identity theory erikson

Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis that could positively or negatively affect personality development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are psychosocial because they involve the psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths that the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and, therefore, a more unhealthy personality and sense of self.  These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

Stage 1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.

Here’s the conflict:

Trust : If the caregiver is reliable, consistent, and nurturing, the child will develop a sense of trust, believing that the world is safe and that people are dependable and affectionate.

This sense of trust allows the child to feel secure even when threatened and extends into their other relationships, maintaining their sense of security amidst potential threats.

Mistrust : Conversely, if the caregiver fails to provide consistent, adequate care and affection, the child may develop a sense of mistrust and insecurity . 

This could lead to a belief in an inconsistent and unpredictable world, fostering a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety.

Under such circumstances, the child may lack confidence in their ability to influence events, viewing the world with apprehension.

Infant Feeding

Feeding is a critical activity during this stage. It’s one of infants’ first and most basic ways to learn whether they can trust the world around them.

It sets the stage for their perspective on the world as being either a safe, dependable place or a place where their needs may not be met.

This consistent, dependable care helps the child feel a sense of security and trust in the caregiver and their environment.

They understand that when they have a need, such as hunger, someone will be there to provide for that need.

These negative experiences can lead to a sense of mistrust in their environment and caregivers.

They may start to believe that their needs may not be met, creating anxiety and insecurity.

Success and Failure In Stage One

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope . By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support.

Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over-feeling mistrust in the world around them.

Consistent with Erikson’s views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early attachment experience can affect relationships with others in later life.

The balance between trust and mistrust allows the infant to learn that while there may be moments of discomfort or distress, they can rely on their caregiver to provide support.

This helps the infant to build resilience and the ability to cope with stress or adversity in the future.

Stage 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Autonomy : If encouraged and supported in their increased independence, children will become more confident and secure in their ability to survive.

They will feel comfortable making decisions, explore their surroundings more freely, and have a sense of self-control. Achieving this autonomy helps them feel able and capable of leading their lives.

Shame and Doubt : On the other hand, if children are overly controlled or criticized, they may begin to feel ashamed of their autonomy and doubt their abilities.

This can lead to a lack of confidence, fear of trying new things, and a sense of inadequacy about their self-control abilities.

What Happens During This Stage?

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc.

Such skills illustrate the child’s growing sense of independence and autonomy.

For example, during this stage, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

Toilet Training 

This is when children start to exert their independence, taking control over their bodily functions, which can greatly influence their sense of autonomy or shame and doubt.

Autonomy : When parents approach toilet training in a patient, supportive manner, allowing the child to learn at their own pace, the child may feel a sense of accomplishment and autonomy.

They understand they have control over their own bodies and can take responsibility for their actions. This boosts their confidence, instilling a sense of autonomy and a belief in their ability to manage personal tasks.

Shame and Doubt : Conversely, if the process is rushed, if there’s too much pressure, or if parents respond with anger or disappointment to accidents, the child may feel shame and start doubting their abilities.

They may feel bad about their mistakes, and this can lead to feelings of shame, self-doubt, and a lack of confidence in their autonomy.

Success and Failure In Stage Two

Erikson states parents must allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment that is tolerant of failure.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will . If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

The infant develops a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Suppose children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves. In that case, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem , and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

How Can Parents Encourage a Sense of Control?

Success leads to feelings of autonomy, and failure results in shame and doubt.

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment that is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child’s clothes, a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.

So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular task, they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training).

The aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992).

The balance between autonomy and shame and doubt allows the child to understand that while they can’t always control their environment, they can exercise control over their actions and decisions, thus developing self-confidence and resilience.

Stage 3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction.

Initiative : When caregivers encourage and support children to take the initiative, they can start planning activities, accomplish tasks, and face challenges.

The children will learn to take the initiative and assert control over their environment.

They can begin to think for themselves, formulate plans, and execute them, which helps foster a sense of purpose.

Guilt : If caregivers discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss or criticize their efforts, children may feel guilty about their desires and initiatives.

This could potentially lead to feelings of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive.”

During this period, the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it allows children to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.

The child begins to assert control and power over their environment by planning activities, accomplishing tasks, and facing challenges.

Exploration

Here’s why exploration is important:

Developing Initiative : Exploration allows children to assert their power and control over their environment. Through exploration, children engage with their surroundings, ask questions, and discover new things.

This active engagement allows them to take the initiative and make independent choices, contributing to their autonomy and confidence.

Learning from Mistakes : Exploration also means making mistakes, and these provide crucial learning opportunities. Even if a child’s efforts lead to mistakes or failures, they learn to understand cause and effect and their role in influencing outcomes.

Building Self-Confidence : When caregivers support and encourage a child’s explorations and initiatives, it bolsters their self-confidence. They feel their actions are valuable and significant, which encourages them to take more initiative in the future.

Mitigating Guilt : If caregivers respect the child’s need for exploration and do not overly criticize their mistakes, it helps prevent feelings of guilt. Instead, the child learns it’s okay to try new things and perfectly fine to make mistakes.

Success and Failure In Stage Three

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Success at this stage leads to the virtue of purpose .

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt . The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiative too much.

It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance, or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening, the child may feel guilty for “being a nuisance”.

Too much guilt can slow the child’s interaction with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.

A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important.

The balance between initiative and guilt during this stage can help children understand that it’s acceptable to take charge and make their own decisions, but there will also be times when they must follow the rules or guidelines set by others. Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of purpose.

How Can Parents Encourage a Sense of Exploration?

In this stage, caregivers must provide a safe and supportive environment that allows children to explore freely. This nurtures their initiative, helps them develop problem-solving skills, and builds confidence and resilience.

By understanding the importance of exploration and providing the right support, caregivers can help children navigate this stage successfully and minimize feelings of guilt.

Stage 4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson’s fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. In this stage, children start to compare themselves with their peers to gauge their abilities and worth.

Industry : If children are encouraged by parents and teachers to develop skills, they gain a sense of industry—a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.

They start learning to work and cooperate with others and begin to understand that they can use their skills to complete tasks. This leads to a sense of confidence in their ability to achieve goals.

Inferiority : On the other hand, if children receive negative feedback or are not allowed to demonstrate their skills, they may develop a sense of inferiority.

They may start to feel that they aren’t as good as their peers or that their efforts aren’t valued, leading to a lack of self-confidence and a feeling of inadequacy.

The child is coping with new learning and social demands.

Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, and to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach specific skills.

At this stage, the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and become a major source of the child’s self-esteem.

The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies valued by society and develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.

This stage typically occurs during the elementary school years, from approximately ages 6 to 11, and the experiences children have in school can significantly influence their development.

Here’s why:

Development of Industry : At school, children are given numerous opportunities to learn, achieve, and demonstrate their competencies. They work on various projects, participate in different activities, and collaborate with their peers.

These experiences allow children to develop a sense of industry, reinforcing their confidence in their abilities to accomplish tasks and contribute effectively.

Social Comparison : School provides a context where children can compare themselves to their peers.

They gauge their abilities and achievements against those of their classmates, which can either help build their sense of industry or lead to feelings of inferiority, depending on their experiences and perceptions.

Feedback and Reinforcement : Teachers play a crucial role during this stage. Their feedback can either reinforce the child’s sense of industry or trigger feelings of inferiority.

Encouraging feedback enhances the child’s belief in their skills, while persistent negative feedback can lead to a sense of inferiority.

Building Life Skills : School also provides opportunities for children to develop crucial life skills, like problem-solving, teamwork, and time management. Successfully acquiring and utilizing these skills promotes a sense of industry.

Dealing with Failure : School is where children may encounter academic difficulties or fail for the first time.

How they learn to cope with these situations— and how teachers and parents guide them through these challenges—can influence whether they develop a sense of industry or inferiority.

Success and Failure In Stage Four

Success leads to the virtue of competence , while failure results in feelings of inferiority .

If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competence) and confident in their ability to achieve goals.

If this initiative is not encouraged, if parents or teacher restricts it, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities, and therefore may not reach his or her potential.

If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society demands (e.g., being athletic), they may develop a sense of Inferiority.

Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary.

The balance between industry and inferiority allows children to recognize their skills and understand that they have the ability to work toward and achieve their goals, even if they face challenges along the way.

How Can Parents & Teachers Encourage a Sense of Exploration?

In this stage, teachers and parents need to provide consistent, constructive feedback and encourage effort, not just achievement.

This approach helps foster a sense of industry, competence, and confidence in children, reducing feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

Identity : If adolescents are supported in their exploration and given the freedom to explore different roles, they are likely to emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.

This process involves exploring their interests, values, and goals, which helps them form their own unique identity.

Role Confusion : If adolescents are restricted and not given the space to explore or find the process too overwhelming or distressing, they may experience role confusion.

This could mean being unsure about one’s place in the world, values, and future direction. They may struggle to identify their purpose or path, leading to confusion about their personal identity.

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent and looking at the future regarding careers, relationships, families, housing, etc.

The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.

Teenagers explore who they are as individuals, seek to establish a sense of self, and may experiment with different roles, activities, and behaviors.

According to Erikson, this is important to forming a strong identity and developing a sense of direction in life.

The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, between the morality learned by the child and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245).

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. During this stage, the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is.

Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.

Social Relationships

Given the importance of social relationships during this stage, it’s crucial for adolescents to have supportive social networks that encourage healthy exploration of identity.

It’s also important for parents, teachers, and mentors to provide guidance as adolescents navigate their social relationships and roles.

Formation of Identity : Social relationships provide a context within which adolescents explore different aspects of their identity.

They try on different roles within their peer groups, allowing them to discover their interests, beliefs, values, and goals. This exploration is key to forming their own unique identity.

Peer Influence : Peer groups often become a significant influence during this stage. Adolescents often start to place more value on the opinions of their friends than their parents.

How an adolescent’s peer group perceives them can impact their sense of self and identity formation.

Social Acceptance and Belonging : Feeling accepted and fitting in with peers can significantly affect an adolescent’s self-esteem and sense of identity.

They are more likely to develop a strong, positive identity if they feel accepted and valued. Feeling excluded or marginalized may lead to role confusion and a struggle with identity formation.

Experiencing Diversity : Interacting with a diverse range of people allows adolescents to broaden their perspectives, challenge their beliefs, and shape their values.

This diversity of experiences can also influence the formation of their identity.

Conflict and Resolution : Social relationships often involve conflict and the need for resolution, providing adolescents with opportunities to explore different roles and behaviors.

Learning to navigate these conflicts aids in the development of their identity and the social skills needed in adulthood.

Success and Failure In Stage Five

According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage, the body image of the adolescent changes.

Erikson claims adolescents may feel uncomfortable about their bodies until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity .

Fidelity involves being able to commit one’s self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.

During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based on the outcome of their explorations.

Adolescents who establish a strong sense of identity can maintain consistent loyalties and values, even amidst societal shifts and changes.

Erikson described 3 forms of identity crisis:

• severe (identity confusion overwhelms personal identity)
• prolonged (realignment of childhood identifications over an extended time)
• aggravated (repeated unsuccessful attempts at resolution)

Failure to establish a sense of identity within society (“I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up”) can lead to role confusion.

However, if adolescents don’t have the support, time, or emotional capacity to explore their identity, they may be left with unresolved identity issues, feeling unsure about their roles and uncertain about their future.

This could potentially lead to a weak sense of self, role confusion, and lack of direction in adulthood.

Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.

In response to role confusion or identity crisis , an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g., work, education, or political activities).

Also, pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

Stage 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.

Intimacy : Individuals who successfully navigate this stage are able to form intimate, reciprocal relationships with others.

They can form close bonds and are comfortable with mutual dependency. Intimacy involves the ability to be open and share oneself with others, as well as the willingness to commit to relationships and make personal sacrifices for the sake of these relationships.

Isolation : If individuals struggle to form these close relationships, perhaps due to earlier unresolved identity crises or fear of rejection, they may experience isolation.

Isolation refers to the inability to form meaningful, intimate relationships with others. This could lead to feelings of loneliness, alienation, and exclusion.

Success and Failure In Stage Six

Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.

Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of love . Individuals who develop this virtue have the ability to form deep and committed relationships based on mutual trust and respect.

During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.

However, if individuals struggle during this stage and are unable to form close relationships, they may feel isolated and alone. This could potentially lead to a sense of disconnection and estrangement in adulthood.

Avoiding intimacy and fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. 

Stage 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). During this stage, individuals focus more on building our lives, primarily through our careers, families, and contributions to society.

Generativity : If individuals feel they are making valuable contributions to the world, for instance, through raising children or contributing to positive changes in society, they will feel a sense of generativity.

Generativity involves concern for others and the desire to contribute to future generations, often through parenting, mentoring, leadership roles, or creative output that adds value to society.

Stagnation : If individuals feel they are not making a positive impact or are not involved in productive or creative tasks, they may experience stagnation.

Stagnation involves feeling unproductive and uninvolved, leading to self-absorption, lack of growth, and feelings of emptiness.

Psychologically, generativity refers to “making your mark” on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual.

During middle age, individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.

We give back to society by raising our children, being productive at work, and participating in community activities and organizations. We develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture through generativity.

Work & Parenthood

Both work and parenthood are important in this stage as they provide opportunities for adults to extend their personal and societal influence.

Work : In this stage, individuals often focus heavily on their careers. Meaningful work is a way that adults can feel productive and gain a sense of contributing to the world.

It allows them to feel that they are part of a larger community and that their efforts can benefit future generations. If they feel accomplished and valued in their work, they experience a sense of generativity.

However, if they’re unsatisfied with their career or feel unproductive, they may face feelings of stagnation.

Parenthood : Raising children is another significant aspect of this stage. Adults can derive a sense of generativity from nurturing the next generation, guiding their development, and imparting their values.

Through parenthood, adults can feel they’re making a meaningful contribution to the future.

On the other hand, individuals who choose not to have children or those who cannot have children can also achieve generativity through other nurturing behaviors, such as mentoring or engaging in activities that positively impact the younger generation.

Success and Failure In Stage Seven

If adults can find satisfaction and a sense of contribution through these roles, they are more likely to develop a sense of generativity, leading to feelings of productivity and fulfillment.

Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of care . Individuals who develop this virtue feel a sense of contribution to the world, typically through family and work, and feel satisfied that they are making a difference.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

We become stagnant and feel unproductive by failing to find a way to contribute. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. 

This could potentially lead to feelings of restlessness and unproductiveness in later life.

Stage 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

Ego Integrity : If individuals feel they have lived a fulfilling and meaningful life, they will experience ego integrity.

This is characterized by a sense of acceptance of their life as it was, the ability to find coherence and purpose in their experiences, and a sense of wisdom and fulfillment.

Despair : On the other hand, if individuals feel regretful about their past, feel they have made poor decisions, or believe they’ve failed to achieve their life goals, they may experience despair.

Despair involves feelings of regret, bitterness, and disappointment with one’s life, and a fear of impending death.

This stage takes place after age 65 and involves reflecting on one’s life and either moving into feeling satisfied and happy with one’s life or feeling a deep sense of regret.

Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be” (1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65).

As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as retired people.

Success and Failure In Stage Eight

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom . Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

Individuals who reflect on their lives and regret not achieving their goals will experience bitterness and despair.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

This could potentially lead to feelings of fear and dread about their mortality.

A continuous state of ego integrity does not characterize wise people, but they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by integrity and despair as alternating states that must be balanced.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson’s Theory

By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development, filling a major gap in Freud’s emphasis on childhood.  (McAdams, 2001).

• Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has reconceptualized how the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now considered active and significant times of personal growth.
• Erikson’s theory has good face validity . Many people find they can relate to his theories about various life cycle stages through their own experiences.

Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this development occurs.

For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage.

Erikson also does not explain what propels the individual forward into the next stage once a crisis is resolved. His stage model implies strict sequential progression tied to age, but does not address variations in timing or the complexity of human development.

However, Erikson stressed his work was a ‘tool to think with rather than a factual analysis.’ Its purpose then is to provide a framework within which development can be considered rather than testable theory.

