available for the case, evaluate the size of the text, the ease the students will have in reading in class, and the extent to which this will not compromise class dynamics.

Stage 3: class ending

Finally, a new presentation of the class objectives (that were made available to the students along with the prior study material) is recommended so that, in a transparent way, teacher and students analyze whether or not they were successful in the activities. If there still is any question or uncertainty, there should be a time for a final explanation to end the class.

A few final tips

The main tips for teachers who for the first time experiment the active strategies of teaching are “Control yourself as much as possible to not transform the interactive class into a traditional lecture presentation”. Some tactics that can be adopted are:

– When a student from a group asks something, the teacher should not answer immediately, but rather request the student first share the question with the group colleagues, since maybe they have the answer. However, it is important to guarantee that this student does not remain without an answer until the end of the class.
– During the discussion among groups, when a group asks something, it is important to pass the question on to another group, promoting discussion among them. Once again, it is fundamental to note that after collecting participations, a final and definitive answer should be clearly proposed.
– Walking around the groups while they discuss the topics ensures a briefing as to the level of the debate and the time students take to resolve the issues. Thus, the teacher is able to anticipate what will be needed to discuss with all of them, reinforce, and emphasize.
– The teacher should be careful when the discussions become long, since the students tend to lose interest and motivation when the class stops providing innovations and dynamism. Therefore, when student and group participations are dispersed or demand too much class time, the teacher can shorten the discussion by going to the explanatory slides.
– While a student or group is talking and presenting elements of a response, it is suggested that the teacher write them down immediately in the form of topics on the board in order to enable the other groups to follow the reasoning, and can then contribute. This practice also helps the student who is talking to better evaluate the content of his/her participation.
– Finally, a class such as D2R requires participation from the students, and according to our experience, the more extroverted individuals take on the roles of spokespersons for the groups. It is important to always use the positive feedback, thanking the participation of those who spoke, praising the right observations, and the correct and plausible reasoning. When there is an error, this needs to be pointed out and corrected, but this should be done while preserving the student and valuing the act of having participated. This keeps everyone encouraged to talk and contribute toward the class. In an interactive class, intimidation, negative exposure of the student, or any hostile behavior on the part of the teacher inhibits dialogue and places class planning at risk.

FINAL COMMENTS

The simple transformation of a traditional lecture class to a format that encourages participation of students is a great advance towards the learning process. The D2R strategy is an active teaching method that seeks to guide preparation and delivery of an interactive class. According to our experience, D2R has been the friendliest manner for teachers to convert their classes into an active model, throwing out questions and challenges before presenting their detail-rich slides.

Undoubtedly a satisfactory D2R class depends on the preparation and availability of good study material for students, with clear class objectives (so that students can study beforehand knowing the importance of this content to their training), and a guideline demonstrating their preparation meets the teacher's expectations.

Additionally, it is very important that the teacher prepare questions, challenges, and clinical cases with increasing difficulty, which will range from an initial checking of reading and concepts, to more complex questions, and finally, reaching the climax of the class, with clinical and experimental cases through which the students will feel like professionals resolving real dilemmas. It is essential to point out that, for each challenge, the teacher should respect the time allowed for discussion in the student groups, and then encourage and conduct a small debate among the groups. This is the richest stage of classes, when students teach students, and teachers become moderators.

A good D2R class requires a precise closing in which students and teacher recognize that objectives proposed for the class were attained. When this happens, the certainty of learning is strong, and adherence of the students for the teacher's next classes is enthralling.

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How to Write Discussions and Conclusions

How to Write Discussions and Conclusions

The discussion section contains the results and outcomes of a study. An effective discussion informs readers what can be learned from your experiment and provides context for the results.

What makes an effective discussion?

When you’re ready to write your discussion, you’ve already introduced the purpose of your study and provided an in-depth description of the methodology. The discussion informs readers about the larger implications of your study based on the results. Highlighting these implications while not overstating the findings can be challenging, especially when you’re submitting to a journal that selects articles based on novelty or potential impact. Regardless of what journal you are submitting to, the discussion section always serves the same purpose: concluding what your study results actually mean.

A successful discussion section puts your findings in context. It should include:

the results of your research,
a discussion of related research, and
a comparison between your results and initial hypothesis.

Tip: Not all journals share the same naming conventions.

You can apply the advice in this article to the conclusion, results or discussion sections of your manuscript.

Our Early Career Researcher community tells us that the conclusion is often considered the most difficult aspect of a manuscript to write. To help, this guide provides questions to ask yourself, a basic structure to model your discussion off of and examples from published manuscripts.

Questions to ask yourself:

Was my hypothesis correct?
If my hypothesis is partially correct or entirely different, what can be learned from the results?
How do the conclusions reshape or add onto the existing knowledge in the field? What does previous research say about the topic?
Why are the results important or relevant to your audience? Do they add further evidence to a scientific consensus or disprove prior studies?
How can future research build on these observations? What are the key experiments that must be done?
What is the “take-home” message you want your reader to leave with?

How to structure a discussion

Trying to fit a complete discussion into a single paragraph can add unnecessary stress to the writing process. If possible, you’ll want to give yourself two or three paragraphs to give the reader a comprehensive understanding of your study as a whole. Here’s one way to structure an effective discussion:

Writing Tips

While the above sections can help you brainstorm and structure your discussion, there are many common mistakes that writers revert to when having difficulties with their paper. Writing a discussion can be a delicate balance between summarizing your results, providing proper context for your research and avoiding introducing new information. Remember that your paper should be both confident and honest about the results!

Read the journal’s guidelines on the discussion and conclusion sections. If possible, learn about the guidelines before writing the discussion to ensure you’re writing to meet their expectations.
Begin with a clear statement of the principal findings. This will reinforce the main take-away for the reader and set up the rest of the discussion.
Explain why the outcomes of your study are important to the reader. Discuss the implications of your findings realistically based on previous literature, highlighting both the strengths and limitations of the research.
State whether the results prove or disprove your hypothesis. If your hypothesis was disproved, what might be the reasons?
Introduce new or expanded ways to think about the research question. Indicate what next steps can be taken to further pursue any unresolved questions.
If dealing with a contemporary or ongoing problem, such as climate change, discuss possible consequences if the problem is avoided.
Be concise. Adding unnecessary detail can distract from the main findings.

Don’t

Rewrite your abstract. Statements with “we investigated” or “we studied” generally do not belong in the discussion.
Include new arguments or evidence not previously discussed. Necessary information and evidence should be introduced in the main body of the paper.
Apologize. Even if your research contains significant limitations, don’t undermine your authority by including statements that doubt your methodology or execution.
Shy away from speaking on limitations or negative results. Including limitations and negative results will give readers a complete understanding of the presented research. Potential limitations include sources of potential bias, threats to internal or external validity, barriers to implementing an intervention and other issues inherent to the study design.
Overstate the importance of your findings. Making grand statements about how a study will fully resolve large questions can lead readers to doubt the success of the research.

Snippets of Effective Discussions:

Consumer-based actions to reduce plastic pollution in rivers: A multi-criteria decision analysis approach

Identifying reliable indicators of fitness in polar bears

How to Write a Great Title
How to Write an Abstract
How to Write Your Methods
How to Report Statistics
How to Edit Your Work

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Cultural nuances in preschool education: a comparative analysis of classroom rules perception in China and Thailand

Published: 24 May 2024

Cite this article

Li Tian 1 ,
Huixuan Chang 2 ,
Tianyu Wang 2 ,
Ying Dao 2 &
Sanikun Khampheera 3

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This study explores the differences in preschool teachers’ perceptions of classroom rules in a cross-cultural context, to help preschool teachers cope with cultural differences and construct appropriate classroom rules. The study conducted semi-structured interviews with 26 in-service preschool teachers from China and Thailand. The findings indicated that teachers’ perceptions of the functional significance of classroom rules were generally consistent between the two countries, and that differences existed in the perceptions of the sources, settings, and implementation of rules, and that teachers’ perceptions were closely related to their practice experiences and developmental levels. This study provides a novel contribution by investigating how cultural nuances shape preschool teachers’ perspectives on classroom rules in China and Thailand, it unveils distinct insights into educational practices, contributing to cross-cultural understanding and offering practical implications for effective teaching strategies in diverse contexts. Teachers’ perceptions of classroom rule violations in the face of young children had both similarities and differences, as well as different ways of dealing with them. It has been shown that despite the increasing prevalence of intercultural learning among younger learners, teachers’ perceptions and implementation of intercultural teaching and learning are not adequate. By analyzing preschool teachers’ perceptions of classroom rules in China and Thailand, we argue that understanding the cultural differences between the two countries and focusing on the educational culture of the target country can effectively help teachers establish and implement rules while helping young children understand them.

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A Systematic Review of the Literature on Aspects Affecting Positive Classroom Climate in Multicultural Early Childhood Education

Children’s Human Rights and Intercultural Education: Curricular Prescriptions and Teachers’ Practices in Switzerland

Early Childhood Pedagogy in a Socio-cultural Medley in Ghana: Case Studies in Kindergarten

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Published: 23 May 2024

Providing insights into health data science education through artificial intelligence

Narjes Rohani 1 ,
Kobi Gal 2 , 5 ,
Michael Gallagher 3 &
Areti Manataki 4

BMC Medical Education volume 24 , Article number: 564 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Health Data Science (HDS) is a novel interdisciplinary field that integrates biological, clinical, and computational sciences with the aim of analysing clinical and biological data through the utilisation of computational methods. Training healthcare specialists who are knowledgeable in both health and data sciences is highly required, important, and challenging. Therefore, it is essential to analyse students’ learning experiences through artificial intelligence techniques in order to provide both teachers and learners with insights about effective learning strategies and to improve existing HDS course designs.

We applied artificial intelligence methods to uncover learning tactics and strategies employed by students in an HDS massive open online course with over 3,000 students enrolled. We also used statistical tests to explore students’ engagement with different resources (such as reading materials and lecture videos) and their level of engagement with various HDS topics.

We found that students in HDS employed four learning tactics, such as actively connecting new information to their prior knowledge, taking assessments and practising programming to evaluate their understanding, collaborating with their classmates, and repeating information to memorise. Based on the employed tactics, we also found three types of learning strategies, including low engagement (Surface learners), moderate engagement (Strategic learners), and high engagement (Deep learners), which are in line with well-known educational theories. The results indicate that successful students allocate more time to practical topics, such as projects and discussions, make connections among concepts, and employ peer learning.

Conclusions

We applied artificial intelligence techniques to provide new insights into HDS education. Based on the findings, we provide pedagogical suggestions not only for course designers but also for teachers and learners that have the potential to improve the learning experience of HDS students.

Peer Review reports

In recent decades, data science and Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques have shown promising applications in the field of medicine, leading to the emergence of an interdisciplinary field named Health Data Science (HDS) [ 1 , 2 ]. The availability of massive amounts of clinical and patient data has provided the opportunity for utilising computational tools to aid healthcare professionals in decision-making [ 3 ]. The application of data science in medicine has the potential to discover breakthrough findings that could improve global health through the early detection of diseases and personalised treatment recommendations [ 1 , 4 , 5 , 6 ].

Unfortunately, despite the high demand for data-literate healthcare specialists, according to the National Academy of Medicine, training students in this field can be challenging [ 7 ]. This difficulty is exacerbated by a variety of factors, such as the complexity of teaching both medical and computational concepts to students with diverse backgrounds, and the uncertainty over students’ learning preferences [ 2 , 8 , 9 ]. Consequently, both instructors and learners find it challenging to teach and learn HDS courses [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Conducting research to analyse HDS courses through AI techniques is thus necessary to understand how students regulate their learning, and identify areas for improvement. This information can be leveraged by instructors to facilitate better learning outcomes for HDS students and to design courses that are aligned with the HDS students’ needs and preferences [ 12 , 13 ].

Only a few studies [ 14 , 15 , 16 ] have been conducted to explore the learning preferences of students in HDS-related courses, specifically in the fields of bioinformatics [ 17 ] and precision medicine [ 15 ]. All of these studies relied on self-reported data, which can be biased and may not accurately reflect the true behaviours of students [ 18 , 19 ]. For example, Micheel et al. [ 15 ] conducted a survey study to discover the learning preferences of precision medicine healthcare professionals. Their findings showed that 80% of participants had multiple learning preferences. The largest group (39% of the participants) preferred a combination of watching, listening, and reading, whereas 19% of participants preferred a combination of watching and reading. The authors compared an intervention group that was exposed to a personalised course based on their learning preferences, with a control group that received standard training. The intervention group achieved significantly higher scores in both past-test and follow-up tests, suggesting that providing a customised course based on students’ preferences can significantly improve their learning outcomes. They also showed that the learning preferences of HDS students differ from those of medical students.

In another study, Holtzclaw et al. [ 16 ] explored four dimensions of learning preferences, including sensing/intuiting, visual/verbal, and active/reflective. The survey results indicated that the majority of bioinformatics students had visual (82%) and sequential (75%) learning preferences. The authors also conducted further analysis using pre- and post-course surveys, which confirmed their conclusions. According to this study, teaching genetic concepts through the use of visualisation techniques, such as diagrams and plots, was more effective for bioinformatics learners.

Although self-reported data can provide insight into students’ preferences and opinions, such information may be limited and biased due to several reasons [ 20 , 21 ]. First, the amount of data that is collected is not large enough to support rigorous statistical analysis. Second, the information reported by students may be influenced by their self-perceptions, which may not always align with their actual behaviours. Third, self-reported data may be subject to accidental or deliberate misreporting. We posit that applying AI techniques on clickstream data collected from students’ actual experience in a course can provide a more representative dataset for analysis [ 18 , 22 ].

Research findings in various disciplines suggest that the analysis of clickstream data using AI is a reliable approach to discovering students’ learning behaviours, such as their learning tactics and strategies [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. For example, Jovanovic et al. [ 25 ] analysed the clickstream data from an engineering course and discovered four learning tactics and five learning strategies by using sequence mining and Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC). Maldonado-Mahauad et al. [ 26 ] also applied a process mining technique to analyse clickstream data from three Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) in education, management and engineering. They discovered four learning patterns from students’ interactions with the course content and identified three groups of learners: “Comprehensive” learners who followed all course structure steps, “Targeting” students who focused on a specific set of activities that helped them pass the assessments, and “Sampling” learners with less goal-oriented strategy and low engagement.