The lack of elucidation of the dynamics makes it challenging to test Erikson’s stage progression hypotheses empirically. Contemporary researchers have struggled to operationalize the stages and validate their universal sequence and age ranges.

Erikson based his theory of psychosocial development primarily on observations of middle-class White children and families in the United States and Europe. This Western cultural perspective may limit the universality of the stages he proposed.

The conflicts emphasized in each stage reflect values like independence, autonomy, and productivity, which are deeply ingrained in Western individualistic cultures. However, the theory may not translate well to more collectivistic cultures that value interdependence, social harmony, and shared responsibility.

For example, the autonomy vs. shame and doubt crisis in early childhood may play out differently in cultures where obedience and conformity to elders is prioritized over individual choice. Likewise, the identity crisis of adolescence may be less pronounced in collectivist cultures.

As an illustration, the identity crisis experienced in adolescence often resurfaces as adults transition into retirement (Logan, 1986). Although the context differs, managing similar emotional tensions promotes self-awareness and comprehension of lifelong developmental dynamics.

Applications

Retirees can gain insight into retirement challenges by recognizing the parallels between current struggles and earlier psychosocial conflicts.

Retirees often revisit identity issues faced earlier in life when adjusting to retirement. Although the contexts differ, managing similar emotional tensions can increase self-awareness and understanding of lifelong psychodynamics.

Cultural sensitivity can increase patient self-awareness during counseling. For example, nurses could use the model to help adolescents tackle identity exploration or guide older adults in finding purpose and integrity.

Recent research shows the ongoing relevance of Erikson’s theory across the lifespan. A 2016 study found a correlation between middle-aged adults’ sense of generativity and their cognitive health, emotional resilience, and executive function.

Interprofessional teams could collaborate to create stage-appropriate, strengths-based care plans. For instance, occupational therapists could engage nursery home residents in reminiscence therapy to increase ego integrity.

Specific tools allow clinicians to identify patients’ current psychosocial stage. Nurses might use Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage Inventory (EPSI) to reveal trust, autonomy, purpose, or despair struggles.

With this insight, providers can deliver targeted interventions to resolve conflicts and support developmental advancement. For example, building autonomy after a major health crisis or fostering generativity by teaching parenting skills.

Erikson vs Maslow

How does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs differ from Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development?

Erikson vs Freud

Freud (1905) proposed a five-stage model of psychosexual development spanning infancy to puberty, focused on the maturation of sexual drives. While groundbreaking, Freud’s theory had limitations Erikson (1958, 1963) aimed to overcome.

• Erikson expanded the timeline through the full lifespan, while Freud focused only on the first few years of life. This more holistic perspective reflected the ongoing social challenges confronted into adulthood and old age.
• Whereas Freud highlighted biological, pleasure-seeking drives, Erikson incorporated the influence of social relationships, culture, and identity formation on personality growth. This broader psychosocial view enhanced realism.
• Erikson focused on the ego’s growth rather than the primacy of the id. He saw personality developing through negotiation of social conflicts rather than only frustration/gratification of innate drives.
• Erikson organized the stages around psychosocial crises tied to ego maturation rather than psychosexual erogenous zones. This reformulation felt more relevant to personal experiences many could identify with.
• Finally, Erikson emphasized healthy progression through the stages rather than psychopathology stemming from fixation. He took a strengths-based perspective focused on human potential.

Summary Table

Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage. This is called the epigenetic principle.

Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development include:

Bee, H. L. (1992). The developing child . London: HarperCollins.

Brown, C., & Lowis, M. J. (2003). Psychosocial development in the elderly: An investigation into Erikson’s ninth stage.  Journal of Aging Studies, 17 (4), 415–426.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society . New York: Norton.

Erickson, E. H. (1958). Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history . New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1963). Youth: Change and challenge . New York: Basic books.

Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility . New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis . New York: Norton.

Erikson E. H . (1982). The life cycle completed . New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Erikson, E. H. (1959). Psychological issues . New York, NY: International University Press

Fadjukoff, P., Pulkkinen, L., & Kokko, K. (2016). Identity formation in adulthood: A longitudinal study from age 27 to 50.  Identity ,  16 (1), 8-23.

Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality.  Standard Edition 7 : 123- 246.

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id . SE, 19: 1-66.

Gross, R. D., & Humphreys, P. (1992). Psychology: The science of mind and behavior . London: Hodder & Stoughton.

Logan , R.D . ( 1986 ). A reconceptualization of Erikson’s theory: The repetition of existential and instrumental themes. Human Development, 29 , 125 – 136.

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What is Erikson’s main theory?

Erikson said that we all want to be good at certain things in our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we go through eight developmental stages as we grow up, from being a baby to an old person. In each stage, we have a challenge to overcome.

If we do well in these challenges, we feel confident, our personality grows healthily, and we feel competent. But if we don’t do well, we might feel like we’re not good enough, leading to feelings of inadequacy.

What is an example of Erikson’s psychosocial theory?

Throughout primary school (ages 6-12), children encounter the challenge of balancing industry and inferiority. During this period, they start comparing themselves to their classmates to evaluate their own standing.

As a result, they may either cultivate a feeling of pride and achievement in their academics, sports, social engagements, and family life or experience a sense of inadequacy if they fall short.

Parents and educators can implement various strategies and techniques to support children in fostering a sense of competence and self-confidence.

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Article contents

Identity development in adolescence and adulthood.

• Jane Kroger Jane Kroger Department of Psychology, University of Tromsoe
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.54
• Published online: 27 February 2017

Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson was the first professional to describe and use the concept of ego identity in his writings on what constitutes healthy personality development for every individual over the course of the life span. Basic to Erikson’s view, as well as those of many later identity writers, is the understanding that identity enables one to move with purpose and direction in life, and with a sense of inner sameness and continuity over time and place. Erikson considered identity to be psychosocial in nature, formed by the intersection of individual biological and psychological capacities in combination with the opportunities and supports offered by one’s social context. Identity normally becomes a central issue of concern during adolescence, when decisions about future vocational, ideological, and relational issues need to be addressed; however, these key identity concerns often demand further reflection and revision during different phases of adult life as well. Identity, thus, is not something that one resolves once and for all at the end of adolescence, but rather identity may continue to evolve and change over the course of adult life too.

Following Erikson’s initial writings, subsequent theorists have laid different emphases on the role of the individual and the role of society in the identity formation process. One very popular elaboration of Erikson’s own writings on identity that retains a psychosocial focus is the identity status model of James Marcia. While Erikson had described one’s identity resolution as lying somewhere on a continuum between identity achievement and role confusion (and optimally located nearer the achievement end of the spectrum), Marcia defined four very different means by which one may approach identity-defining decisions: identity achievement (commitment following exploration), moratorium (exploration in process), foreclosure (commitment without exploration), and diffusion (no commitment with little or no exploration). These four approaches (or identity statuses) have, over many decades, been the focus of over 1,000 theoretical and research studies that have examined identity status antecedents, behavioral consequences, associated personality characteristics, patterns of interpersonal relations, and developmental forms of movement over time. A further field of study has focused on the implications for intervention that each identity status holds. Current research seeks both to refine the identity statuses and explore their dimensions further through narrative analysis.

• identity status
• identity formation
• adolescence

Introduction

We know what we are, but not what we may be . Shakespeare, Hamlet

The question of what constitutes identity has been answered differently through different historical epochs and through different theoretical and empirical approaches to understanding identity’s form and functions. However, basic to all identity definitions is an attempt to understand the entity that, ideally, enables one to move with purpose and direction in life and with a sense of internal coherence and continuity over time and place. Despite the changing physique that aging inevitably brings and the changing environmental circumstances that one invariably encounters through life, a well-functioning identity enables one to experience feelings of personal meaning and well-being and to find satisfying and fulfilling engagements in one’s social context. The means by which one experiences a feeling of sameness in the midst of continual change is the focus of identity theory and research.

Historically, concerns with questions of identity are relatively recent. Baumeister and Muraven ( 1996 ) and Burkitt ( 2011 ) have noted how changes in Western society, specifically the degree to which society has dictated one’s adult roles, have varied enormously over time. Additional changes have occurred in the loosening of social guidelines, restrictions, and constraints, such that contemporary late adolescents experience almost unlimited freedom of choice in their assumption of adult roles and values. In Medieval times, adolescents and adults were prescribed an identity by society in a very direct manner. Social rank and the kinship networks into which one was born set one’s adult roles for life. In early modern times, wealth rather than kinship networks became the standard for self-definition. In the first half of the twentieth century , apprenticeship systems that prepared adolescents for one specific line of work were giving way to more liberal forms of education, thus preparing adolescents for a broad range of occupational pathways. A more liberal educational system, however, eventually required occupational choice in line with one’s own interests and capacities. In addition, many regions in the United States became more tolerant of diversity in attitudes and values, and gender roles became more fluid. Thus, by the middle of the twentieth century in the United States and many other Western nations, the burden of creating an adult identity was now falling largely on the shoulders of late adolescents themselves.

Into this twentieth century United States context came Erik Erikson, a German immigrant (escaping Hitler’s rise to power) and psychoanalyst, trained by Anna Freud. Erikson began his clinical work and writings on optimal personality development in the Boston area, focusing, in particular, on the concept of identity and identity crisis . As an immigrant, Erikson was acutely attuned to the role of the social context and its influence on individual personality development, and, as a psychoanalyst, he was also adept at understanding the roles of conscious as well as unconscious motivations, desires, and intentions, as well as biological drives on individual behavior.

Erikson ( 1963 ) first used the term “ego identity” to describe a central disturbance among some of his veteran patients returning from World War II with a diagnosis of “shell shock” (or currently, post-traumatic stress disorder), who seemed to be experiencing a loss of self-sameness and continuity in their lives:

What impressed me most was the loss in these men of a sense of identity. They knew who they were; they had a personal identity. But it was as if subjectively, their lives no longer hung together—and never would again. There was a central disturbance in what I then started to call ego identity. (Erikson, 1963 , p. 42)

Through identity’s absence in the lives of these young men, Erikson came to understand the tripartite nature of identity, that he believed to be comprised of biological, psychological, and social factors. It was often a particular moment in a soldier’s life history where soma, psyche, and society conspired to endanger identity foundations that necessitated clinical care. And, thus, it was through disruptions to individual identity that Erikson more clearly came to understand identity’s form and functions.

Erikson has often been referred to as “identity’s architect” (e.g., Friedman, 1999 ), and his initial writings on identity served as the springboard for many later theorists and researchers to examine further identity’s many dimensions. Erikson’s psychosocial approach will thus serve as the organizing framework for a review of research on identity development during adolescent and adult life.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Orientation

Erikson’s ( 1963 , 1968 ) understanding of identity views the phenomenon as a result of the mutual interaction of individual and context; while individual interests and capacities, wishes and desires draw individuals to particular contexts, those contexts, in turn, provide recognition (or not) of individual identity and are critical to its further development. Erikson stressed the important interactions among the biological, psychological, and social forces for optimal personality development. He suggested a series of eight psychosocial tasks over the course of the life span that follow an epigenetic principle, such that resolution to one task sets the foundation for all that follow. Identity vs. Role Confusion is the fifth psychosocial task that Erikson identified, becoming of primary importance during adolescence. Resolution to preceding tasks of Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Doubt and Shame, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority are the foundations upon which one’s resolution to Identity vs. Role Confusion is based, according to Erikson; resolution to subsequent adult tasks of Intimacy vs. Role Confusion, Generativity vs. Stagnation, and Integrity vs. Despair all similarly depend upon resolution to the Identity vs. Role Confusion task of adolescence.

Erikson ( 1963 , 1968 ) postulated a number of key identity concepts that have served as foundations for much subsequent identity research. For Erikson, identity formation involves finding a meaningful identity direction on a continuum between identity attainment and role confusion . The process of identity formation requires identity exploration and commitment , the synthesis of childhood identifications into a new configuration, related to but different from, the sum of its parts. The identity formation process is extremely arduous for some, and the resolutions of a negative identity or identity foreclosure are two means by which the identity formation process can be bypassed. A negative identity involves identity choices based on roles and values that represent polar opposites of those espoused by one’s family and/or immediate community. Thus, the daughter of a Midwestern minister of religion runs away to become a prostitute in inner city Chicago. A foreclosed identity resolution also avoids the identity formation process by basing identity-defining choices on key identifications, mostly with parental values, without exploring potential alternatives.

Erikson ( 1963 , 1968 ) also proposed several further concepts for optimal identity development. A moratorium process, the active consideration and exploration of future possible identity-defining adult roles and values, was considered vital to optimal identity development. Erikson also became well known for his use of the term identity crisis , an acute period of questioning one’s own identity directions. And finally, Erikson stressed that while an initial resolution to the Identity vs. Role Confusion task often occurs during adolescence, identity is never resolved once and for all, but rather remains open to modifications and alterations throughout adult life. The strength of Erikson’s approach lies in its consideration of both individual and sociocultural factors and their mutual interaction in identity construction and development. Erikson’s model of identity development has wide applicability across cultural contexts and highlights the ongoing nature of identity development throughout adulthood. Weaknesses include his imprecise language, which at times makes operationalization of key concepts difficult, and his historically dated concepts regarding women’s identity development.

While other psychosocial models have evolved from Erikson’s original writings (e.g., Whitbourne’s [ 2002 ] identity processing theory, Berzonsky’s [ 2011 ] social cognitive identity styles, McAdams’s [ 2008 ] narrative approach), it is Erikson’s identity formation concepts, particularly those operationalized by Marcia ( 1966 ) (Marcia, Waterman, Matteson, Archer, & Orlofsky, 1993 ) that have generated an enormous volume of empirical research over past decades and will be the primary focus of subsequent sections of this article.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Approach and Marcia’s Identity Status Model

As a young Ph.D. student in clinical psychology, James Marcia was interested in Erikson’s writings but suspected that the process of identity formation during late adolescence to be somewhat more complicated than what Erikson ( 1963 ) had originally proposed. While Erikson had conceptualized an identity resolution as lying on a continuum between identity and role confusion, an entity that one had “more or less of,” Marcia proposed that there were four qualitatively different pathways by which late adolescents or young adults went about the process of forming an identity. Based on the presence or absence of exploration and commitment around several issues important to identity development during late adolescence, Marcia ( 1966 ; Marcia et al., 1993 ) developed a semi-structured Identity Status Interview to identify four identity pathways, or identity statuses, among late adolescent or young adult interviewees.

An individual in the identity achieved status had explored various identity-defining possibilities and had made commitments on his or her own terms, trying to match personal interests, talents, and values with those available in the environmental context. Equally committed to an identity direction was the foreclosed individual, who had formed an identity, but without undergoing an exploration process. This person’s identity had been acquired primarily through the process of identification—by assuming the identity choices of significant others without serious personal consideration of alternative possibilities. An individual in the moratorium identity status was very much in the process of identity exploration, seeking meaningful life directions but not yet making firm commitments and often experiencing considerable discomfort in the process. Someone in the diffusion identity status had similarly not made identity-defining commitments and was not attempting to do so.

Marcia et al.’s ( 1993 ) Identity Status Interview was designed to tap the areas (or domains) of occupation, political, religious, and sexual values that had been described by Erikson as key to the identity formation process. In Marcia’s view, however, the nature of the identity domain was not as critical to the assessment of identity status as was finding the identity-defining issues most salient to any given individual. Marcia suggested the use of clinical judgment in assigning a global identity status, the mode that seemed to best capture an adolescent’s identity formation process. It must be noted that Marcia and his colleagues (Marcia et al., 1993 ) have never attempted to capture all of the rich dimensions of identity outlined by Erikson through the Identity Status Interview; such a task would be unwieldy, if not impossible. Marcia does, however, build on Erikson’s concepts of identity exploration and comment to elaborate these identity dimensions in relation to those psychosocial roles and values identified by Erikson as key to the identity formation process of many late adolescents.

Subsequent to the original Identity Status Interview, several paper-and-pencil measures were developed to assess Marcia’s four identity statuses. One widely used measure has been the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status (EOM-EIS II), devised and revised through several versions by Adams and his colleagues (Adams, Bennion, & Huh, 1989 ; Adams & Ethier, 1999 ). This questionnaire measure enables identity status assessments in four ideological (occupation, religion, politics, philosophy of life) and four interpersonal domains (friendships, dating, gender roles, recreation/leisure), as well as providing a global rating.

Different dimensions of identity exploration and commitment processes have also been identified through several recent and expanded identity status models (Luyckx, Goossens, Soenens, & Beyers, 2006 ; Crocetti, Rubini, & Meeus, 2008 ). Luyckx and his colleagues differentiated two types of exploration (exploration in breadth and exploration in depth) and two types of commitment (commitment making and identification with commitment). Exploration in breadth is that moratorium process identified by Marcia, while exploration in depth describes the process of considering a commitment already made and how well it expresses one’s own identity. Commitment making refers to deciding an identity-defining direction, while identification with commitment describes the process of integrating one’s commitments into an internal sense of identity. Later, Luyckx and his colleagues (Luyckx, Schwartz, Berzonsky, Soenens, Vansteenkiste, Smits, et al., 2008 ) also identified a process of ruminative exploration.

Meeus and his colleagues (e.g., Crocetti, Rubini, & Meeus, 2008 ) also identified three identity processes: commitment, exploration in depth, and reconsideration of commitments. Commitment here refers to the dimensions of commitment making and identification with commitment in the Luyckx, Goossens, Soenens, and Beyers ( 2006 ) model; exploration in depth corresponds to that dimension in the Luyckx model. Reconsideration of commitment refers to one’s willingness to replace current commitments with new ones. In this model, commitment and reconsideration reflect identity certainty and uncertainty, respectively, in the identity formation process.

Through cluster analysis, these two groups of researchers have extracted clusters that match all of Marcia’s original identity statuses. In addition, Luyckx and his colleagues (Luyckx, Goossens, Soenens, Beyers, & Vansteenkiste, 2005 ) identified two types of diffusion—troubled and carefree—while Meeus, van de Schoot, Keijsers, Schwartz, and Branje ( 2010 ) found two types of moratoriums—classical (where the individual exhibits anxiety and depression in the identity exploration process) and searching (where new commitments are considered without discarding present commitments). Work has now begun to explore the identity formation process during adolescence and young adulthood with these refined identity statuses, which hold interesting implications for understanding both adaptive and non-adaptive identity development.

Over the time since Marcia’s initial studies, the identity statuses have been examined in relation to personality and behavioral correlates, relationship styles, and developmental patterns of change over time. Most of the studies reviewed in subsequent sections address some aspect of identity development during adolescence or young adulthood; a later section will focus on identity development research during adulthood. It must be further noted that discussion of identity statuses here will be limited to general (or global) identity and its relationship to associated variables.

Personality and Behavioral Correlates of the Identity Statuses

Work utilizing Marcia’s original identity status model, as well as its more recent refinements, have focused on personality and behavioral variables associated with each identity status in order to help validate the model; such studies have produced some reasonably consistent results over time. In terms of personality variables associated with the identity statuses, Kroger and her colleagues (e.g., Martinussen & Kroger, 2013 ) have produced a series of findings utilizing techniques of meta-analysis. Meta-analysis is a “study of studies,” using statistical procedures to examine (sometimes contradictory) results from different individual studies addressing comparable themes over time. Results from such meta-analytic studies allow greater confidence in results than a narrative review of individual studies can provide. The personality variables of self-esteem, anxiety, locus of control, authoritarianism, moral reasoning, and ego development and their relations to identity status have attracted sufficient studies for meta-analyses to be undertaken and are described in the sections that follow. While a number of other personality variables have also been examined in identity status studies over the past decades, their numbers have been insufficient to enable meta-analytic studies.

An initial database for all studies included in the meta-analytic work described in the following sections was comprised of some 565 English-language studies (287 journal publications and 278 doctoral dissertations) identified from PsycInfo, ERIC, Sociological Abstracts, and Dissertation Abstracts International databases, using the following search terms: identity and Marcia, identity and Marcia’s, and ego identity. Cohen’s ( 1988 ) criteria were used to define small, medium, and large effect sizes. In some of the meta-analyses that follow, different methods were used to assess identity status (categorical ratings of identity status and scale measures of identity status). Separate meta-analyses had to be undertaken for studies utilizing each of these two types of identity status assessments for statistical reasons.

Self-Esteem

Ryeng, Kroger, and Martinussen ( 2013a ) undertook meta-analytic studies of the relationship between identity status and global self-esteem. A total of twelve studies with 1,124 participants provided the data for these studies. The achieved identity status was the only status to have a positive correlation with self-esteem ( r = .35), considered to be moderate in effect size. Mean correlations between self-esteem and the moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion statuses were all negative (−.23, −.23, and −.20, respectively) and considered small to moderate in effect size. All of these correlations were significantly different from zero, based on their confidence intervals. When identity status was assessed categorically, there was no difference in effect size between achievements and foreclosures on self-esteem measures. The effect size for the foreclosure-diffusion comparison ( g̅ = −0.19) was small to medium and also significant. Remaining comparisons evidenced small effect size differences in self-esteem scores. Findings here were mixed, as previous research had also produced mixed results on the question of whether foreclosure self-esteem scores would be lower than or similar to those of the identity achieved. Here, results show that only the achieved status (when the identity statuses were measured by continuous scales) produced a moderately positive correlation with self-esteem, while there was no difference in effect sizes between the achieved and foreclosed identity status when studies assessing identity status categorically were analyzed. Thus, the relationship between identity status and self-esteem may depend upon how identity status is measured.

Lillevoll, Kroger, and Martinussen ( 2013a ) examined the relationship between identity status and generalized anxiety through meta-analysis. Twelve studies involving 2,104 participants provided data for this investigation. Effect size differences in anxiety scores for moratoriums compared with foreclosures ( g̅ = 0.39) and for the foreclosure–diffusion comparison ( g̅ = −0.40) were small to moderate. Additionally the confidence intervals for both of these effect sizes did not contain zero, indicating a significant result. A significant moderate effect size ( g̅ = 0.46) was also found in the achievement–foreclosure comparison, but for men only. As predicted, foreclosures had lower anxiety scores compared with all other identity statuses except the achievement women. While it was predicted that those in the achievement identity status would have lower anxiety scores than those in moratorium and diffusion statuses, a small but significant effect size difference was found for the achievement–moratorium comparison only ( g̅ = −0.22). Thus, the moratoriums showed higher generalized anxiety scores than foreclosures, who, in turn, showed lower anxiety scores than the diffusions and male achievements. It appears that unexamined identity commitments undertaken by the foreclosures provided relief from the anxieties and uncertainties of uncommitted identity directions experienced by the moratoriums and diffusions.

Locus of Control

Lillevoll, Kroger, and Martinussen ( 2013b ) examined the relationship between identity status and locus of control. Some five studies with a total of 711 participants provided data for this study. A positive correlation between identity achievement and internal locus of control ( r = .26) and a negative correlation between identity achievement and external locus of control ( r = −.17) was found; these effect sizes are considered small to medium. The moratorium identity status was negatively correlated with internal locus of control ( r = −.17) and positively with an external locus of control ( r = .17), both considered small to medium effect sizes. The foreclosure status was negatively correlated the internal locus of control ( r = −.12) and positively with external locus of control ( r = .19), both considered small to medium effect sizes. The diffusions’ status was negatively correlated with internal locus of control ( r = −.15) and positively with external locus of control ( r = .23), both considered small to medium effect sizes. Apart from the moratorium findings, which were anticipated to reflect an internal locus of control, all other results were in expected directions. It appears that the ability to undertake identity explorations on one’s own terms by the identity achieved is associated with an internal locus of control. Moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion statuses are associated with an external locus of control.

Authoritarianism

The relationship between identity status and authoritarianism was investigated by Ryeng, Kroger, and Martinussen ( 2013b ) through meta-analysis. Some nine studies involving 861 participants provided data for this study. The mean difference between authoritarianism scores for the achievement—foreclosure comparison ( g̅ = −0.79) was large in terms of Cohen’s criteria and significant. The mean difference in authoritarianism scores for the moratorium–foreclosure comparison ( g̅ = −0.67) was medium and significant, while the mean difference in authoritarianism scores for the foreclosure and diffusion identity statuses was medium ( g̅ = 0.42) and significant. Other comparisons were relatively small and not significant. That the foreclosures scored higher on authoritarianism than all other identity statuses is consistent with expectations. Foreclosures often base their identity commitments on their identifications with significant others, rather than exploring identity options on their own terms; thus, the rigidity and intolerance of authoritarian attitudes seem to characterize the terms of their identity commitments, in contrast to the more flexible commitments of the identity achieved or moratoriums in the process of finding their own identity directions.

Ego Development

Jespersen, Kroger, and Martinussen ( 2013a ) examined studies utilizing Loevinger’s ( 1976 ) measure of ego development in relation to the identity statuses through meta-analysis. Eleven studies involving 943 participants provided data for this investigation. Odds ratios (OR) were used to examine frequency distributions of the categorical data. Results of correlational studies showed a moderate, positive relationship between ego development and identity status ( r = .35), which was significant. Results from categorical assessments of identity status also showed a strong relationship between identity status and ego development (mean OR = 3.02). This finding means that the odds of being in a postconformist level of ego development were three times greater for those high in identity statuses (achievement and moratorium) compared with those in the low identity statuses (foreclosure and diffusion). The study also found a moderate relationship between identity achievement and ego development (mean OR = 2.15), meaning that the odds of being in a postconformist level of ego development were over two times greater for those in the identity achievement status than remaining identity statuses. However, no relationship was found between the foreclosed/nonforeclosed identity statuses and the conformist/nonconformist levels of ego development, contrary to prediction (mean OR = 1.31). While results indicate a strong likelihood of being in a post-conformist level of ego development for the identity achieved and moratoriums, as one would predict, it is somewhat surprising that the foreclosure status was not associated with conventional levels of ego development. This lack of association requires further investigation.

Moral Reasoning

A meta-analysis of moral reasoning stages (using Kohlberg’s [ 1976 ] stages in relation to the identity statuses) was also undertaken by Jespersen, Kroger, and Martinussen ( 2013b ). Some ten studies involving 884 participants provided data appropriate for this study. Results showed a small positive mean correlation (.15) between identity status and moral reasoning development, which was significant. Results from categorical assessments of both measures indicated a strong relationship between high identity status (achievement and moratorium) and postconventional levels of moral reasoning (mean OR = 4.57). This result means that the odds of being in the postconventional level of moral reasoning are about four and a half times greater for the high identity status group (achievement and moratorium) than the low (foreclosure and diffusion) group. A strong relationship was also found between the achieved identity status and the postconventional level of moral reasoning (mean OR = 8.85), meaning that the odds of being in a postconventional level of moral reasoning were almost nine times greater for the identity achieved than for other identity statuses. However, no significant relationship appeared for the foreclosed/nonforeclosed identity statuses and the conventional/nonconventional levels of moral reasoning, contrary to prediction. While a meaningful relationship was found between postconventional stages of moral reasoning and the moratorium and achievement identity statuses, it is again surprising that no relationship appeared for the foreclosed identity status and conventional levels of moral reasoning. This finding warrants further investigation.

Additional Personality and Behavioral Variables

A number of additional personality and behavioral variables have been explored in relation to the identity statuses, but no further meta-analyses have yet been undertaken. With regard to the newer, more refined measures of identity status, some additional personality and behavioral associations have been noted. Luyckx et al. ( 2008 ) found ruminative exploration related to identity distress and low self-esteem, while exploration in breadth and depth were positively related to self-reflection. Furthermore, commitment-making (particularly identification with commitment) was associated with high self-esteem, high academic and social adjustment, as well as with low depressive symptoms. Crocetti et al. ( 2008 ) similarly found strong, positive associations between commitment and self-concept clarity, in addition to strong negative associations between in-depth exploration and reconsideration of commitment with self-reflection. Emotional stability was strongly associated with commitment and negatively with in-depth exploration.

Recent work has performed cluster analyses on the exploration and commitment variables, finding four clusters replicating Marcia’s four identity statuses (with the diffusion status including carefree and diffuse diffusions) and an undifferentiated status (Schwartz et al., 2011 ). In terms of psychosocial functioning, achievements were significantly higher than carefree diffusions on a measure of self-esteem; diffusions, in turn, were significantly lower than all other identity statuses on this variable. On a measure of internal locus of control, achievements and moratoriums were significantly higher and carefree diffusions significantly lower than all other identity statuses. On psychological well-being, identity achievements scored significantly higher and carefree diffusions significantly lower than all other identity status groups. For general anxiety, moratoriums and the two diffusion groups scored significantly higher than achievement and foreclosure groups, while the moratoriums scored significantly higher than foreclosures and the two diffusions groups on depression. These findings are generally in line with findings of earlier studies using Marcia’s original model.

Further behavioral studies in relation to the identity statuses have consistently found the identity diffusion status to be related to psychosocial problem behaviors. Delinquent behavior (e.g., Jessor, Turbin, Costa, Dong, Zhang, & Wang, 2003 ; Schwartz, Pantin, Prado, Sullivan, & Szapocznik, 2005 ), substance abuse (e.g., Jones & Hartmann, 1988 ; Laghi, Baiocco, Longiro, & Baumgartner, 2013 ), risky behaviors (e.g., unsafe sex, Hernandez & DiClemente, 1992 ), social, physical aggression, and rule-breaking (carefree diffusions, Schwartz et al., 2011 ), and procrastination (Shanahan & Pychyl, 2006 ) have all been linked with the identity diffusion status. By contrast, the identity achieved have demonstrated a low prevalence of all preceding problem behaviors, coupled with high levels of agency or self-direction and commitment making (e.g., Schwartz et al., 2011 ; Shanahan & Pychyl, 2006 ). Moratoriums have also scored relatively high on levels of social and physical aggression, although they have also scored high on a number of psychosocial measures of well-being (e.g., Schwartz et al., 2011 ).

Relationships and the Identity Statuses

While a number of relational issues have been explored in identity status research (e.g., parental attitudes toward childrearing, family styles of communication, and friendship styles), to date, meta-analyses have been undertaken to examine identity status only in relation to attachment patterns and intimacy or romantic relationships.

Bartholomew and Horowitz ( 1991 ) have proposed that one’s very unique attachment history and subsequent working models of attachment lead to one of four different adolescent/adult attachment styles, or patterns of relating to significant others; these attachment styles become activated particularly in times of stress. S ecurely attached individuals are at ease in becoming close to others and do not worry about being abandoned or having someone become too close to them. Furthermore, they are interdependent—comfortable depending on others and having others depend on them. Those using the avoidant attachment style find it difficult to trust and depend on others and are uncomfortable in becoming too emotionally close. The preoccupied (anxious/ambivalent) attachment group wants to be close to others but worries that others will not reciprocate and will abandon them, while the fearful attachment group wants to be emotionally close to others but are too frightened of being hurt to realize this desire.

These varied styles of attachment have been examined in relation to Marcia’s identity statuses among adolescents and young adults in a number of studies over the past decades, and recent meta-analytic work has explored patterns of findings across studies (Årseth, Kroger, Martinussen, & Marcia, 2009 ). From the large database of 565 identity status studies described earlier, some 14 had data suitable for meta-analysis (a full description of the database can be found in Martinussen & Kroger, 2013 ). A total of 2,329 participants were involved in this investigation. Weak to moderate correlations were found between identity status and attachment style when scale measures were used to assess each variable; the highest mean correlations were between the secure attachment style and identity achievement ( r = .21) as well as identity diffusion ( r = −.23). (Cohen, 1988 , regarded a correlation of .30 as moderate and .10 as weak.) The diffusion status was also weakly to moderately positively correlated with the fearful attachment style ( r = .19). Among categorical assessments of identity status and attachment style, results suggest there are real differences between the identity achieved and foreclosed as well as diffusion identity statuses, with the identity achieved far more likely to be securely attached than foreclosed or diffusion statuses. Data from these studies suggests that one’s relational experiences do have some links to one’s identity status.