Subsequently, Matcha et al. [ 24 ]. analysed the clickstream data from biology, Python programming and computer engineering courses using process mining and the Expectation Maximisation algorithm, which resulted in the discovery of various learning tactics in each course. Then, they applied AHC to the frequency of using the identified learning tactics by each student, which yielded three groups of students, namely low, moderate, and high engagement. Similarly, Crosslin et al. [ 27 ] used the same method to identify five learning tactics and four learning strategies employed in an online college-level history course.

Although AI methods have been employed to analyse the students’ learning experiences in a few disciplines [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ], there is no research that analyses HDS students’ learning strategies using the power of AI algorithms. Given the fact that there is no data-driven insight into the learning behaviours of HDS students, multiple papers have emphasised the importance of conducting studies to analyse HDS education and learners’ experiences [ 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ].

This paper directly addresses the above shortcoming by using AI techniques to analyse students’ interactions in an HDS MOOC with over 3,000 learners. We used statistical methods to explore students’ engagement with different types of educational resources (video lectures, reading materials, and so on) across three performance groups (students with low, moderate, and high performance). We also explored students’ engagement with different HDS topics covered in the course (e.g., medical image analysis, Python programming, and network biology) to identify topics that were most interesting or difficult for the students.

We identify a hierarchy of student activities in the course, ranging from low-level activities (e.g., watching videos, answering a question in a forum), mid-level learning tactics (e.g., collaborating with other students), and high-level strategies (e.g., deep learners).

We used statistical and AI methods to investigate the following research questions.

RQ1 - What type of educational resources in the HDS MOOC did the students engage with?

RQ2 - What health data science topics in the HDS MOOC did the students engage with?

RQ3 - What learning tactics and strategies did the students employ in the HDS MOOC?

RQ4 - Is there any association between students’ learning tactics and strategies and their performance?

With respect to RQ1, we found that overall, there were no large differences in engagement between readings and lecture videos, but students who achieved higher final grades engaged more than other students in all types of resources, especially in quizzes, labs, and projects. Regarding RQ2, among the taught topics, students were more engaged with Python programming and Sequence Processing.

With respect to RQ3 and RQ4, we identified the following four prevalent learning tactics employed by the HDS students: Elaboration – actively connecting new information to existing knowledge, Problem-solving – solving assessments and programming questions for better understanding, Peer learning - collaborating with peers to share knowledge, and Rehearsal – repeating information for better retention. Based on the frequency of using the identified learning tactics, we discovered three types of strategies employed by students, which are directly aligned with educational theory: low engagement (Surface learners), moderate engagement (Strategic learners), and high engagement (Deep learners). We found that the elaboration tactic had the highest correlation with overall student performance, and deep learners who had high final grades used this tactic more. Based on our findings, we provide pedagogical recommendations for course designers, teachers, and learners in HDS that can potentially improve HDS education.

In this section, we will provide a general description of the HDS MOOC, the student population, and the data that was available for analysis. Then, we will detail the methodology used to address each of the research questions.

Course and participants

The study is based on the Data Science in Stratified Healthcare and Precision Medicine (DSM) MOOC offered by the University of Edinburgh on Coursera [ 32 ]. We focused on the period between April 2018 and April 2022, and we analysed the clickstream data of 3,527 learners who engaged with at least one learning activity (see Additional file 1 for considered learning activities). The course completion rate for these students is 38%.

Demographic information of students shows that 37% were male, 28% were female, and 35% did not report their gender. Regarding their educational background, 15% held a master’s degree, 12% had a bachelor’s degree, 7% held a doctorate, and the remaining had a lower degree or did not report their level of educational attainment. There is a good location spread, with 34% of students based in America, 30% in Asia, 22% in Africa, 11% in Europe, and 2% in Oceania. This study used anonymised data and received institutional ethical approval.

DSM is an intermediate-level MOOC with a total of 43 videos, 13 reading materials, five quizzes, six discussion forums, one programming assignment and one peer-reviewed project assignment. The course covers the following five topics/weeks:

Course Introduction and Introduction to Programming.

DNA Sequence Processing and Medical Image Analysis.

Biological Network Modelling, Probabilistic Modelling, and Machine Learning.

Natural Language Processing and Process Modelling in Medicine.

Graph Data, and Ethical and Legal Aspects.

Each topic includes case studies, which are optional interview videos with specialists discussing real-world HDS projects and their research areas. The course assessment includes a quiz for each topic, as well as a programming assignment for the third topic and a peer-reviewed project on the last topic of the course. Final student grades are calculated (out of 100) using a weighted average of all quiz and assignment scores, with each quiz worth 10%, the programming assignment worth 20%, and the peer-reviewed assignment worth 30%.

Data analysis

Two-sided t-tests as well as Cohen’s D effect size were used to investigate any differences regarding engagement levels between different types of educational resources (RQ1), as well as between different course topics (RQ2). Each two-sided t-test was conducted by comparing the mean engagement scores of two groups, such as different types of educational resources (e.g., reading engagement and discussion engagement) or course topics (e.g., programming and network modelling). The null hypothesis (H0) for each test stated that there is no significant difference in engagement levels between the compared groups, while the alternative hypothesis (H1) stated that there is a significant difference in engagement levels between the groups compared. If the p -value obtained from the t-test was lower than 0.05, we rejected the null hypothesis, indicating a statistically significant difference in engagement levels. Due to the dataset’s large sample size, relying only on the p-value may not adequately represent meaningful differences. Therefore, we also calculated Cohen’s D effect size to quantify the standardised difference in engagement scores between the compared groups. By interpreting Cohen’s D alongside the results of the t-tests, our study aimed to assess not only the statistical significance but also the magnitude of the observed differences in engagement levels.

The schema of the methodology employed to find learning tactics and strategies employed by students (RQ3).

For RQ3, several AI techniques were used to analyse the clickstream data of the DSM course to uncover the learning tactics employed by the students. Following the approach by Matcha et al. [ 24 ], the clickstream data for each student from the beginning to the end of the course was divided into different learning sessions (see Fig. 1 .a and Fig. 1 .b). A learning session represents a consecutive series of learning actions performed by a student within one login into the learning platform. After pre-processing the learning sessions (this included considering two consecutive sessions with a time gap less than 30 min as one session), 44,505 learning sessions were identified. Process mining and clustering methods were employed to detect the learning tactics (see Fig. 1 .c). In particular, the probability of switching between different learning actions was estimated with the use of First-Order Markov Models (FOMMs) as implemented in the pMinerR package [ 33 ]. The number of possible learning tactics (no. tactics = 4) was determined based on a hierarchical clustering dendrogram. To identify the learning tactics, the Expectation-Maximisation (EM) algorithm was applied to the calculated transition probability matrix. For both First-Order Markov Models and Expectation-Maximisation, we utilised the default values for hyperparameters. The implementation of the methodology is available at: https://github.com/nrohani/HDS-EDM/tree/main .

Students often use several learning tactics while interacting with a course. Therefore, a learning strategy is defined as the goal-driven usage of a collection of learning tactics with the aim of acquiring knowledge or learning a new skill [ 24 , 27 , 34 , 35 ]. Based on previous work [ 24 ], the frequency of using each learning tactic by each student was calculated as a measure to group students into categories of learning strategies. The learning strategies were identified through agglomerative hierarchical clustering with the Ward algorithm (see Fig. 1 .d). The potential number of clusters (no. groups = 3) was determined based on the height of the dendrogram.

To answer RQ4, we explored both the association of a single learning tactic and the collection of learning tactics (learning strategy) with students’ final grades because it is useful to know whether any single tactic was more correlated to a higher final grade.

The Pearson correlation was used to check for any correlation between different learning tactics and students’ grades in different assessments. For each student, we computed the frequency of employing each learning tactic. Consequently, every student had a corresponding pair of values: their performance (correlation was calculated for each assessment score separately, as well as for the final grade) and the frequency of using each learning tactic. Subsequently, we determined the mean frequency of usage for each learning tactic across all students. Next, we computed the Pearson correlation coefficient between the mean frequencies of usage and mean performance to quantify the strength and direction of the linear relationship between each learning tactic and students’ performance. To assess the statistical significance of the calculated correlation, t-test for correlation coefficient was carried out, with the null hypothesis (H0) stating that there is no significant correlation between using the learning tactic and performance. H0 was rejected for p -values lower than 0.05, indicating that there is a statistically significant relationship between student usage of the learning tactic and their performance.

The Kruskal-Wallis test, which is a non-parametric test to compare the distributions of multiple groups, was used to test the association between students’ learning strategies and performance. We ranked the final grades within each group of learning strategies. Kruskal-Wallis test compared the distributions of final grades across the different groups of learning strategies. The test determined whether there are statistically significant differences in final grades achieved by each group of learning strategies or not (confidence interval set to 0.05).

In this study, similarly to previous work [ 24 , 27 ], we considered the number of clicks made by a student in the learning platform as a metric to assess their level of engagement. Also, following the course instructor’s recommendation, the students were categorised into three performance levels. LP: Low-Performance (final grade below 50, representing 62% of students), MP: Moderate-Performance (final grade between 50 and 80, representing 21% of students), and HP: High-Performance (final grade of 80 or higher, representing 16% of students). These performance categories were used in the next investigations to analyse the level of engagement of students in each performance group.

Engagement with different types of educational resources

Table 1 presents the relative number of visits to each type of educational resource. To provide a fair comparison between students’ engagement with each type of educational resource, we only measured the number of visits to the parent pages of each type of educational resource (on the Coursera platform there is a parent page for each resource before students go through the children/link pages of those resources).

The results in Table 1 show that, as expected, the relative number of visits to assessments (peer-reviewed project and quiz) is considerably higher than those to other learning materials (lectures, readings, labs, and discussions), demonstrating that students spend more time on assessments, particularly on the peer-reviewed project (Relative no. visits = 5.48). This could be because the peer-reviewed project needs more effort and accounts for 30% of the final grade. Therefore, it is not surprising that students visited this resource more than others.

Additionally, based on Table 1 , there is a small difference (t = 3.29e-74, p = 3.29e-74, d = 0.24) in the relative number of visits to video lectures (mean = 1.1) and reading materials (mean = 0.9). Similarly, the relative number of visits to programming labs is a bit higher than those to lectures and reading materials (p l = 9.89e-09, t l = 5.7466, p r = 7.64e-44, t r = 14.0826, d l =0.10, d r = 0.28). It can be inferred that students found programming labs either a bit more interesting or challenging, leading to more visits. However, the D effect size of the difference between lab and lecture is less than 0.2; therefore, the difference is not big.

It is worth noting that after measuring the average number of visits for children (linked) and parent (main) webpages related to each educational resource, students had relatively high engagement within each resource material. As an example, even though discussion forums have fewer visits, students exhibited higher engagement (mean no. visits = 11.29) and movement between posts within the forums compared to their visit to parent pages of discussion forums. However, to have a fair comparison between different types of educational resources, only the number of visits to the parent pages of each resource was measured (refer to Table 1 ).

We explored the engagement with different types of educational resources for the HP, MP, and LP groups (Fig. 2 ). For the HP group, engagement in the project (Relative no. visits = 18.16) was higher (d = 0.63, t = 28.085, p = 8.56e-110) than in the quiz (Relative no. visits = 3.37). Additionally, their engagement in the lab (Relative no. visits = 2.14) was slightly (+ 1.5 clicks) higher than in the lectures, readings, and discussions. Conversely, for the LP group, the quiz (Relative no. visits = 1.14) had the highest relative number of visits.

It can be inferred that, overall, there were no large differences in engagement between readings and lectures among HDS students, but students who achieved higher final grades (both HP and MP) visited more time all types of resources, especially in project. The discussion forums were also used more by HP students than by LP students (LP’s relative no. visits = 0.20, HP’s relative no. visits = 1.22, t = 10.470, p = 2.52e-23, d = 0.28).

Relative no. visits of parent pages of each type of educational resource. The figure shows log of the relative number of visits for each educational resources by each group of students. LP: low performance students, MP: moderate performance students, HP: high performance students.

Engagement with different HDS topics

The analysis regarding engagement with different HDS topics was based on two measures: (1) relative average video lecture watching time, and (2) click-based interaction with videos.

Figure 3 shows the average watching time, standardised by dividing by the length of each video lecture, for each topic. The bar plot demonstrates that students dedicated more time to “Introduction to Programming” and “Sequence Processing” compared to the other topics. Moreover, the figure shows that the engagement of students with the initial topics were more than the final topics.

Upon performance group-based analysis of video lecture watching time, we also found that HP students showed higher engagement in extra-curricular activities by spending more time watching the case studies (avg. watching time for HP = 0.62, avg. watching time for LP = 0.33). These case studies are optional interview videos in which HDS researchers and practitioners discuss their research projects. This finding is supported by previous research [ 24 , 36 , 37 ] that high achievers not only focus on the required syllabus but also aim to gain a deep understanding of the topics, often going beyond the syllabus.

The analysis of the students’ video interaction data reveals that students played, paused, and went forwards and backwards (seek) in the Introduction to Programming topic more than in other topics (as shown in Fig. 4 ). Our interpretation is that students potentially found this topic to be challenging, and therefore they rewatched certain parts to improve their understanding.

Apart from the Introduction to Programming topic, students had high click-based engagement with the Sequence Processing, Image Analysis, Network Modelling, and Machine Learning topics. It is also worth mentioning that although the case study videos were not mandatory, they achieved relatively high engagement according to the course instructor’s point of view. Based on the unexpected engagement of students with the case studies, one can infer that HDS students were interested in practical knowledge and real-world examples [ 24 , 36 , 37 ].

Learning tactics

Based on existing literature [ 24 , 25 , 27 ], a learning tactic is defined as a series of actions that a student carries out to fulfil a specific task in their learning procedure. After analysis of the students’ learning sessions, we discovered that the DSM students employed four learning tactics: Elaboration; Programming and Problem-solving; Peer learning; and Rehearsal. These learning tactics are in line with the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) learning theory, and we named the data-driven tactics based on this learning theory [ 38 ].

The relative average watching time of each video lecture for students. The relative video watch was calculated by dividing the average watched time by the total length of each video lecture.