According to Erikson’s ( 1963 , 1968 ) epigenetic principle, resolution to the task of Identity vs. Intimacy should set the foundation for resolution to the task of Intimacy vs. Isolation during late adolescence and young adulthood. In Erikson’s ( 1968 ) view, true intimacy involves mutuality and commitment, an acceptance of another with all of his or her strengths and weaknesses in an interdependent, sexual relationship. Erikson ( 1968 ) believed that genuine intimacy requires a sense of identity to be firmly in place, or the relationship becomes merely a tool to help resolve identity concerns for each partner. However, Erikson was unclear about the potential for gender differences in his theory, and a number of feminist writers (e.g., Gilligan, 1982 ) have stressed the importance of relationship issues for women to the identity formation process. Literature examining the relationship between identity and intimacy statuses for late adolescent and young adult men and women has often produced conflicting results.

Thus, a meta-analysis of the relationship between identity status and intimacy for men and women was undertaken by Årseth, Kroger, Martinussen, and Marcia ( 2009 ). Some 21 studies with a total of 1,983 participants were included in meta-analyses here. For studies utilizing scale measures of intimacy, results indicated a low to moderate effect size for men ( g̅ = .35) and women ( g̅ = .30) considered separately, as well as for the total group ( g̅ = .40). All results were significant and indicate that high identity status individuals (achievement and moratorium) scored higher on scale measures of intimacy than low identity status individuals (foreclosures and diffusions). For categorical assessments of identity and intimacy, the picture was somewhat more complex. Among men, the mean odds ratio of having both a high identity and high intimacy status was very high at 22.09, while for women the mean odds ratio was 2.61. In terms of percentages, some 69% of high identity status men were also high in intimacy, while only 23% of low identity status men were high in intimacy. Erikson’s epigenetic principle thus finds strong support among men. Among women, while 65% of high identity status women were also high in intimacy status, some 46% of low identity status women were also high in intimacy status. Thus, the low identity status women were almost equally distributed over high and low intimacy status groups. These results indicate Erikson’s epigenetic principle also was present for a large proportion of women sampled; however, the relationship was significantly stronger for men than women (p < .001), and reasons for this gender difference require further investigation.

Identity Status Change from Adolescence Through Adulthood

Erikson ( 1963 , 1968 ) had proposed that while making initial identity resolutions was a key developmental task of adolescence, identity remained malleable, open to further changes throughout adult life. Similarly, the identity status literature that has pointed to different patterns of movement during young, middle, and late adolescence clearly shows that identity will continue to meet challenges and, for some, the need for revision throughout adulthood. What are the most prevalent patterns of identity status change over the course of adolescent and adult life, and what are the key events primarily associated with these changes?

A number of studies addressing identity status changes over time have now been undertaken, and a series of meta-analytic investigations are perhaps the most effective means of summarizing common patterns of movement and stability in the identity status literature. Kroger, Martinussen, and Marcia ( 2010 ) investigated some 72 of 124 identity studies that contained developmental information from the larger database of 565 English-language identity status studies described earlier. Movement patterns were investigated in several ways.

When movements over approximately three years of late adolescence and young adulthood were examined longitudinally from data that assessed identity status in categorical terms, the mean proportion of adolescents making progressive identity status changes (D–F, D–M, D–A, F–M, F–A, and M–A) was .36, compared with .15 who made regressive changes (A–M, A–F, A–D, M–F, M–D, and F–D) and .49 who remained stable (A–A, M–M, F–F, D–D) over this time period. It is interesting that the mean proportion of those remaining stable in identity status was so high, especially during the time of late adolescence that Erikson ( 1968 ) has identified as central to the identity formation process. As anticipated, the highest mean proportions of progressive movements were from M–A (.46), F–A (.22), and F–M (.22). The highest mean proportions of those remaining stable were the committed identity achieved (.66) and the foreclosed (.53) statuses. The highest mean proportions of those making regressive movements were from A–F (.17) and M–F (.17).

For cross-sectional studies assessing identity status in categorical terms, the mean proportion of identity achievements increased steadily through the high school years, dropped upon university entry and increased to .34 by age 22 years. It was not until the 30–36 year age group that about half of the participants were rated identity achieved (.47). The mean proportion of moratoriums rose fairly steadily to age 19 years, which peaked at .42 and declined fairly steadily thereafter through the 30–36 year age span. The mean proportion of foreclosures dropped fairly steadily to a low at age 19 years of .12, but then showed and up and down movement throughout remaining ages to .17 in the 30–36 year age group. The mean proportion of diffusions declined fairly steadily from age 14–20 years of age (from .36 to .21), but by age 21 years, the diffusions rose again to .26 and showed up and down movement until the final 30–36 year age span (.14).

For cross-sectional studies using continuous measures of identity status, it was anticipated that achievement and moratorium scores would increase across age groups and foreclosure and diffusion scores would decrease over time. Studies here were based on data for early and mid-adolescents. The anticipated patterns were found, but all effect sizes were small. It may be that more pronounced identity status changes occur during and beyond late adolescence.

Additional studies of identity status change through middle and later adulthood years not included in meta-analyses have also generally found slow, progressive identity status movements over time. Fadjukoff, Pulkkinen, and Kokko ( 2016 ) analyzed identity status longitudinally in a Finnish sample of men and women drawn from the general population. Identity status was assessed at ages 27, 36, 42, and 50 years. Movement towards identity achievement was predominant on the overall measure of identity status, with women typically reaching identity achievement earlier than men. In a narrative analysis of identity pathways among women assessed from late adolescence through mid-life, Josselson ( 1996 ) found a diversity of identity pathways, with achievement and foreclosure pathways tending to be the most stable over time. Carlsson, Wängqvist, and Frisén ( 2015 ) have also examined identity status change and stability in a longitudinal study of young adults at ages 25 and 29 years in Sweden. Half of participants were coded in the same identity status at Times 1 and 2, while half who changed did so in a progressive direction. Additional identity processes of how people approach life-changing situations, the extent to which they continue to engage in meaning-making, and how they continue to develop their personal life directions were explored through narrative methods among foreclosed and achieved participants. Identity achievement was associated with continued identity development over time, while patterns for ongoing development among foreclosures were more mixed. McLean and Pasupathi ( 2012 ) have made a plea for the use of narrative methods that examine reconstructions of past events to supplement current understandings of the exploration and commitment processes involved on ongoing identity development throughout the life span. Additional identity processes may usefully be identified through such means.

Events Associated with Identity Status Change

An issue that researchers have been exploring over several decades is the question of what kinds of circumstances are associated with identity status change and, conversely, what circumstances are linked with identity status stability. Some hints have appeared in related literatures. For example, Helson and Roberts ( 1994 ) found that some optimal level of “accommodative challenge” or life stimulation is critical for adult ego development (referring to Loevinger’s, 1976 , model of ego development). Accommodative challenge is a circumstance or event that involves either a positive or negative disruption to one’s life. It may be that such life challenges are important to ongoing identity development over time as well.

Anthis and colleagues (Anthis, 2002 , 2011 ; Anthis & La Voie, 2006 ) have conducted several investigations into life events associated with identity exploration and commitment. In her “calamity theory of growth” model, Anthis ( 2002 ) has found stressful life events, such as divorce or job loss, to be associated with increased levels of identity exploration and decreases in identity commitments. She has also found increased levels of identity exploration to be associated with a “readiness for change” measure (Anthis & La Voie, 2006 ). Anthis suggests investigating how optimal levels of perceived conflict interact with other factors for different cohorts of people in exploring the role that life events may play in ongoing identity development during adulthood.

Additionally, Kunnen ( 2006 , 2010 ) asks if conflict may be the driver of identity change. In a study of freshman university students, she found that students who experienced a conflict in their career goals increased identity exploratory activity and also manifested a decrease in the strength of their present commitments. Furthermore, those experiencing conflict perceived more change in their commitments as compared to nonconflicted students. The types and levels of perceived identity conflict and the mechanisms by which conflict may stimulate or impair ongoing identity development are in need of further study. Lilgendahl’s ( 2015 ) narrative work reiterates the value of negative events and their potential for psychological growth during midlife, while events that are understood as positive are key to the formation of identity commitments during young adulthood.

Identity Development in Adulthood

Research into ongoing identity development during adulthood has taken several forms. Some researchers have attempted to understand the relationship between resolution to identity issues during late adolescence or young adulthood and the Eriksonian psychosocial tasks of adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood), Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood), and Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood). Others have attempted to examine selected issues of identity during these specific adult life phases and whether or not identity cohesion and stability increase with age over the course of adulthood. The following brief overview presents some selected findings from these strands of identity research during various phases of adult life.

According to Erikson’s ( 1963 , 1968 ) epigenetic principle, resolutions to earlier psychosocial tasks will impact resolutions to all subsequent ones. Research to date has generally supported this proposal, with some caveats for the relationship between identity and intimacy, described in meta-analytic studies in a preceding section. The relationships among identity, generativity, and integrity have only recently become a focus of research attention, and they present important opportunities for future investigations. Beaumont and Pratt ( 2011 ) have examined links among Berzonsky’s ( 2011 ) identity styles, Intimacy vs. Isolation, and Generativity vs. Stagnation in samples of young and midlife adults. They found that the informational style (associated with identity achievement) was linked with both the capacity for intimacy and generativity, while the diffuse–avoidant style (associated with identity diffusion) was negatively linked with both intimacy and generativity. The normative identity style (associated with the foreclosure identity status) also positively predicted resolution to intimacy and generativity tasks of adulthood. Pulkkinen, Lyyra, Fadjukoff, and Kokko ( 2012 ) obtained longitudinal data from Finnish adults at ages 27, 36, 42, and 50 years on measures including parental identity, general identity, generativity, and integrity. Generativity scores (as well as scores for psychological and social well-being) were highest if parental identity was achieved by age 42. On a cross-sectional basis, Hearn, Saulnier, Strayer, Glenham, Koopman, and Marcia ( 2012 ) examined the relationship between identity status and a measure of integrity status. A significant relationship was found, with some 86% of integrated persons rated as identity achieved, while no despairing persons were. Those in the non-exploring integrity status (in which questions of personal life meanings were unexplored), the pseudo-integrated integrity status (in which the world was understood in terms of simplistic templates or clichéd meanings), and the despairing integrity status were most frequently in the foreclosed identity status. Hannah, Domino, Figueredo, and Hendrickson ( 1996 ) explored predictors of Integrity vs. Despair in a sample of later life adults, finding the most predictive and parsimonious variables to be trust, autonomy, identity, and intimacy, with no meaningful gender differences. Thus, Erikson’s epigenetic principle has found considerable support over time and illustrates the important role that identity resolution plays to the resolution of subsequent psychosocial tasks during adulthood.

While Erikson ( 1963 , 1968 ) had postulated the ongoing nature of identity development throughout adulthood, and Stephen, Fraser, and Marcia ( 1992 ) had first proposed the likelihood of ongoing moratorium–achievement–moratorium–achievement cycles in adult identity development, there have been relatively few efforts to examine the nature of change and continuity in identity development over the course of adulthood. While some early research has estimated the likelihood of a midlife identity crisis to be about 10% (e.g., Brim, 1992 ), recent work has pointed to ongoing times of identity crisis (or revision) during the later adult years as well (Robinson & Stell, 2015 ). Experiences of well-being have been examined in relation to adult psychosocial stage resolutions in the Rochester Adult Longitudinal Study (Sneed, Whitbourne, Schwartz, & Huang, 2011 ), where scores on both identity and intimacy measures in early and middle adulthood predicted midlife feelings of satisfaction and well-being. A sense of coherence and life satisfaction in later adult years has been fully mediated by resolution to Integrity vs. Despair (Dezutter, Wiesmann, Apers, & Luyckx, 2013 ). Much remains to be learned about ongoing identity development in the adulthood years, and the relation of identity to subsequent psychosocial tasks and additional personality variables.

What the Identity Statuses Mean

Through the decades since Marcia ( 1966 ) developed his identity status model, there has been considerable discussion in the literature about what the identity statuses actually mean and how best to assess them. Marcia ( 1980 ) considers identity to be a structure for organizing individual conscious and unconscious wishes, interests, skills, and talents within the framework of one’s biology and cultural context. His identity status model was intended to reflect the movement through Erikson’s ( 1963 , 1968 ) identity formation process, from an identity based on identifications (foreclosure status), through an exploration (moratorium) process, to a new configuration, based on but different from the sum of its identificatory elements (achievement).

In considering the question of what it is that actually changes in an identity status transition, Kroger ( 2003 ) has suggested that qualitatively different forms of ego organization underlie each of Marcia’s identity statuses. However, after an initial identity has formed, further use of the identity status model during adult life begs the question of what the identity statuses actually mean when applied to adults. While new identity-defining decisions may occur in adult life, is there an actual underlying structural change of identity? There may or may not be. There may actually be new or additional structures of ego organization that underlie the identity achievement status of adulthood, and future research could fruitfully explore this issue. Lile ( 2013 , 2015 ) considers structural identity boundaries for each of the identity statuses and offers some empirical support for a structural model of identity that underlies the identity statuses. Identity status research in adulthood should carefully consider the meaning that the identity statuses may hold when applied to a life phase beyond that for which they were originally developed.

Conclusions

Historically, the task of identity formation is a relatively recent phenomenon. Erikson ( 1963 , 1968 ) first used the identity concept in his clinical writings to describe that entity that seemed to be lacking in the lives of young men returning from combat in World War II. From Erikson’s early writings, several broad approaches to identity theory and research have emerged, laying differential emphasis on the psychosocial, phenomenological, and the contextual nature of identity. This article has reviewed some of the writings and research that have sprung from the identity status model of James Marcia ( 1966 , 1980 ). This review has documented meta-analytic work covering the associations of Marcia’s four identity statuses with various personality, relational, and behavioral variables, as well as documenting the most common patterns of identity status change and stability during adolescence and adulthood. The review has also documented the role that resolution to questions of identity plays in resolutions to ongoing psychosocial tasks of adulthood.

Further identity research could fruitfully explore both the meaning of the identity statuses in ongoing adult identity development as well as the processes and contents of identity changes during adult life. The role of regression in adolescent and adult identity development is poorly understand, occurring more frequently than can be predicted by chance alone (see Kroger et al., 2010 ). Understanding what kinds of regression there may be and whether or not specific types of regression are vital to ongoing adult identity development are important avenues for further identity research. And though identity concerns of adolescence have many parallels to identity issues of later adulthood, very little identity-related theory and research has been undertaken with older adults. (For example, individuals in both phases of the life span must adjust to important biological changes, deal with philosophical questions of life’s meanings, and readjustment to changing demands from social contexts.) It is hoped that this article will present a foundation upon which future psychosocial research into the process and contents of identity development from adolescence through adulthood can take place.

Further Reading

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• Whitbourne, S. K. (2002). Identity processes in adulthood: Theoretical and methodological challenges. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 2 , 29–45.

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Identity vs. Role Confusion in Psychosocial Development

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

What Are Identity and Role Confusion?

Benefits of identity, factors affecting identity formation, consequences of role confusion, how to strengthen identity, how to decrease role confusion.

• Next in Psychosocial Development Guide Intimacy vs. Isolation: Psychosocial Stage 6

Verywell / Nusha Ashjaee

Identity versus role confusion is the fifth stage of ego in psychologist  Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development . This stage occurs during adolescence between the ages of approximately 12 and 18. During this stage, adolescents explore their independence and develop a sense of self.

Identity vs. role confusion is a stage characterized by asking "Who am I," and learning more about your own goals, values, and beliefs.

According to Erikson, people progress through a series of stages as they grow and change throughout life. During each stage, everyone faces a developmental conflict that must be resolved to successfully develop the primary virtue of that stage. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships affect development and growth.

At a Glance

• Psychosocial conflict : Identity vs. role confusion
• Major question : "Who am I?"
• Basic virtue : Fidelity
• Important event(s) : Social relationships

As they transition from childhood to adulthood, teens may begin to feel confused or insecure about themselves and how they fit into society. As they seek to establish a sense of self, teens may experiment with different roles, activities, and behaviors. According to Erikson, this is important to the process of forming a strong identity and developing a sense of direction in life.

One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. It is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction, which is constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. 

Erikson defines identity as a “fundamental organizing principal which develops constantly throughout the lifespan.”

Identity involves the experiences, relationships, beliefs, values, and memories that make up a person's subjective sense of self. This helps create a continuous self-image that remains fairly constant even as new aspects of the self are developed or strengthened over time. Identity provides:

• Self-sameness : A sense of continuity within the self and in interaction with others
• Uniqueness : A frame to differentiate between self and interaction with others
• Psychosocial development : Mental and physical health for adolescents

During the identity vs. role confusion stage, the conflict is centered on developing a personal identity. Successfully completing this stage leads to a strong sense of self that will remain throughout life.

Role Confusion

Kids who are not allowed to explore and test out different identities might be left with what Erikson referred to as role confusion, which can result in the following:

• Being unsure of who you are and where you fit
• Drifting from one job or relationship to another
• Feeling disappointed and cofused about your place in life

Other Influences on Identity

Some more recent theories have focused on the importance of social identity and how those identities, and the intersection of those identities, influence the development of individual identity and roles.

One such theory is known as the "Big 8." It describes socially constructed identities that are defined by factors including social, physical, or mental characteristics. Some examples of social identities include gender identity, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion/spirituality, ability, socioeconomic status, and nationality.

There are numerous benefits to shaping and forming an identity.

Resolving the crisis at this stage of development involves committing to a particular identity. This might involve committing to a career path, deciding what social groups to associate with, and even developing a sense of personal style.

Self-Confidence

Those who are able to develop a strong sense of identity are better able to have self-confidence , or a sense of trust in their abilities, qualities, and judgments.

Sense of Independence

Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will remain insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

Those who are successful develop fidelity, a psychological virtue characterized by the ability to relate to others and form genuine relationships. This ability plays an important role in the upcoming stage known as intimacy versus isolation .

Better Mental Health and Relationships

Research has shown that teens who have a strong sense of identity have better mental health. They are also more likely to have good relationships with their peers, and have better emotional and psychological well-being .

Researchers have found that people who enter young adulthood with a strong sense of identity are also more successful in subsequent stages of life, including intimacy, generativity, and integrity.

There are various factors that contribute to whether a person forms a strong identity. Friends, family, schoolmates, other social groups, societal trends, and pop culture all play a role in shaping and forming identity.

Different identities can also intersect to shape a person’s overall sense of self.

Stages of Identity Development

Influenced in part by Erikson's theory, psychologist James Marcia described four identity statuses. These statuses represent different points in the development of identity.

In Marcia's theory, identity forms as a result of exploring different identity alternatives and then making commitments to different ideas and values. These four statuses are:   

• Identity diffusion (role confusion) : At this point, a person has not explored or made identity commitments. 
• Identity foreclosure : This involves committing to an identity without exploring other options, often as a result of peer pressure, conformity, cultural expectations, or parental pressure.
• Identity moratorium : This is a period of active exploration where an individual tries new things and seeks out alternatives.
• Identity achievement : This status involves having explored different options and then making a commitment to an identity. This does not necessarily end with adolescence. It can ultimately be a long process that creates self-awareness and a strong sense of self.

Role confusion can have lasting consequences on a person's life, including:

• Difficulties with commitment : A stable personal identity allows individuals to have better relationships with others.
• Worse mental health and well-being : Research has linked a strong sense of identity to better emotional and psychological well-being in adolescents.
• Weak sense of self : Role confusion has been found to lead to a weak sense of self.
• Lack of confidence : A lack of self-identity can make it difficult for people to have confidence in themselves and their abilities.

No matter where you are in your life, there are things you can do to help build a stronger sense of identity. For example, thinking about what your values are helps solidify your identity. Core values are those things that are really important and meaningful to you and that  motivate  you and guide your decisions.

It's important to spend time alone to get to know yourself better. Those quiet moments can help you focus on your priorities and improve your sense of self. Relatedly, learn to practice self-compassion , which can help you better understand and accept your flaws and limitations.

Become skilled at things you enjoy. Taking time to find and practice hobbies can help you get greater acquainted with yourself.

If you're feeling confused about who you are and your role in life, there are steps you can take to decrease role confusion.

Build On Your Strengths

Identify the areas in your life in which you excel, and take time to develop and build on those strengths. As you work on developing those skills even more, you may find other aspects of yourself that are also important to your identity.

Try New Things to Discover What You Like

Be open to trying new things and having new experiences. Think about your passions and interests. Brainstorm some ideas around things that excite you.

Sometimes you might try things and decide you don't like them. That's also part of personal growth. It helps you clarify what matters to your identity and eliminates feelings of confusion.

Make Commitments and Set Goals

While you can  set goals in any part of your life , consider thinking about some common areas like health, career, finances, and education. Having goals gives you a better sense of what you want to work toward and which aspirations are central to your sense of self.

Participate in Activities Related to Your Interests

Whether church events or clubs for sports, take the initiative to become part of something that interests you. This might involve finding a new hobby , joining community groups, or even just getting together with friends to enjoy a shared pastime.

If you or a loved one are struggling with identity issues that are creating distress or affecting your ability to cope with life,, contact the  Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helpline  at 1-800-662-4357 for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.

For more mental health resources, see our  National Helpline Database .

Sand CD, Rahbek K, Willadsen TG, Jønsson AR. Prioritizing social identities: Patients' perspective on living with multimorbidity .  J Comorb . 2021;11:26335565211009375. doi:10.1177/26335565211009375

Arnold ME. Supporting adolescent exploration and commitment: Identity formation, thriving, and positive youth development . J Youth Dev. 2017;12(4):1-15. doi:10.5195/jyd.2017.522

Ragelienė T. Links of adolescents identity development and relationship with peers: A systematic literature review .  J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2016;25(2):97-105.

Mitchell LL, Lodi-Smith J, Baranski EN, Whitbourne SK. Implications of identity resolution in emerging adulthood for intimacy, generativity, and integrity across the adult lifespan .  Psychol Aging . 2021;36(5):545-556. doi:10.1037/pag0000537

Marcia JE. Development and validation of ego-identity status . J Pers Soc Psychol . 1966;3(5):551-558. doi:10.1037/h0023281

Ragelienė T. Links of adolescents identity development and relationship with peers: a systematic literature review .  J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2016;25(2):97-105.

Block M. Identity versus role confusion . In: Goldstein S, Naglieri JA, eds.  Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development . Springer US; 2011:785-786. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_1447

Erikson EH. Childhood and Society, 2nd ed. Norton; 1963.

Erikson EH. Identity: Youth and Crisis . Norton; 1968.

Erikson EH. The Life Cycle Completed . Norton; 1982.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Identity Development

Identity development theory.

A well-developed identity is comprised of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is committed. It is the awareness of the consistency in self over time, the recognition of this consistency by others (Erikson, 1980). The process of identity development is both an individual and social phenomenon (Adams & Marshall, 1996). Much of this process is assumed during adolescence when cognitive development allows for an individual to construct a ‘theory of self’ (Elkind, 1998) based on exposure to role models and identity options (Erikson, 1980).  Erikson (1968) believed this period of development to be an ‘identity crisis,’ a crucial turning point in which an individual must develop in one way or another, ushering the adolescent toward growth and differentiation.  Identity is formed through a process of exploring options or choices and committing to an option based upon the outcome of their exploration. Failure to establish a well-developed sense of identity can result in identity confusion. Those experiencing identity confusion do not have a clear sense of who they are or their role in society.

Identity development is vital to a person’s understanding of self and participation in their social systems. Adams and Marshall (1996) established that identity formation provides five functions: a structure and order to self-knowledge; a sense of consistency and coherence to beliefs, goals, and self-knowledge; a sense of continuity for one’s history and future; goals and direction; a sense of personal control of their choices and outcomes.

Erikson’s Identity vs. Role Confusion

According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan (Table 8.1), from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage, there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.

Figure 8.3.1 . Erik Erikson

Table 8.3.1.  Erikson’s psychosocial Stages of Development

Video 8.3.1.  Erikson’s Psychosocial Development explains all stages of this theory.

Erik Erikson believed that the primary psychosocial task of adolescence was establishing an identity. Erikson referred to life’s fifth psychosocial task as one of  identity versus role confusion  when adolescents must work through the complexities of finding one’s own identity.  This stage includes questions regarding their appearance, vocational choices and career aspirations, education, relationships, sexuality, political and social views, personality, and interests. Erikson saw this as a period of confusion and experimentation regarding identity and one’s life path. During adolescence, we experience  psychological moratorium , where teens put on hold commitment to an identity while exploring the options .

Individual identity development is influenced by how they resolved all of the previous childhood psychosocial crises, and this adolescent stage is a bridge between the past and the future, childhood, and adulthood. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s central questions are, “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Identity formation was highlighted as the primary indicator of successful development during adolescence (in contrast to role confusion, which would be an indicator of not successfully meeting the task of adolescence). This crisis is resolved positively with  identity achievement  and the gain of fidelity (ability to be faithful) as a new virtue when adolescents have reconsidered the goals and values of their parents and culture. Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This change is common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents’ lives.

The culmination of this exploration is a more coherent view of oneself. Those who are unsuccessful at resolving this stage may withdraw further into social isolation or become lost in the crowd. However, more recent research suggests that few leave this age period with identity achievement and that most identity formation occurs during young adulthood (Côtè, 2006).

Marcia’s Identity Statuses

Expanding on Erikson’s theory, Marcia (1966) described identity formation during adolescence as involving both exploration and commitment with respect to ideologies and occupations (e.g., religion, politics, career, relationships, gender roles). Identity development begins when individuals identify with role models who provide them with options to explore for whom they can become. As identity development progresses, adolescents are expected to make choices and commit to options within the confines of their social contexts. In some cases, options are not provided or are limited, and the individual will fail to commit or will commit without the opportunity to explore various options (Marcia, 1980).

Identity confusion/diffusion  occurs when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any identities.  Foreclosure  occurs when an individual commits to an identity without exploring options.  A moratorium  is a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made commitments. As mentioned earlier, individuals who have explored different options, discovered their purpose, and have made identity commitments are in a state of  identity achievement.

Figure 8.3.2.  Marcia’s identity statuses. Adapted from Discovering the Lifespan, by R. S. Feldman, 2009.

The least mature status, and one common in many children, is identity diffusion. Identity diffusion is a status that characterizes those who have neither explored the options nor made a commitment to an identity . Marcia (1980) proposed that when individuals enter the identity formation process, they have little awareness or experience with identity exploration or the expectation to commit to an identity. This period of identity diffusion is typical of children and young adolescents, but adolescents are expected to move out of this stage as they are exposed to role models and experiences that present them with identity possibilities. Those who persist in this identity may drift aimlessly with little connection to those around them or have little sense of purpose in life. Characteristics associated with prolonged diffusion include low self-esteem, easily influenced by peers, lack of meaningful friendships, little commitment, or fortitude in activities or relationships, self-absorbed, and self-indulgent.

Those in identity foreclosure have committed to an identity without having explored the options . Often, younger adolescence will enter a phase of foreclosure where they may, at least preliminarily, commit to an identity without an investment in the exploration process. This commitment is often a response to anxiety about uncertainty or change during adolescence or pressure from parents, social groups, or cultural expectations. It is expected that most adolescents will progress beyond the foreclosure phase as they can think independently, and we multiple identity options. However, sometimes foreclosure will persist into late adolescence or even adulthood.

In some cases, parents may make these decisions for their children and do not grant the teen the opportunity to make choices. In other instances, teens may strongly identify with parents and others in their life and wish to follow in their footsteps. Characteristics associated with prolonged foreclosure well-behaved and obedient children with a high need for approval, authoritarian parenting style, low levels of tolerance or acceptance of change, high levels of conformity, and conventional thinking.

During high school and college years, teens and young adults move from identity diffusion and foreclosure toward moratorium and achievement. The most significant gains in the development of identity are in college, as college students are exposed to a greater variety of career choices, lifestyles, and beliefs. This experience is likely to spur on questions regarding identity. A great deal of the identity work we do in adolescence and young adulthood is about values and goals, as we strive to articulate a personal vision or dream for what we hope to accomplish in the future (McAdams, 2013).

Identity moratorium is a status that describes those who are actively exploring in an attempt to establish an identity but have yet to have made any commitment . This time can be an anxious and emotionally tense period as the adolescent experiments with different roles and explores various beliefs. Nothing is guaranteed, and there are many questions, but few answers. This moratorium phase is the precursor to identity achievement. During the moratorium period, it is normal for adolescents to be rebellious and uncooperative, avoid dealing with problems, procrastinate, experience low self-esteem, feel anxious, and uncertain about decisions.

Identity achievement refers to those who, after exploration, have committed . Identity achievement is a long process and is not often realized by the end of adolescence. Individuals that do reach identity achievement feel self-acceptance, stable self-definition, and are committed to their identity.

While Marcia’s statuses help us understand the process of developing identity, there are several criticisms of this theory. First, identity status may not be global; different aspects of your identity may be in different statuses. An individual may be in multiple identity statuses at the same time for different aspects of identity. For example, one could be in the foreclosure status for their religious identity, but in moratorium for career identity, and achievement for gender identity.

Further, identity statuses do no always develop in the sequence described above, although it is the most common progression. Not all people will reach identity achievement in all aspects of their identity, and not all may remain in identity achievement. There may be a third aspect of identity development, beyond exploration and commitment, and that is the reconsideration of commitment. This addition would create a fifth status, searching moratorium . This status is a re-exploring after a commitment has been made (Meesus et al., 2012). It is not usual that commitments to aspects of our identity may change as we gain experiences, and more options become available to explore. This searching moratorium may continue well into adulthood.

Video 8.3.2.  Macia’s Stages of Adolescent Identity Development summarizes the various identity statuses and how an individual may move through them.

Supporting identity development

As the process of identity development can be a confusing and challenging period, how can adults support adolescents through this process? First, affirm that the anxiety, doubts, and confusion are reasonable and that most teens do not complete identity achievement before graduating high school. Exposing adolescents to various role models can help them imagine different roles or options for their future selves. Role models can come from within the family, schools, or community. Adults should talk with adolescents about their values, goals, and identities to help build awareness. They may be interested to know how others made decisions while developing their own identities. Finally, support the commitments that adolescents have made. Identity commitments can help someone feel grounded and less confused while they engage in identity exploration.

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Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Explained

Three hundred years later, the psychologist Erik Erikson offered a more modern, and less sexually biased (equality was very much an issue in Tudor England), take on psychological transformation.

In Childhood and Society , Erikson (1950) examined and mapped the personal development of humans throughout their lifetime.

Erikson, a psychoanalyst and professor at Harvard, produced what was to become psychology’s most popular and influential theory of human development. His model – including eight stages of psychosocial growth – replaced Freud’s controversial theory centered on psychosexual development.

Perhaps most importantly, each stage – influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors – was sequential, from birth to infancy, childhood into adulthood, middle age into, finally, old age.

And, unlike other theories, the personality transformation did not end with adolescence but, arising from conflict, continued through to finality.

This article explores the eight stages that make up Erikson’s developmental theory before discussing subsequent criticisms and our own resources for supporting growth and building strengths.

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This Article Contains:

Stages of psychosocial development, stage 1: trust versus mistrust, stage 2: autonomy versus shame and doubt, stage 3: initiative versus guilt, stage 4: industry versus inferiority, stage 5: identity versus role confusion, stage 6: intimacy versus isolation, stage 7: generativity versus stagnation, stage 8: integrity versus despair, criticisms of erikson’s theory, 5 books on the topic, relevant positivepsychology.com resources, a take-home message.

Erik Erikson’s (1958, 1963) psychosocial development theory proposes that our personality develops through eight stages, from infancy to old age.