Elaboration is the longest (median 25 actions per session) and the most frequently used (45% of all learning sessions) learning tactic by DSM students (see Table 2 ). The dominant learning actions in this tactic are “video play” and “pause” (Fig. 5 .a). We can infer that this tactic primarily focuses on learning theoretical concepts, rather than programming practice and assessment participation. Students might have paused video lectures to reflect on their acquired information by taking notes, thinking about the new knowledge, or connecting concepts to their prior knowledge. This is in line with the MSLQ theory, which explains the elaboration tactic as a cognitive process in which students actively reflect on and connect new information to their prior knowledge, which can enhance their learning outcomes [ 38 , 39 ]. Our results also confirm that this tactic has a positive correlation with student performance. The positive Pearson correlation between the number of times students used the elaboration tactic and their final performance ( r = 0.38, p = 1.43e-113) provides evidence of the effectiveness of this learning tactic.

Average frequency of using each video action per student during watching each topic. “end” indicates watching a video until the end. “pause” means the student paused the video. “seek” means going forwards or backwards in a video. “play” indicates replaying a video after a pause. “start” means starting a video from the beginning. The topics in the x-axis are listed based on the order of teaching in the course (with the exception of Case Studies, which are spread across the course duration).

Programming and Problem-solving is the second most frequently used learning tactic (24% of all sessions). The dominant learning actions in this tactic are related to labs and quizzes (Fig. 5 .b). It can be concluded that DSM students employed this tactic for applying their acquired knowledge in solving programming labs as well as the programming assignment. It seems that they participated in quizzes to assess their knowledge and solve problems.

The positive Pearson correlation ( r = 0.35, p = 1.30e-92) between the frequency of using this tactic and their final performance suggests that this tactic is effective for achieving a high final grade. In conclusion, the students who practice programming more often tend to be more successful, which is consistent with [ 14 ]. This is because programming skills are an essential aspect of health data science and programming practice helps students develop critical thinking and problem-solving, which are essential skills for analysing health data. Therefore, students who invest time in practicing programming tend to have a better understanding of the material and perform better in the course assessments.

Peer learning is the third most frequently used learning tactic (19% of all sessions), in which DSM students engaged with discussion forums to ask questions, read others’ discussions, reply to peers, and solve the peer-reviewed project. The dominant learning actions in this tactic are the peer-reviewed project and discussion (Fig. 5 .c). The correlation analysis also shows a positive correlation between the number of times students used peer learning and their final performance ( r = 0.55, p = 3.04e-260), which is stronger than for the other learning tactics. This is not surprising, as 30% of the final grade is related to the peer-reviewed project, and students who engage more in peer learning are expected to achieve a higher grade. However, the correlation analysis between the number of times students used the peer learning tactic and their average grade in quizzes also shows a positive correlation ( r = 0.46, p = 5.29e-172). This supports the conclusion that the peer learning tactic is one of the most effective learning tactics, and this is in line with existing research that has shown that peer learning can lead to enhanced motivation, increased engagement, and improved learning outcomes [ 14 , 38 , 39 ].

Rehearsal is the least used learning tactic by DSM students (12% of sessions), and it is focused on acquiring theoretical knowledge. Although both Rehearsal and Elaboration learning tactics involve learning theoretical knowledge and mostly watching video lectures, the dominant learning actions in Rehearsal are video seek and video revisit actions (Fig. 5 .d). This suggests that students may have employed this learning tactic by reviewing certain parts of the video lectures instead of deeply understanding concepts through reflection and note-taking. In other words, Rehearsal is a simple tactic for memorising and superficially looking at learning materials. Based on prior research, the Rehearsal tactic may result in temporary retention of information rather than long-term retention [ 38 ]. As a result, some studies have indicated that the impact of this tactic may be restricted to low-level learning outcomes [ 39 ]. Although our Pearson correlation analysis shows a positive correlation between the number of times the Rehearsal tactic was used by a student and their final performance, this correlation is weak ( r = 0.19, p = 8.82e-29), and much weaker compared to the other learning tactics.

Frequency plot of each learning tactic, showing how many times each learning action was used in that tactic

Learning strategies

Three groups of learners, known as learning strategies [ 24 ], have been identified based on the frequency of using the learning tactics discussed in Sect. 3.3. The identified learning strategies can be mapped to well-recognised learning approaches introduced by [ 37 , 40 , 41 ]. Therefore, we used these learning theories to name the detected learning strategies and describe them according to the available educational information.

The results show that the majority of students (73% of all learners) are low engagement/surface learners who only used two learning tactics, Elaboration and Problem-solving, during their interaction with the course. They achieved a low final grade (m = 31, std = 27) and had low levels of engagement compared to the other two groups of learners (Fig. 6 ).

The second group of students (19% of all learners), high engagement/deep learners, used all learning tactics except Rehearsal with higher frequency, as shown in Fig. 6 . This group has the highest frequency of using the Elaboration, Problem-solving, and Peer learning tactics. This group also achieved the highest final grade (m = 68, std = 25), whereas surface learners achieved the lowest grade and were overall not successful in passing the course.

The third learning strategy group (8% of all learners) are moderate engagement/strategic learners who employed all learning tactics with moderate frequency, except for Rehearsal, which was used with relatively higher frequency. It can be inferred that these students strategised their learning by regulating their time in such a way as to only revisit and seek important parts of video lectures in order to achieve an acceptable grade. Although moderate engagement learners used all four discovered tactics, their final performance (m = 62, std = 25) is lower than deep learners. Deep learners did not use the rehearsal learning tactic, but it appears that the elaboration tactic, along with the other two tactics, was enough for them to achieve higher grades than moderate-engagement students.

The Kruskal-Wallis test shows a significant association between the discovered learning strategies and student final performance ( p = 2.51e-169, statistic = 776.43).

Average frequency of using each learning tactic by low, moderate, and high engagement learners (5b). as well as averaged final grade for each strategy group (5a)

This study employed artificial intelligence methods to provide insights into health data science education by analysing an MOOC with over 3,000 enrolled learners. The findings reveal that there is not a strong difference in the frequency of visits to reading materials, video lectures, and labs, although students tended to visit labs and lectures slightly more than reading materials. Also, based on the results, students who actively engaged with practical resources, such as labs, discussions, and projects, achieved higher final grades.

Furthermore, the results indicate that the students engaged more with the Sequence Processing and Python Programming topics. However, students moved forwards and backwards more in the programming topic videos compared to other topics. One inference is that students might find this topic challenging.

To analyse the students’ learning strategies, four learning tactics were identified that are in line with educational learning theories [ 38 , 41 ]. The most frequently used tactic is Elaboration , which involves learning by pausing and replaying video lectures, possibly to contemplate the taught concepts or take notes. Based on the MSLQ learning theory [ 38 ], this tactic assists learners in retaining information in their long-term memory by establishing connections between the items that need to be memorised. This tactic includes pausing and replaying a video lecture, potentially in order to rephrase or condense information into a summary, make comparisons and take notes in an active manner. This tactic supports a learner in combining and linking new information to their existing knowledge.

The second most used tactic is Programming and Problem-Solving , where students engaged with the programming labs and solved the programming assignment. Given the interdisciplinary nature of health data science, students need to develop their knowledge in programming and improve their problem-solving skills [ 42 ]. Therefore, this tactic can be effective for students to apply their theoretically acquired knowledge to solve problems by using programming.

The third tactic is Peer Learning , which involves communicating with peers in the discussion forums and solving the peer-reviewed assignment. This tactic was found to have a positive correlation with students’ final performance, which was stronger than for the other learning tactics. Existing literature confirms that peer learning is associated with high performance, especially in online courses where students do not have the opportunity to discuss the learning materials face to face [ 38 , 39 ]. It could be even more useful in the health data science field because students have diverse backgrounds; therefore, they can share their ideas and perspectives towards multi-disciplinary topics to develop in-depth knowledge and reflect on different approaches.

The final tactic is Rehearsal , which involves learning mostly by going forwards and backwards in video lectures instead of watching them from beginning to end. According to the MSLQ learning theory, it is a basic tactic for learning, which involves repeating information, again and again, to memorise it instead of deeply thinking about it. This tactic is effective for simple tasks and for calling information stored in the working memory, but not for acquiring new information that will be stored in the long-term memory. This tactic is believed to impact attention and the process of encoding information, but it does not seem to help students develop relationships between the information or integrate the information with their prior knowledge [ 38 , 39 ]. Based on a recent systematic review [ 39 ], one study [ 43 ] showed that this tactic has a weak positive impact on student performance; while two studies [ 44 , 45 ] did not find any significant association between rehearsal and performance. In this study, we found a weak correlation between rehearsal and student final grade (the weakest correlation compared to the other learning tactics). Interestingly, the Rehearsal tactic was not used much by deep learners, who achieved a higher final grade than surface and strategic learners.

Based on the frequency of using the learning tactics, three learning strategy groups were identified: low engagement/surface, high/engagement/deep, and moderate engagement/strategic. The learning strategies detected are highly accordant with the well-recognised learning approaches introduced by Biggs [ 41 ], Marton and Säljö [ 37 ], and Entwistle [ 40 ]. These scholars have described three learning approaches named deep, strategic, and surface learning, which are not the intrinsic characteristics of students [ 41 ], rather they are selected by students based on the task type and cognitive conditions. Also, students’ motivations and intuitions, the learning environment, the way the course is delivered, and the learning contents are the key factors that influence the choice of a learning approach by students [ 24 , 40 ].

The high engagement/deep learners’ group is characterised by a high level of engagement, a high frequency of employing various tactics, and a high number of quizzes and project submissions, which is consistent with a deep learning approach, by which students engage with high frequency with the course materials, they are highly engrossed in the ideas and actively try to relate them to previous knowledge [ 38 ]. Previous studies have shown that adopting the deep learning approach results in better academic performance [ 24 , 46 ]. Furthermore, the students with deep learning strategy obtained the highest marks in course assessments compared to other students, which indicates their in-depth knowledge. Also, the high use of the Elaboration, Problem-Solving, and Peer Learning tactics by these students reveals that they tend to focus on course materials for a long time (these tactics include long sessions), relate learning materials to their prior knowledge, focus on programming labs to solve problems and learn from peers and solve a project, which are all aligned with the characteristics of the deep learning approach.

The surface learning approach is adopted by students whose intention is to not fail and who want to achieve a passing mark rather than gain a deep understanding of the materials or obtain high marks. Therefore, these students mainly memorise the required information that is necessary for the exams, do not focus on abstract ideas, and mostly rely on details [ 37 ]. This approach has similar characteristics to the low engagement strategy in our study because the students using this strategy only used the Elaboration and Problem-Solving learning tactics with low engagement, resulting in low performance. They also did not use the Peer Learning tactic, which had the highest impact on student performance, because the peer-reviewed assignment corresponds to 30% of the final grade. In the DSM course, the passing score is 50 out of 100, and 50% of the final grade is related to quizzes. A deeper level of knowledge is required for the project compared to the quizzes. DSM students employing a surface approach tend to concentrate primarily on quizzes (by employing the problem-solving tactic) in order to achieve a passing score without investing significant effort in the project.

The strategic or achieving learning approach is described in educational theory as a combination of the surface and the deep approaches [ 46 ]. The main motivation of students adopting this approach is to get high scores and manage their efforts to make the most of the assessments done [ 47 ]. Therefore, they try to find the demands of assessments, manage their time, study in an organised manner, and routinely make sure that they use proper materials [ 47 ]. This learning approach is similar to the moderate engagement strategy in our study. The students with this strategy had moderate efforts, moderate frequency of using different tactics, and moderate performance in comparison to the two other strategies. They also mostly used the Rehearsal tactic, which shows that students moved forwards and backwards in video lectures instead of watching them from the start until the end. This is consistent with the characteristics of strategic learners who prefer to apply timely efficient tactics to manage their learning. Therefore, they used the Rehearsal tactic more than Elaboration because the Elaboration tactic is attributed to more effort, such as pausing and replaying videos instead of only seeking videos. This is also supported by the finding that the number of learning actions per learning session was higher in the Elaboration tactic.

It is worth pointing out that students use different learning strategies in different courses [ 48 ]. The learning tactics and strategies in health data science courses may differ from those in traditional biology or data science courses due to their interdisciplinary nature. Students in health data science must engage with both domain-specific biomedicine knowledge and data science concepts, requiring distinct strategies to facilitate their learning process [ 9 , 49 ]. The learning tactics and strategies identified in this study for the health data science course are unique, though they do share some similarities with the tactics and strategies reported in previous studies on biology and computer programming courses [ 24 ].

Recommendations for course design and education improvement

The identified insights about health data science students can help to design better courses and programmes in this field. Most educational design models [ 50 , 51 , 52 ] need information about students to design effective pedagogical frameworks (e.g., pedagogical strategy and tactics) and educational settings (e.g., learning tasks and organisational forms). For example, learning tactics and strategies could be defined in the form of pattern languages based on [ 50 ] for designing better educational frameworks. In other words, a key implication of our study is to provide health data science educational designers with insights about HDS students and their learning behaviours that can potentially assist them in designing better educational courses and frameworks. Our recommendations based on this study are as follows:

In the DSM course, there is a peer-reviewed project in the last week that is responsible for 30% of the final grade. Since many students were not successful in submitting the final assignment, our recommendation is to invite students to work on the assignment throughout an HDS course rather than only in the last week. This can be particularly helpful for LP students, as it can encourage them to remain engaged during all weeks [ 53 ].

We showed that students in DSM engaged with a diverse range of learning resources (lab, reading, video, quiz, and project). Previous research has shown that utilising diverse learning resources, such as reading materials, interactive video lectures, games, labs, and so on, can enhance students’ learning experiences [ 54 ]. As an example, some students may prefer to look at reading materials instead of videos, or vice versa. Therefore, the available resources should be diverse, as students are diverse in HDS courses. Additionally, previous research shows that integrating interactive resources, such as gamification tools, may increase student engagement and lead to improving their learning outcomes [ 55 , 56 ].

Our findings demonstrate that student engagement with topics decreased over the course, as evidenced by higher engagement with starting topics compared to ending topics. In the DSM course, as in many MOOCs [ 57 ], students have access to all topics/weeks upon enrolling on the course, which might overwhelm students given the large volume of learning materials. This can decrease their motivation, especially if they browse materials and assessments in the final topics and find them challenging. To address this issue, a potential solution could be to provide access to course material sequentially in such a way that a student can only have access to the subsequent topics upon the successful completion of previous topics.