He argued that social experience was valuable throughout life, with each stage recognizable by the specific conflict we encounter between our psychological needs and the surrounding social environment.

To become fully functional, confident members of society, we must successfully complete each stage and resolve two conflicting states; for example, those of trust versus mistrust  and autonomy versus shame .

When successful, we acquire basic human virtues and a healthy personality; we become well adjusted and better prepared for challenges later in life.

Failure, on the other hand, leads to difficulty navigating our future and a profound impact on our sense of self, our personality. We are left feeling inadequate.

The diagram below represents Erikson’s eight psychological stages and the tensions most relevant at particular stages of the lifespan (modified from Syed & McLean, 2018).

Note that the age ranges below are indicative of the stages described by Erikson and vary across the literature.

During our initial 18 months, we are uncertain about the world in which we find ourselves and must develop basic trust.

After all, we are entirely reliant on our caregivers for warmth, love, stability, and nurturing. If reliable and predictable, we gain confidence, a sense of security, and a feeling of safety in the world (Syed & McLean, 2018).

If care is inconsistent and unreliable, then trust will fail. For example, when caregivers reject us, fail to meet our needs, or are emotionally detached , we may conclude that we cannot rely on adults.

Failure in stage one results in the development of fear, mistrust, suspicion, anxiety, and, ultimately, a belief that the world is unpredictable. We may become anxious, believing we have no control or influence on our environment.

A good balance between trust and mistrust means we remain open to experience and yet aware of the potential for danger. After all, it is unlikely and ill advised for a child to become entirely trusting or entirely lacking in trust.

Success within stage one leads to the virtue of hope – the sense that whatever crisis we meet, there will be someone around to provide support and help.

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Stage two focuses on early childhood – 18 months to three years – when we are gaining independence and an increased perception of control over our physical skills (Erikson, 1958, 1963).

Though early on in development, we begin to develop a heightened sense of personal control and acquire feelings of independence.

Typically around this time, parents, teachers, and caregivers begin giving children some degree of choice, letting them perform actions on their own. Therefore, we become increasingly mobile and develop physically, asserting our independence, putting on clothes, and playing with other children and toys.

According to Erikson, potty training is crucial to learning physical control and, ultimately, the development of autonomy.

Success over bodily functions and taking control of simple choices leads to a sense of personal power, feelings of autonomy, increased independence, and a greater sense of being able to survive in the world.

During stage two, parents should expect and encourage their child to explore limits, gently stretching them, while avoiding criticism when they fail. The resulting feeling of security and confidence are crucial for our progress in subsequent stages and leads to the virtue of will.

However, if we are overly criticized and controlled, or prevented from asserting ourselves, we may feel unable to survive, lacking in self-esteem , and excessively dependent on others. Indeed, feeling a sense of shame over toilet accidents can impact our sense of personal control and increase levels of doubt.

An appropriate balance between shame, doubt, and autonomy is essential to the virtue of will – the child believing they can act with intention, rather than experience a sense of inadequacy and doubt.

At this point in our psychosocial development – when conflict occurs between initiative and guilt – we learn to assert ourselves and typically begin to direct play and social interactions.

To our parents, our behavior may seem vigorous, overly assertive, or even aggressive, and yet we are exploring our interpersonal skills.

If overly restricted from such exploration – either by parental control or through increased criticism – we can develop a sense of guilt. Similarly, while constant questioning in this stage can be tiring at times, if it is curtailed by caregivers, we may see ourselves as a nuisance, inhibiting our interactions with others.

And yet, if we are successful in stage three, we learn to feel capable, secure, and able to use our initiative.

If we fail, we may suffer guilt and self-doubt and become less likely to lead.

Success in stage three is vital to building the virtue of purpose as opposed to feelings of guilt. However, a balance between initiative and guilt remains key to developing a healthy mindset .

In stage four of Erikson’s psychosocial theory – ages 5 to 12 years – we are immersed in a world of education, learning to read, write, and solve math puzzles (Erikson, 1958, 1963).

Teachers play an essential role in our continued growth within this stage. At the same time, peer groups and social interactions are increasingly relevant in the development of our self-esteem, and feelings of pride arise as we successfully perform or complete tasks.

Indeed, winning approval is a motivating factor, and we soon learn to associate it with displaying specific competencies valued by our peers and adults.

Over these years, demands on us increase considerably; it becomes essential for us to learn how to handle the many social and academic expectations (Syed & McLean, 2018).

If successful, development leads to the virtue of competence, while failure can result in a sense of inferiority, where we feel unable to perform specific skills.

Balance in stage four leads to a sense of accomplishment and competence, and we start to believe in our ability to handle existing and novel situations.

Indeed, learning to fail can be a crucial element in our maturation – leading to the development of modesty – while success meets our basic psychological need for feelings of competence (Ryan & Deci, 2018).

New opportunities, experiences, and changes to the body and mind in stage five are crucial to our sense of who we are and have a considerable bearing on our adult years.

These formative years – ages 12 to 18 – provide a valuable and in-depth exploration of beliefs, goals, and values while searching for personal identity and a sense of self.

The transition between childhood and adulthood is crucial. We become increasingly independent and begin to consider careers, family, friends, and our place in society.

According to Erikson (1963), the fifth stage of psychosocial development exists “ between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult. ”

As such, it is vital for young adults to learn the roles that we may adopt once mature – including sexually – as our body image transforms.

Success leads to the belief that we are staying true to who we are, expressed by virtue of fidelity . Erikson claims that we grow into our bodies and begin to form our identity as a result of our ongoing explorations. And, with appropriate encouragement and reinforcement, we move toward increasing independence and a stronger sense of control and self (Marcia, 2010).

Otherwise, our inability to create a sense of identity within society (“ Who am I? I don’t know what I want to do when I am older ”) results in confusion and a poor sense of self. This failure can only lead to insecurity and unsureness of ourselves, our future, and where we fit.

Success in stage five, according to Erikson, leads to fidelity – alignment with the standards and expectations of the social group to which we belong. After all, our conscious sense of self results from this social interaction and is crucial in our balance between identity and confusion.

Ultimately identity provides us with our integrated sense of self – avoiding identity crisis – that will last throughout our lives, guiding how we behave and what we believe.

As young adults, we are motivated to explore personal relationships and our desire to form intimate relationships.

In the sixth stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, young adulthood takes place between the ages of 18 and 40. During this time, major conflict can arise as we attempt to form longer term commitments outside of our family, with varying degrees of success.

And yet, positive outcomes result in healthy, happy relationships that are secure and enduring, developing the virtue of love . Erikson’s (1963) view is that the ability to love marks the ultimate success of stage six – when relationships are meaningful and lasting.

Failure – whether beyond or within our control – to form appropriate bonds or the avoidance of intimacy may result in loneliness, a sense of isolation, and depression.

Those with a poor sense of self are typically emotionally isolated and less committed to relationships.

The intimacy versus isolation stage builds upon the success or failure of stage five. After all, a strong sense of personal identity is crucial to developing relationships that are intimate and strong.

During middle adulthood , we display our need for longevity, not necessarily in a physical sense, but as life’s continuation in our children or the long-term impact we have on others.

We aim to make a mark on the world, to nurture things that will outlive us. We may look for ways to be more productive and valuable to our society, with an eye on the bigger picture.

Success is exemplified by virtue of care – the feeling of being useful in life, accomplishing something, and contributing to society. We are proud of who we are, what we have achieved, our children and who they have become, and the strong relationship we have with our partner.

Failure looks quite different. We feel we have had little impact on the world, failing to make that dent in the universe as the late Steve Jobs described. If so, we feel unproductive, uninvolved, disillusioned, and disconnected from the world in which we live.

Unlike previous theories, Erikson’s model covered the entirety of life ‘ from the cradle to the grave .’

Our final stage of psychosocial development takes us from 65 years of age to death – known as maturity .

This stage is one of reflection. We slow down, are less productive, and spend time reviewing our accomplishments throughout life.

Success is in the belief that we have achieved our goals and found happiness, leading to the feeling of integrity , “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (Erikson, 1982). We feel we have achieved much and are ready to meet our end with a sense of peace. Success leads to the virtue of wisdom – a sense of completeness.

On the other hand, failure may be experienced as despair and regret over things not done, completed, or mistakes made. We are bitter about the past and present, frightened about coming to the end of our life without a sense of having lived well.

8 Stages of development by Erik Erikson

While Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development theory has been incredibly influential, it has received several challenges, including (Marcia, 2010; McCrae & Costa, 1997; Brown & Lowis, 2003; Orenstein, 2020):

• Stages may not be sequential or play out in the order described.
• The age range for each stage may not be correct.
• Stage eight suggests a move from activity to passivity, but many people are highly productive, active members of the community in their later years.
• Searching for identity may occur many times throughout our lives, not only during adolescence.
• The development processes involved in each stage are unclear.
• How does the individual resolve the conflicts and move on to the next stage? A single, universal mechanism seems unlikely.
• How do we truly define success? After all, the idea of balance will vary between individuals, cultures, and, over time, within ourselves.
• How do we resolve such conflicts later in life?

In Insight and Responsibility , Erikson (1964) himself acknowledges some of the above points. He suggests that the theory offers a descriptive overview of psychosocial development and does not attempt to define the detailed mechanisms or steps involved.

Erik Erikson had a long career and left an extensive legacy. Below is a reduced list of his key works, along with other guides to his theory.

• Childhood and Society – Erik Erikson ( Amazon )
• Insight and Responsibility – Erik Erikson ( Amazon )
• Identity: Youth and Crisis – Erik Erikson ( Amazon )
• Identity’s Architect: A Biography of Erik H. Erikson – Lawrence Friedman ( Amazon )
• The Oxford Handbook of Identity Development – Kate McLean and Moin Syed ( Amazon )
• The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intellectual and Developmental Disorders – Ellen Braaten (editor) ( Amazon )

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We have many resources at PositivePsychology.com that will help you to explore personal development:

• Learn to focus on your strengths rather than your weaknesses using the Aware, Explore, Apply Model .
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Erikson’s psychosocial model extends the idea of personal development across our lifetime from our early years as a baby to old age.

His work was ground breaking. The staged psychosocial theory led to a reconceptualization of how we develop as humans and an awareness that we continue to grow throughout life, not only in our early years.

Nevertheless, we must be aware that the model is a helpful tool rather than a testable theory; it provides a lens through which we can review our lifelong transformation rather than a prescribed set of steps.

And yet, the model’s greatest strength is its ability to connect our psychological transformation from physical birth to death, overcoming conflicts along the way.

While we may question whether the stages are a good fit personally, we recognize the stages, the progression of our development, and how we carry forward learnings into later life.

Use Erikson’s model alongside the personal development tools provided as a way of looking at human growth over time, offering insightful analysis and a focus for dialogue and self-discovery.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

• Braaten, E. (2018).  The SAGE encyclopedia of intellectual and developmental disorders.  SAGE.
• Brown, C., & Lowis, M. J. (2003). Psychosocial development in the elderly: An investigation into Erikson’s ninth stage. Journal of Aging Studies, 17 (4), 415–426.
• Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society . Norton.
• Erikson, E. H. (1958). Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history. Norton.
• Erikson, E. H. (1963). Youth: Change and challenge. Basic books.
• Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility. Norton.
• Erikson, E. H. (1968).  Identity: Youth and crisis. Norton.
• Erikson, E. H. (1982).  The life cycle completed.  Norton.
• Freidman, L. J. (1999).  Identity’s architect: A biography of Erik H. Erikson. Harvard University Press.
• Marcia, J. E. (2010). Life transitions and stress in the context of psychosocial development. In T. W. Miller (Ed.), Handbook of stressful transitions across the lifespan (pp. 19–34). Springer Science + Business Media.
• McLean, K. C., & Syed, M. U. (2015).  The Oxford handbook of identity development . Oxford University Press.
• McCrae, R. R., & Costa, Jr., P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist, 52 (5), 509.
• Orenstein, G. (2020, March 9). Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Retrieved July 28, 2020, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556096/
• Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2018). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness.  Guilford Press.
• Syed, M., & McLean, K. C. (2018). Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. In E. Braaten, The SAGE encyclopedia of intellectual and developmental disorders. SAGE.

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Hello. Thank you for this article it helped me a lot with my homework, I am currently studying psychology.

Outstanding article. The APA citation would be helpful for students.

Hi Dr. Greimel,

You can reference this article in APA 7th as follows: Sutton, J. (2020, August 5th). Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Explained. PositivePsychology.com. https://positivepsychology.com/erikson-stages/

Hope this helps! Kind regards, Julia | Community Manager

My name is Aleeya and I am from Malaysia. I am an undergraduate student under the Bachelor of Teaching Degree Programme at Institute of Teacher Education Tuanku Bainun Campus in Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.

For your information, I am currently carrying out my EDUP3103 (Developmental Psychology for Children and Adolescents) course continuous assessment.

In view of your expertise, I would like to ask your opinion about the teaching and learning activities that are suitable to be carry out for Erikson’s theory. I suggested “Create A Glitter Jar” activity. In this activity, students are required to write what have they accomplished in a day and put it into the jar.

Do you think this activity is suitable to be implemented for school-aged children, based on Erikson’s theory? Do you have any other suggestions?

Your kind assistance is very much appreciated. Thank you very much. Have a good day!

Thank you for your question. This exercise sounds very interesting. In my opinion, this activity could be fitting for the Industry vs. Inferiority stage as it teaches the kids to recognize their own accomplishments. However, one small adjustment that would touch upon the “winning approval” aspect of this phase could be receiving direct feedback from the teacher on their jar.

I hope this helps! Good look 🙂

Kind regards, -Caroline | Community Manager

Hi I am a scholar at the national university of Lesotho and this information has been very helpful! I am a first year student in my second semester and this is going to help me answer a question I was given on my assignment “Using your words,discuss any TWO STAGES OF Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory indicating how you would advise parents to help a baby or child to successfully move from one stage to the stage.”

I am teaching a graduate course in Child and Adolescent counseling, may I use portions of your work here to overview these stages?

Hi Jennifer,

Glad you found the post useful! Yes, we are happy for you to quote parts of this work, provided you could please include a citation and link to the original post in your course.

– Nicole | Community Manager

Thank you for sharing this. At the age of 60 now, I finally have some answers to how my life has unfolded and the toll my childhood took on me.

According to Erikson, if someone experiences trauma during a specific stage and does not resolve the conflict, is there hope of overcoming that later in life?

Hi Harriet,

I’m not sure whether Erikson himself explored the topic and impact of trauma and how it may affect psychosocial development, but I do know that other scholars have explored this topic (see Ogle et al., 2013 ). The ongoing effects of trauma can absolutely be addressed (to overcome or minimize them) at stages later than that in which the trauma occurred, however. We see this in the recovery of trauma survivors who have waited many years to seek professional support for their trauma.

Hope this helps!

I train foster & adoptive parents/caregivers and foster & adoptive social workers in Ohio. May I please have your permission to download this article and use it as a handout for a training I do about trauma-informed caregiving?

Yes, feel free to share this article with your clients! We don’t have a ‘download’ button, but feel free to print the page to use as a handout. 🙂

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19.1 Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Learning objectives.

• Use Erikson’s theory to characterize psychosocial development across the lifespan

Erik Erikson formulated a theory of psychosocial development that posited that development is organized around eight age-graded developmental tasks. At each age, infants, children, adolescents, and adults, negotiate target developmental tasks that are specific to that period of development. When the target task is negotiated successfully, it creates a foundation for future healthy development and provides a basis for the successful negotiation of future developmental tasks. When a task is not well resolved, this makes continued healthy development more difficult. The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each task.

Erikson believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life. We make conscious choices in life, and these choices focus on meeti ng certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.

Erikson  described eight stages, each with  a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our life span as we face these challenges.  Here is an overview of each stage:

Table 19.1: Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

Infancy: trust vs. mistrust.