Our results show that students had higher interaction with video lectures in the introductory Python programming topic compared to the other course topics, in particular higher video seek, pause, and play action. There are two possible explanations here. On one hand, students proficient in programming might have found the initial topic relatively straightforward and thus, did not engage with the entire video lecture from beginning to end. On the other hand, students with no programming background might have found the topic challenging and therefore rewatched certain parts of the videos. Given this mismatch, one might wonder how to best design a health data science course that works for diverse student backgrounds, including both computational and non-computational backgrounds. Our recommendation is to still provide introductory programming topics, but make them compulsory for students with no programming experience (so as to get up to speed with programming concepts) and optional for students with advanced programming skills (so that they are not disengaged). Once this is established as a baseline, subsequent programming-related tasks in the course should be designed at a balanced level of programming difficulty [ 58 , 59 ].

Based on the findings, peer learning in HDS can help students to achieve higher performance. Therefore, grouping students in such a way that each group contains students with different backgrounds and asking them to work on a project may help them not only better learn both computational and medical aspects of the course, but also help them to learn how to collaborate in an interdisciplinary community, which is essential for a career in health data science [ 49 , 60 ].

Recommendations for teachers and learners

The results of this study have implications not only for educational design, but also for learners and instructors. Learners sometimes are not aware of the most effective learning strategies, and informing them can possibly improve their future learning experiences [ 61 , 62 , 63 ]. However, course design is not the whole story, and teachers’ presentation approach also plays an important role in improving students’ learning outcomes. Therefore, we also provide some recommendations for teachers that may help them teach HDS more effectively.

Recommendations for learners

Applying multiple learning tactics when interacting with a course was found to be more effective than only using one or two learning tactics. Our findings, similar to previous research [ 48 ]. For example, in order to achieve a good grade in programming and enhance one’s programming skills, simply watching video lectures about programming is not enough. Students who practised coding and used the discussion forums to ask questions and solve the peer-reviewed project were more successful.

The results indicate that successful students not only relied on required knowledge for assessments but also went beyond the syllabus [ 37 ] and even engaged with optional sections of the DSM course (e.g. case studies). Therefore, we recommend to students to not only follow the essential parts of a health data science course, but also study additional resources to get a comprehensive knowledge of each topic.

Our findings demonstrate that students who paused and replayed video lectures in order to relate the taught concepts to their prior knowledge, take notes, or think deeply about the topics were more likely to achieve high performance in DSM. Our recommendation to health data science students is, therefore, to use the Elaboration tactic along with other effective learning tactics (Peer Learning and Problem-Solving). Using the Rehearsal learning tactic without deep comprehension is not always effective.

Recommendations for teachers

Previous studies [ 23 , 64 ] have shown that personalised feedback can help students to improve their learning. We recommend that instructors consider students’ learning tactics, strategies, and preferences when they are providing feedback to them.

Our results also show that although there is a relatively low number of posts in the DSM discussion forums, many students visited the discussion forums to read other students’ questions and answers. Given our finding that students who engaged in discussions more were more successful, teachers should encourage students to participate in the discussion forums. Students might be introverted or feel uncomfortable posting on discussion forums; therefore, teachers should motivate them through the use of appropriate techniques. As an example, a study showed that the active presence of teachers in discussions, through asking questions and following up with additional questions, can enhance students’ engagement [ 65 ]. Therefore, specifically for HDS courses, we recommend that teachers post a question in the discussion forums and ask students to share their opinions. Also, posting about cross-disciplinary research findings related to each topic might encourage students because it can show the application of each topic [ 66 ].

Limitations and directions for future work

The first limitation of this work is around generalisability. Given that in this study we analysed one health data science course, further research is needed to validate the generalisability of our findings. Also, given that the DSM course is a self-paced MOOC, our findings might not apply to other online courses or face-to-face classes. This is particularly important when considering the fact that students who enrol on MOOCs have different motivations [ 67 ] and it is possible that some of them did not focus on assessments because it is not part of their mandatory study programme. This limitation can impact findings related to student performance. As future work, we invite researchers to analyse the learning strategies employed by health data science students in other online or face-to-face courses. Furthermore, it is important to acknowledge the impact of user-friendly [ 68 ] and inclusive environment design [ 69 ] on students’ learning experiences in online courses. This study did not consider these factors, which may have influenced students’ learning strategies and preferences.

Another limitation of this study is to do with lack of access to temporal data (time spent to study each resource) for readings, discussions, and labs in the DSM course. Therefore, the student engagement with different topics (RQ2) was only explored based on the video lectures’ temporal data.

Our findings are limited to students’ clickstream data about the course on the Coursera platform. Since there are well-recognised survey tools, such as MSLQ [ 38 ] and self-regulation learning [ 70 ], for identifying students’ learning preferences and strategies that can uncover students’ perceptions about their learning regardless of the learning environment, it is worth collecting self-reported data and combining it with data-driven information as has been done for non-HDS courses [ 71 ], so as to strengthen results. We regard this as a fruitful avenue for future research.

Given that little is known about the learning behaviours and experiences of health data science students, conducting research to provide insight into health data science education is necessary. To address this important research gap, we employed artificial intelligence methods to analyse a health data science MOOC in order to understand students’ learning tactics, strategies, and engagement with learning materials and topics. We also provided suggestions supported by our findings for teachers, learners, and course designers in order to improve health data science education. The key findings of this study are the following:

Students who engaged more with practical resources, such as projects, labs, and discussions achieved higher final grades.

Among the topics taught, it seems that students were more engaged with Python Programming and Sequence Processing topics.

The Elaboration tactic (connecting new information to students’ prior knowledge) was used more, and this tactic was effective in achieving high performance.

The Peer Learning tactic had the highest correlation with the final grade.

The Rehearsal tactic (memorising information by repeating) had the lowest correlation with the final grade, and deep learners, who are the most successful students, did not use this learning tactic.

Deep learners utilised a range of different learning tactics throughout the course and engaged with all educational resources that enabled them in achieving higher final grades.

Data availability

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical and legal restrictions. Data are however available from the Coursera platform upon reasonable request. The implementation of the methodology is available at: https://github.com/nrohani/HDS-EDM/tree/main .

Abbreviations

Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering

Artificial Intelligence

Data Science in Stratified Healthcare and Precision Medicine

Health Data Science

High Performance

Low Performance

Massive Open Online Courses

Moderate Performance

Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire

Research Question

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Precision Medicine programme of the University of Edinburgh, as well as the Medical Research Council, for their support of this project aimed at enhancing health data science education. Additionally, we would like to express our appreciation to the Coursera platform and the students who participated in the course, whose contribution was invaluable to this research.

This work was supported by the Medical Research Council [grant number MR/N013166/1].

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All authors contributed to conceptualisation and design of the study. The implementation of the method as well as analysis of the results have been done by NR and supervised by AM, KG, and MG. The first draft of the paper was written by NR and improved by AM, KG, and MG. All authors read and accepted the final version of the paper.