The developmental task of infancy is trust vs. mistrust, and it is negotiated in the establishment of a secure attachment relationship with the caregiver. Erikson maintained that during the first year to year and a half of life the most important goal is the development of a basic sense of trust in one’s caregivers (Erikson, 1982). Infants are dependent and must rely on others to meet their basic physical and psychological needs. A caregiver who consistently meets these needs instills a sense of trust or the belief that the world is a trustworthy place. Caregivers should not worry about overly indulging an infant’s need for comfort, contact, or stimulation. Caregiver responsiveness communicates to infants that their needs will be taken care of, and so is essential in supporting the development of a sense of trust.

Problems establishing trust

Erikson (1982) believed that basic mistrust could interfere with many aspects of psychosocial development and make it more difficult to build love and fellowship with others. Consider the implications for establishing trust if a caregiver is unavailable or is upset and ill-prepared to care for a child. Or if a child is born prematurely, is unwanted, or has physical problems that make him or her less attractive to a parent. Under these circumstances, we cannot assume that the parent is going to care for the child in ways that support the development of trust. As you will read later, it is possible to rework mental models of insecure early relationships, but close and caring relationships with primary caregivers make it much easier for infants to negotiate this first developmental task.

Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

As the child begins to walk and talk, an interest in independence or autonomy replaces a concern for trust. If infants have built a secure attachment with caregivers, they can use that secure base to explore the world and establish themselves as independent persons, with their own goals and interests. It is the job of the toddler to exert his or her will, and to test the limits of what can be touched, said, and explored. Erikson (1982) believed that toddlers should be encouraged to explore their environments as freely as safety allows, and in so doing develop a sense of independence that will later grow to support self-esteem, initiative, and confidence. If a caregiver is overly anxious about the toddler’s actions for fear that the child will get hurt or is overly critical and controlling about the mistakes they make, the child will get the message that he or she should be ashamed of who they are and instill a sense of doubt in their capacities. Parenting advice based on these ideas would be to keep toddlers safe but to validate their desires for exploration and independence, and to encourage them to learn by doing.

Early Childhood: Initiative vs. Guilt

The trust and autonomy of previous stages develop into a desire to take initiative or to think of ideas and initiate action (Erikson, 1982). Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Children may want to build a fort with the cushions from the living room couch or open a lemonade stand in the driveway or make a zoo with their stuffed animals and issue tickets to those who want to come. Or they may just want to get themselves ready for bed without any assistance. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. To reinforce taking initiative, caregivers should offer praise for the child’s efforts and avoid being critical of messes or mistakes. Placing pictures of drawings on the refrigerator, purchasing mud pies for dinner, and admiring towers of legos will facilitate the child’s sense of initiative. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop feelings of inadequacy and guilt.

Movies, television, and media, in general, provide many examples of psychosocial development. The movie clips in this video demonstrate Erikson’s third stage of development, initiative versus guilt. What other examples can you think of to demonstrate young children developing a sense of autonomy?

You can  view the transcript for “initiative vs guilt wlmp 2” here (opens in new window) .

Middle Childhood: Industry vs. Inferiority

According to Erikson, children in middle and late childhood are very busy or industrious (Erikson, 1982). They are constantly doing, planning, playing, getting together with friends, and achieving. This is a very active time, and a time when they are gaining a sense of how they measure up when compared with peers. Erikson believed that if these industrious children can be successful in their endeavors, they will get a sense of confidence for future challenges. If instead, a child feels that they are not measuring up to their peers, feelings of inferiority and self-doubt will develop. These feelings of inferiority can, according to Erikson, lead to an inferiority complex that lasts into adulthood. To help children successfully negotiate this stage, they should be encouraged to explore their abilities. They should be given authentic feedback as well. Failure is not necessarily a horrible thing according to Erikson. Indeed, failure is a type of feedback which may help a child form a sense of modesty. A balance of competence and modesty is ideal for creating a sense of competence in the child.

This video illustrates Erikson’s stage of Industry. It features a 9-year old girl in Minneapolis who makes and sells bracelets with the proceeds going to support building black businesses and those in need because of COVID-19.

Download the transcript for this video

Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion

Erikson believed that the primary psychosocial task of adolescence was establishing an  identity . As formal operational thinking unfolds, bringing with it adolescent self-consciousness and the ability to reflect on one’s own attributes and behaviors, teens often struggle with the question “Who am I?” This includes questions regarding their appearance, vocational choices and career aspirations, education, relationships, sexuality, political and social views, personality, and interests. Erikson saw this as a period of uncertainty, confusion, exploration, experimentation, and learning regarding identity and one’s life path. Erikson suggested that most adolescents experience  psychological moratorium ,  where teens put on hold commitment to an identity while exploring their options . The culmination of this exploration is a more coherent view of oneself. Those who are unsuccessful at resolving this stage may either withdraw further into social isolation or become lost in the crowd. However, more recent research, suggests that few leave the adolescent period with identity achievement, and that for most of us the process of identity formation continues all during the years of emerging and young adulthood (Côtè, 2006).

Early Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson’s (1950, 1968) sixth stage of psychosocial development focuses on establishing intimate relationships or risking social isolation. Intimate relationships are more difficult if one is still struggling with identity. Achieving a sense of identity is a life-long process, as there are periods of identity crisis and stability. Once a sense of identity is established, young adults’ focus often turns to intimate relationships. The word “intimacy” is often used to describe romantic or sexual relationships, but it also refers to the closeness, caring, and personal disclosure that can be found in many other types of relationships as well– and, of course, it is possible to have sexual relationships that do not include psychological intimacy or closeness. The need for intimacy can be met in many ways, including with friendships, familial relationships, and romantic relationships.

Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation

According to Erikson (1950, 1982)  generativity  encompasses procreativity, productivity, creativity, and legacy.  This stage includes the generation of new beings, new ideas or creations, and lasting contributions, as well as self-generation concerned with further identity development. Erikson believed that the stage of generativity, which lasts from the 40s to the 60s, during which one established a family and career, was the longest of all the stages. Individuals at midlife are primarily concerned with leaving a positive  legacy  of themselves, and parenthood is the primary generative type. Erikson understood that work and family relationships may be in conflict due to the obligations and responsibilities of each, but he believed it was overall a positive developmental time. In addition to being parents and working, Erikson also described individuals as being involved in the community during this stage, for example, providing mentoring, coaching, community service, or taking leadership in church or other community organizations. A sense of stagnation occurs when one is not active in generative matters, however, stagnation can motive a person to redirect energies into more meaningful activities.

Erikson identified “virtues” for each of his eight stages, and the virtue emerging when one achieves generativity is “care”. Erikson believed that those in middle adulthood should “take care of the persons, the products, and the ideas one has learned to care for” (Erikson, 1982, p. 67). Further, Erikson believed that the strengths gained from the six earlier stages are essential for the generational task of cultivating strength in the next generation. Erikson further argued that generativity occurred best after the individual had resolved issues of identity and intimacy (Peterson & Duncan, 2007).

Research has demonstrated that generative adults possess many positive characteristics, including good cultural knowledge and healthy adaptation to the world (Peterson & Duncan, 2007). Using the Big 5 personality traits, generative women and men scored high on conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience, and low on neuroticism (de St. Aubin & McAdams, 1995; Peterson, Smirles, & Wentworth, 1997). Additionally, women scoring higher on generativity at age 52, were rated higher in positive personality characteristics, reported higher satisfaction with marriage and motherhood, and showed more successful aging at age 62 (Peterson & Duncan, 2007). Similarly, men rated higher on generativity at midlife also showed stronger global cognitive functioning (e.g., memory, attention, calculation), stronger executive functioning (e.g., response inhibition, abstract thinking, cognitive flexibility), and lower levels of depression in late adulthood (Malone, Liu, Vaillant, Rentz, & Waldinger, 2016).

Erikson (1982) indicated that at the end of this demanding stage, individuals may withdraw as generativity is no longer expected in late adulthood. This releases elders from the task of caretaking or working. However, not feeling needed or challenged may result in stagnation, and consequently one should not fully withdraw from generative tasks as they enter Erikson’s last stage in late adulthood. People in late adulthood continue to be productive in many ways. These include work, education, volunteering, family life, and intimate relationships. Older adults also experience generativity through voting, forming and helping social institutions like community centers, churches and schools. Thinking of the issue of legacy , psychoanalyst Erik Erikson wrote “I am what survives me” (Havey, 2015).

Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair

In terms of psychosocial development, the tasks of adulthood were about becoming the self that you want to become (i.e., Identity) and creating the life you want to live, including establishing or maintaining the close interpersonal relationships that will be crucial to your physical and psychological health and well -being (i.e., Intimacy). The value of that life project is negotiated during middle adulthood in the search for meaning and a purpose larger than yourself that will contribute to your legacy (i.e., generativity). So in old age, this final task basically comes down to whether you have built a life and constructed a self that is sufficient to withstand the disintegration of your physical body, the death of many of those you love, and eventually and inevitably, strong enough to face your own impending death with dignity and grace.

Like all psychosocial tasks, this one has two potential resolutions:  Integrity , or  a   sense of self-acceptance, contentment with life and imminent death versus d espair , or  a lack of fulfillment or peace and the inability to come to terms with life, aging, and approaching death . Development during elderhood, as during all developmental periods, is a bio-psycho-social process that takes place in specific societal and historical contexts. But this task, at the end of life, offers offers us the prospect of lifting off of those geographical, societal, and temporal limitations. We have the potential to  transcend  them, to establish a sense of wholeness and acceptance by getting in touch with our universal connection to humanity, past, present, and future. Like birth, death is a journey that every single one of us will take.

Erikson’s Ninth Stage of Psychosocial Development

Erikson collaborated with his wife, Joan, throughout much of his work on psychosocial development. In the Eriksons’ older years, they re-examined the eight stages and generated additional ideas about how development evolves during a person’s 80s and 90s. After Erik Erikson passed away in 1994, Joan published a chapter on the  ninth stage of development , in which she proposed (from her own experiences and Erikson’s notes) that  older adults revisit the previous eight stages and deal with the previous conflicts in new ways, as they cope with the physical and social changes of growing old . In the first eight stages, all of the conflicts are presented in a syntonic-dystonic matter, meaning that the first term listed in the conflict is the positive, sought-after achievement and the second term is the less-desirable goal (i.e., trust is more desirable than mistrust and integrity is more desirable than despair) (Perry et al., 2015).

During the ninth stage, the Erikson’s argue that the dystonic, or less desirable outcome, come to take precedence again. For example, an older adult may become mistrustful (trust vs. mistrust), feel more guilt about not having the abilities to do what they once did (initiative vs. guilt), feel less competent compared with others (industry vs. inferiority), lose a sense of identity as they become dependent on others (identity vs. role confusion), become increasingly isolated (intimacy vs. isolation), and feel that they have less to offer society (generativity vs. stagnation) (Gusky, 2012). The Eriksons found that those who successfully come to terms with these changes and adjustments in later life make headway towards  gerotranscendence,  a term coined by gerontologist Lars Tornstam to represent a  greater awareness of one’s own life and connection to the universe, increased ties to the past, and a positive, transcendent, perspective about life.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson’s Theory

Erikson’s eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the lifespan. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once or at different times of life. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy. Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is a prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.

By and large, Erikson’s view that development continues throughout the lifespan is very significant and has received great recognition. However, it has been criticized for focusing on more men than women and also for its vagueness, making it difficult to test rigorously.

Watch this video to learn more about each of Erikson’s stages.

You can view the transcript for “Erikson’s psychosocial development | Individuals and Society | MCAT | Khan Academy” here (opens in new window) .

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• “Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective, Second Edition” by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under a CC-BY-NC-SA-3.0
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• “Identity Development During Adolescence” by Dan Grimes & Brandy Brennan, Portland State University and are licensed under a CC-BY-NC-SA-4.0
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Identity Formation

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Identity formation has to do with the complex manner in which human beings establish a unique view of self and is characterized by continuity and inner unity. It is therefore highly related to terms such as the self, self-concept, values, and personality development. The goal of personal identity formation is to establish a coherent view of self through the process of normal human development. Abnormal development could be viewed as the establishment of an incoherent self and characterized by discontinuity or the lack of inner unity. Although the benchmarks of identity formation are most easily observed at the adolescent and adult levels of development, a fledgling identity for a person develops during his/her childhood experiences. At the core of identity formation is the human personality, but psychologists have also employed this term to speak of subcategories such as racial, ethnic, social class, gender role, spiritual, and sexual identity. The term identity formation...

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Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society . New York: W. W. Norton.

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Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis . New York: W.W. Norton.

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Herman, W.E. (2011). Identity Formation. In: Goldstein, S., Naglieri, J.A. (eds) Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_1443

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Chapter 11: Development of Self and Identity

Identity Development Theory

A well-developed identity is comprised of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is committed. It is the awareness of the consistency in self over time, the recognition of this consistency by others (Erikson, 1980). The process of identity development is both an individual and social phenomenon (Adams & Marshall, 1996). Much of this process is assumed during adolescence when cognitive development allows for an individual to construct a ‘theory of self’ (Elkind, 1998) based on exposure to role models and identity options (Erikson, 1980).  Erikson (1968) believed this period of development to be an ‘identity crisis,’ a crucial turning point in which an individual must develop in one way or another, ushering the adolescent toward growth and differentiation.  Identity is formed through a process of exploring options or choices and committing to an option based upon the outcome of their exploration. Failure to establish a well-developed sense of identity can result in identity confusion. Those experiencing identity confusion do not have a clear sense of who they are or their role in society.

Identity development is vital to a person’s understanding of self and participation in their social systems. Adams and Marshall (1996) established that identity formation provides five functions: a structure and order to self-knowledge; a sense of consistency and coherence to beliefs, goals, and self-knowledge; a sense of continuity for one’s history and future; goals and direction; a sense of personal control of their choices and outcomes.

Freud’s Theory 

We begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has been a very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children’s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of literature addressing resilience in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O’Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud’s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.

Freud’s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test the unconscious mind scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood? Are there other variables that might better explain development? The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that much of what determines our actions are unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? Despite the criticisms, Freud’s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices. Freud’s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development. Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Figure 11.1  Erik Erikson

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development emphasizes the social nature of our development. His theory proposed that our psychosocial development takes place throughout our lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity. He also believed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives.

According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan (Table 11.2), from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage, there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.

Table 11.2  Erikson’s psychosocial Stages of Development

Video 11.6 Erikson’s Psychosocial Development explains all stages of this theory.

Trust vs. mistrust

Erikson maintained that the first year to year and a half of life involves the establishment of a sense of trust. Infants are dependent and must rely on others to meet their basic physical needs as well as their needs for stimulation and comfort. A caregiver who consistently meets these needs instills a sense of trust or the belief that the world is a safe and trustworthy place. The caregiver should not worry about overindulging a child’s need for comfort, contact, or stimulation.

Consider the implications for establishing trust if a caregiver is unavailable or is upset and ill-prepared to care for a child, or if a child is born prematurely, is unwanted, or has physical problems that could make them less desirable to a parent. However, keep in mind that children can also exhibit strong resiliency to harsh circumstances. Resiliency can be attributed to certain personality factors, such as an easy-going temperament and receiving support from others. A positive and strong support group can help a parent and child build a strong foundation by offering assistance and positive attitudes toward the newborn and parent.

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

As the child begins to walk and talk, an interest in independence or autonomy replaces their concern for trust. The toddler tests the limits of what can be touched, said, and explored. Erikson believed that toddlers should be allowed to explore their environment as freely as safety allows and, in doing so, will develop a sense of independence that will later grow to self-esteem, initiative, and overall confidence. If a caregiver is overly anxious about the toddler’s actions for fear that the child will get hurt or violate others’ expectations, the caregiver can give the child the message that they should be ashamed of their behavior and instill a sense of doubt in their abilities. Parenting advice based on these ideas would be to keep your toddler safe, but let them learn by doing. A sense of pride seems to rely on doing rather than being told how capable one is (Berger, 2005).

Initiative vs. Guilt

While Erik Erikson was very influenced by Freud, he believed that the relationships that people have, not psychosexual stages, are what influence personality development. At the beginning of early childhood, the child is still in the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage (stage 2).