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Rohani, N., Gal, K., Gallagher, M. et al. Providing insights into health data science education through artificial intelligence. BMC Med Educ 24 , 564 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05555-3

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Multi-Method Formative Evaluation of a Digital Online Grocery Shopping Assistant Among Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children Participants

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COMMENTS

Discussions that Teach
Academy for Teaching and Learning. Moody Library, Suite 201. One Bear Place. Box 97189. Waco, TX 76798-7189. [email protected]. (254) 710-4064. Discussion is a flexible and effective method of interactive learning. As with other forms of interactive learning, discussion requires careful preparation and skill to achieve pedagogical goals.
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Discussion Method Teaching: A Practical Guide
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Discussion methods are a variety of forums for open-ended, collaborative exchange of ideas among a teacher and students or among students for the purpose of furthering students thinking, learning, problem solving, understanding, or literary appreciation. Participants present multiple points of view, respond to the ideas of others, and reflect on their own ideas in an effort to build their ...
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The Interactive Nature of the Discussion Teaching Method Most teachers of tertiary institutions tend to be more comfortable with the lecture method of teaching. As a teaching method, lecturing in tertiary institutions is a tradition. The level of students' maturity may be one of the reasons for using this method at that stage of learning.
Discussion as a teaching and learning strategy
Discussions - an interactive activity where students talk with each other about a central topic, problem or concept (sometimes, but not always, to find a consensus or solution). A discussion is the exchange of ideas by 2 or more people related to a central topic or problem. In the classroom setting, discussions mainly refer to whole-of-class ...
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Suggest the next step for the group or for you. 4. Ask about the next step for the group or indi- personally. viduals. and listening in a group) for achieving subject matter The discussion method is strongly advocated for mastery and other educational objectives. the teaching of English and the social sciences.
PDF Chapter 9: Using Indirect Teaching Methods
The Discussion Method. Functions of Education: − Development of Students' Ability to think. − Critically and Perform Independent Inquiry. Discussion is an Example of Indirect Teaching Method. Discussions are: − Carefully Structured Exchange of Ideas Directed. Toward a Specific Goal.
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Arrange to have one of your classes observed or videotaped so that an observer can help you evaluate what went well and what you can do to improve student learning. To schedule a class observation or videotaping, contact The Teaching Center at 935-6810. Leading discussions can be a stimulating, enjoyable way to teach.
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The goal of a discussion is to get students to practice thinking about the course material. Your role becomes that of facilitator. You design and facilitate the discussion rather than convey information. If you want to hold a discussion, don't do all the talking yourself; don't lecture to the group or talk to one student at a time.
PDF The Use of the Discussion Method at University: Enhancement of Teaching
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3.8 Main conclusions. 3.8.1 Relating epistemology, learning theories and teaching methods. 3.8.1.1 Pragmatism trumps ideology in teaching. Although there is often a direct relationship between a method of teaching, a learning theory and an epistemological position, this is by no means always the case. It is tempting to try to put together a ...
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Point out how the day's discussion will tie in with the next discussion. Specific Types of Large Group Discussions . Developmental Discussion is a technique in which a large group breaks down the problem-solving process into stages that approximate the scientific method. In the first part of class, students collectively identify a problem.
Discussions
Discussions. (Some sections adapted from Davis, 1993; Brookfield and Preskill, 1999) Discussions can be an excellent strategy for enhancing student motivation, fostering intellectual agility, and encouraging democratic habits. They create opportunities for students to practice and sharpen a number of skills, including the ability to articulate ...
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The discussion method of instruction is used to teach specific subjects and to enhance lectures, observations, site visits, and case studies. Adds to a lecture. Facilitates the sharing of collective experiences and ideas. Clarification of concepts and information. Aids in knowledge exchange and enhancement. Makes the students more interested.
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Full article: Reviews of teaching methods
The 75 most cited reviews on teaching methods listed in the Web of Science from 1980 to 2017 were analysed. Since our interest is the claims made in each article about the teaching method under study, the analysis concerned the abstract, results, discussion, conclusion, and implication parts of each review.
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Background We aimed to determine whether a new online interactive learning method for fifth-year medical students could improve their knowledge of pre- and postoperative care during the COVID-19 era. Methods A retrospective cohort study was conducted from June 2020 to May 2022 during the pre- and postoperative care course for fifth-year medical students in a university hospital in southern ...
Education Endowment Foundation:'Talk' me through TOLD: four key
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Cultural nuances in preschool education: a comparative ...
This study explores the differences in preschool teachers' perceptions of classroom rules in a cross-cultural context, to help preschool teachers cope with cultural differences and construct appropriate classroom rules. The study conducted semi-structured interviews with 26 in-service preschool teachers from China and Thailand. The findings indicated that teachers' perceptions of the ...
Challenges of Clinical Education: From the Perspective of Clinical
The role of a clinical educator mainly requires collaborative work between healthcare settings, interprofessional teams, health science faculty teaching in the classroom, and students assigned to clinical learning experiences in the healthcare setting. 2 In particular, the responsibilities of a clinical nurse educator include: leading, educating, and assessing student skills, knowledge, and ...
Providing insights into health data science education through
Background Health Data Science (HDS) is a novel interdisciplinary field that integrates biological, clinical, and computational sciences with the aim of analysing clinical and biological data through the utilisation of computational methods. Training healthcare specialists who are knowledgeable in both health and data sciences is highly required, important, and challenging. Therefore, it is ...
Multi-Method Formative Evaluation of a Digital Online Grocery Shopping
This included discussion around ROSA's potentially positive influence as parents try to model healthy online shopping for their kids and the assistance ROSA could provide in making shopping more accessible for older people. ... The multi-method approach found corroboration between the quantitative and qualitative data regarding the potential of ...

What is The Discussion Method?

The Discussion Method Is Important For Teachers

Implement The Discussion Method In the Classroom

Ensuring A Safe And Respectful Environment

Encouraging Participation, Guiding The Conversation, And Providing Feedback.

The Role Of Technology In The Discussion Method

Using Online Tools In A Virtual Classroom

Integrating Technology With Peers And Experts

Frequently Asked Questions

What Are The Benefits Of The Discussion Method?

How Do You Prepare For A Discussion-Based Class?

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Discussion Method Teaching: A Practical Guide

Preparation Before Class

Read the Assigned Material

Decide on Important Concepts and Outline

A Question Outline

A Board Outline

Knowing Your Students

Looking at the Whole Semester and the Whole Institution

Physical Setting

Usual Situation

Beginning the Class

Questioning, Listening, Response

Body Language

Sense of Time

Ending the Class

After Class

How to Start

Bibliography: Case Method and Discussion Method Teaching

Learning Through Discussion

On this page:

Identifying your Course Context

Leveraging Asynchronous Discussion Spaces

The CTL is here to help!

The What and Why of Class Discussion

I teach a discussion-based course

I do not teach a discussion-based course

I teach a course that may have some Hybrid/HyFlex meetings.

Planning for Classroom Discussion

Goals & Expectations

Warming up for Classroom Discussion

Get students talking early and often to foster community

Establish class norms around discussion and participation

Engaging in Classroom Discussion

Involve students in discussion

Determine your role in discussion

Give students time to think before, during, and after the discussion

Wrapping up Classroom Discussion

Debrief the Discussion

Collect Feedback, Reflect, Iterate

Columbia Tools to Support Asynchronous Discussion

References and Further Reading

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3.8 Main conclusions

3.8.1.2 Teaching methods are not determined by technology

3.8.2 Relating teaching methods to the knowledge and skills needed in a digital age

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