By age three, the child begins stage 3: initiative versus guilt. The trust and autonomy of previous stages develop into a desire to take initiative or to think of ideas and initiate action. Children are curious at this age and start to ask questions so that they can learn about the world. Parents should try to answer those questions without making the child feel like a burden or implying that the child’s question is not worth asking.

These children are also beginning to use their imagination (remember what we learned when we discussed Piaget!). Children may want to build a fort with cushions from the living room couch, open a lemonade stand in the driveway, or make a zoo with their stuffed animals and issue tickets to those who want to come. Another way that children may express autonomy is in wanting to get themselves ready for bed without any assistance. To reinforce taking initiative, caregivers should offer praise for the child’s efforts and avoid being overly critical of messes or mistakes. Soggy washrags and toothpaste left in the sink pale in comparison to the smiling face of a five-year-old emerging from the bathroom with clean teeth and pajamas!

That said, it is important that the parent does their best to kindly guide the child to the right actions. If the child does leave those soggy washrags in the sink, have the child help clean them up. It is possible that the child will not be happy with helping to clean, and the child may even become aggressive or angry, but it is important to remember that the child is still learning how to navigate their world. They are trying to build a sense of autonomy, and they may not react well when they are asked to do something that they had not planned. Parents should be aware of this, and try to be understanding, but also firm. Guilt for a situation where a child did not do their best allows a child to understand their responsibilities and helps the child learn to exercise self-control (remember the marshmallow test). The goal is to find a balance between initiative and guilt, not a free-for-all where the parent allows the child to do anything they want to. The parent must guide the child if they are to have a successful resolution in this stage.

Video 11.7  Movies, television, and media, in general, provide many examples of psychosocial development. The movie clips in this video demonstrate Erikson’s third stage of development, initiative versus guilt. What other examples can you think of to demonstrate young children developing a sense of autonomy?

 Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson believes that children’s greatest source of personality development comes from their social relationships. So far, we have seen 3 psychosocial stages: trust versus mistrust (ages birth – 18 months), autonomy versus shame and doubt (ages 18 months – 3 years), and initiative versus guilt (ages 3 years – around 6 years).

According to Erikson, children in middle childhood are very busy or industrious. They are constantly doing, planning, playing, getting together with friends, and achieving. This is a very active time and a time when they are gaining a sense of how they measure up when compared with friends. Erikson believed that if these industrious children view themselves as successful in their endeavors, they will get a sense of competence for future challenges. If instead, a child feels that they are not measuring up to their peers, feelings of inferiority and self-doubt will develop. These feelings of inferiority can, according to Erikson, lead to an inferiority complex that lasts into adulthood.

To help children have a successful resolution in this stage, they should be encouraged to explore their abilities. They should be given authentic feedback as well. Failure is not necessarily a horrible thing according to Erikson. Indeed, failure is a type of feedback that may help a child form a sense of modesty. A balance of competence and modesty is ideal for creating a sense of competence in the child.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Erik Erikson believed that the primary psychosocial task of adolescence was establishing an identity. Erikson referred to life’s fifth psychosocial task as one of identity versus role confusion when adolescents must work through the complexities of finding one’s own identity.  This stage includes questions regarding their appearance, vocational choices and career aspirations, education, relationships, sexuality, political and social views, personality, and interests. Erikson saw this as a period of confusion and experimentation regarding identity and one’s life path. During adolescence, many individuals experience a psychological moratorium , where teens put a on hold commitment to an identity while exploring the options.

Individual identity development is influenced by how they resolved all of the previous childhood psychosocial crises, and this adolescent stage is a bridge between the past and the future, childhood, and adulthood. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s central questions are, “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Identity formation was highlighted as the primary indicator of successful development during adolescence (in contrast to role confusion, which would be an indicator of not successfully meeting the task of adolescence). This crisis is resolved positively with identity achievement, when adolescents have reconsidered the goals and values of their parents and culture. Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This change is common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents’ lives.

The culmination of this exploration is a more coherent view of oneself. Those who are unsuccessful at resolving this stage may withdraw further into social isolation or become lost in the crowd. However, more recent research suggests that few leave this age period with identity achievement and that most identity formation occurs during young adulthood (Côtè, 2006).

Marcia’s Identity Statuses

Expanding on Erikson’s theory, Marcia (1966) described identity formation during adolescence as involving both exploration and commitment with respect to ideologies and occupations (e.g., religion, politics, career, relationships, gender roles). Identity development begins when individuals identify with role models who provide them with options to explore for whom they can become. As identity development progresses, adolescents are expected to make choices and commit to options within the confines of their social contexts. In some cases, options are not provided or are limited, and the individual will fail to commit or will commit without the opportunity to explore various options (Marcia, 1980).

Video 11.8 Macia’s Stages of Adolescent Identity Development summarizes the various identity statuses and how an individual may move through them.

Figure 11.2  Marcia’s identity statuses. Adapted from Discovering the Lifespan, by R. S. Feldman, 2009.

The least mature status, and one common in many children, is identity diffusion. Identity diffusion is a status that characterizes those who have neither explored the options nor made a commitment to an identity. Marcia (1980) proposed that when individuals enter the identity formation process, they have little awareness or experience with identity exploration or the expectation to commit to an identity. This period of identity diffusion is typical of children and young adolescents, but adolescents are expected to move out of this stage as they are exposed to role models and experiences that present them with identity possibilities. Those who persist in this identity may drift aimlessly with little connection to those around them or have little sense of purpose in life. Characteristics associated with prolonged diffusion include having low self-esteem, being easily influenced by peers, lacking of meaningful friendships, having little commitment, or fortitude in activities or relationships, and being self-absorbed and self-indulgent.

Those in identity foreclosure have committed to an identity without having explored the options. Often, younger adolescence will enter a phase of foreclosure where they may, at least preliminarily, commit to an identity without an investment in the exploration process. This commitment is often a response to anxiety about uncertainty or change during adolescence or pressure from parents, social groups, or cultural expectations. It is expected that most adolescents will progress beyond the foreclosure phase as they can think independently, and we multiple identity options. However, sometimes foreclosure will persist into late adolescence or even adulthood.

In some cases, parents may make decisions for their children and do not grant the teen the opportunity to make choices. In other instances, teens may strongly identify with parents and others in their life and wish to follow in their footsteps. Characteristics associated with prolonged foreclosure include being well-behaved and obedient children with a high need for approval, having parents with an authoritarian parenting style, having low levels of tolerance or acceptance of change, having high levels of conformity, and being a conventional thinker.

During high school and college years, teens and young adults move from identity diffusion and foreclosure toward moratorium and achievement. The most significant gains in the development of identity are in college, as college students are exposed to a greater variety of career choices, lifestyles, and beliefs. This experience is likely to spur on questions regarding identity. A great deal of the identity work we do in adolescence and young adulthood is about values and goals, as we strive to articulate a personal vision or dream for what we hope to accomplish in the future (McAdams, 2013).

Identity moratorium is a status that describes those who are actively exploring in an attempt to establish identity but have yet to have made any commitment. This time can be an anxious and emotionally tense period as the adolescent experiments with different roles and explores various beliefs. Nothing is guaranteed, and there are many questions, but few answers. This moratorium phase is the precursor to identity achievement. During the moratorium period, it is normal for adolescents to be rebellious and uncooperative, avoid dealing with problems, procrastinate, experience low self-esteem, and feel anxious and uncertain about decisions.

Identity achievement refers to those who, after exploration, have committed. Identity achievement is a long process and is not often realized by the end of adolescence. Individuals that do reach identity achievement feel self-acceptance, stable self-definition, and are committed to their identity.

While Marcia’s statuses help us understand the process of developing identity, there are several criticisms of this theory. First, identity status may not be global; different aspects of your identity may be in different statuses. An individual may be in multiple identity statuses at the same time for different aspects of identity. For example, one could be in foreclosure for their religious identity, but in moratorium for career identity, and achievement for gender identity.

Further, identity statuses do no always develop in the sequence described above, although it is the most common progression. Not all people will reach identity achievement in all aspects of their identity, and not all may remain in identity achievement. There may be a third aspect of identity development, beyond exploration and commitment, and that is the reconsideration of commitment. This addition would create a fifth status, searching moratorium . This status is a re-exploring after a commitment has been made (Meesus et al., 2012). It is not usual that commitments to aspects of our identity may change as we gain experiences, and more options become available to explore. This searching moratorium may continue well into adulthood.

Supporting Identity Development

As the process of identity development can be a confusing and challenging period, how can adults support adolescents through this process? First, affirm that the anxiety, doubts, and confusion are reasonable and that most teens do not complete identity achievement before graduating high school. Exposing adolescents to various role models can help them imagine different roles or options for their future selves. Role models can come from within the family, schools, or community. Adults should talk with adolescents about their values, goals, and identities to help build awareness. They may be interested to know how others made decisions while developing their own identities. Finally, support the commitments that adolescents have made. Identity commitments can help someone feel grounded and less confused while they engage in identity exploration.

teens put a on hold commitment to an identity while exploring the options

a status that characterizes those who have neither explored the options nor made a commitment to an identity

individuals who have committed to an identity without having explored the options

status that describes those who are actively exploring in an attempt to establish identity but have yet to have made any commitment

refers to those who, after exploration, have committed

re-exploring after a commitment has been made

Child and Adolescent Development Copyright © 2023 by Krisztina Jakobsen and Paige Fischer is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Erik Erikson

Erik Erikson’s relationship with Harvard spanned decades, coinciding with some of his most influential works.  Born in Frankfurt, and trained in psychoanalysis in Vienna by Anna Freud, Erikson came to Boston in 1933.  He accepted an appointment as a research associate at the Harvard Psychological Clinic; in conjunction with that position Erikson started to work on a graduate degree in psychology at Harvard.  Finding himself at odds with the quantitative, empirical focus of Harvard’s Psychology Department, Erikson discontinued his studies in 1936 without finishing his degree.  For the next two decades he pursued his interests in human development by conducting research at Yale and Berkeley, as well as continuing his private psychoanalytic practice.

Erikson’s humanist theory of psychosocial development deviated significantly from the traditional Freudian psychosexual theory of human development in two ways. Erikson believed that humans’ personalities continued to develop past the age of five, and he believed that the development of personality depended directly on the resolution of existential crises like trust, autonomy, intimacy, individuality, integrity, and identity (which were viewed in traditional psychoanalytic theory as mere by-products of the resolution of sexual crises). Erikson’s highly influential eight-stage theory of development also expanded Freud’s original five stages to encompass the years of life after early childhood. Within this theory, Erikson introduced and described the characteristics of adolescent identity crisis and the adult’s midlife crisis.

Despite his lack of a doctorate, Erikson returned to Harvard in 1960 as Professor of Human Development and Lecturer in Psychiatry at the Harvard Medical School, and was invited to be an unofficial member of the Department of Social Relations.  There he taught popular undergraduate and graduate courses on human development. In the ensuing decade Erikson published three books, Insight and Responsibility (1964), Identity Youth and Crisis (1968) and Gandhi's Truth (1969).  The latter won the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award.  

Erikson was awarded the AM (hon) on appointment in 1960, and the LLD (hon) in 1978. He retired as Professor Emeritus in 1970.  Erik Erikson is listed as number 12 on the American Psychological Association’s list of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century.

Coles, R., Hunt, R., and Maher, B. (2002).  Erik Erikson:  Faculty of Arts and Sciences Memorial Minute.  Harvard Gazette Archives.  Retrieved October 17, 2007 from http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/03.07/22-memorialminute.html

Eminent psychologists of the 20th century.  (July/August, 2002). Monitor on Psychology, 33(7), p.29.

Friedman, L. J. (1999). Identity's Architect; A Biography of Erik H. Erikson. Scribner Book Co., New York.

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Links of Adolescents Identity Development and Relationship with Peers: A Systematic Literature Review

Tija ragelienė.

1 Mykolas Romeris University, Institute of Psychology, Vilnius, Lithuania

According to Erik Erikson, the main task of adolescents is to solve the crisis of identity versus role confusion. Research has shown that a stable and strong sense of identity is associated with better mental health of adolescents. Good relationships with peers are also linked with better emotional and psychological well-being of adolescents. However, there is a lack of reviews of studies in the scientific literature examining the relationship between the adolescents’ identity development and relationships with peers. The aims of this article were to analyze links between adolescent identity development and relationships with peers identified from a literature review, summarize the results, and discuss the theoretical factors that may predict these relationships.

A systematic literature review.

Analysis of findings from the systematic literature review revealed that a good relationship with peers is positively related to adolescent identity development, but empirical research in this area is extremely limited.

Conclusions:

The links between adolescents’ identity development and their relationship with peers are not completely clear. The possible intermediate factors that could determine the relationship between adolescent identity development and their relationships with peers are discussed. Further empirical researches is needed in this area.

Résumé

Selon Erik Erikson, la principale tâche des adolescents consiste à résoudre la crise d’identité versus la confusion des rôles. La recherche a démontré qu’un sentiment d’identité fort et stable est associé à une meilleure santé mentale des adolescents. De bonnes relations avec les pairs sont également liées à un plus grand bien-être émotionnel et psychologique des adolescents. Toutefois, il y a un manque de revues d’études dans la littérature scientifique qui examine la relation entre le développement de l’identité des adolescents et les relations avec les pairs. Cet article visait à analyser les liens entre le développement de l’identité des adolescents et les relations avec les pairs identifiés dans une revue de la littérature, à résumer les résultats, et à discuter des facteurs théoriques qui peuvent prédire ces relations.

Méthode:

Une revue systématique de la littérature.

Résultats:

L’analyse des résultats de la revue systématique de la littérature a révélé qu’une bonne relation avec les pairs est positivement reliée au développement de l’identité de l’adolescent, mais que la recherche empirique dans ce domaine est extrêmement limitée.

Les liens entre le développement de l’identité des adolescents et leurs relations avec les pairs ne sont pas complètement définis. Les facteurs intermédiaires possibles qui pourraient déterminer la relation entre le développement de l’identité des adolescents et leurs relations avec les pairs sont présentés. Il faut plus de recherches empiriques dans ce domaine.

Introduction

According to Erikson (1968) , the main and most important developmental tasks for adolescents are to solve the identity versus role confusion crisis, construct their own unique sense of identity, and find the social environment where they can belong to and create meaningful relationships with other people ( Chen, Lay, Wu, & Yao, 2007 ). Various theories exist that try to define the concept of identity. For example, Waterman (1993; as cited in Guardia, 2009 ) believed that identity reflects a person’s best potential which is self-realizing. Identity is expressed through self-realizing activities which person feels as self-defining or fitting, engaging, energizing, purposeful, and helpful in fulfilling his/her goals of life. According to Berzonsky’s social-cognitive theory of identity styles (1988; as cited in Guardia, 2009 ), identity is the cognitive model of how persons process and examines identity relevant information. Others propose that identity in general is nothing other than the answer to the question: “who am I?” ( Motyl, 2010 ). Identity theory developed by Stryker (1968; as cited in Adamsons & Pasley, 2013 ) focuses on the individual’s integration of societal expectations regarding the meaning of occupying particular social positions or statuses (for example, parent, spouse, employee) and the behavioural expectations associated with such statuses. The most general and broad concept of identity is proposed by Erikson (1968) . He described identity as a fundamental organizing principal which develops constantly throughout the lifespan. Identity provides a sense of continuity within the self and in interaction with others (“self-sameness”), as well as a frame to differentiate between self and others (“uniqueness”) which allows the individual to function autonomously from others ( Erikson, 1968 ). Moreover, Erikson’s concept of identity was particularly focused on adolescents’ development. For these reasons identity definition based on Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development was used in this study.

Both, the high-quality and satisfying relationships with other people ( Walsh, Harel-Fisch, & Fogel-Grinvalds, 2010 ) and the formed sense of identity ( Dumas, Lawford, Tieu, & Pratt, 2009 ) are associated with better adolescent’ mental health and psychological well-being. A positively solved identity vs. role confusion crisis enables a person to integrate self-perception images into a stable personal identity, as well as strengthen performance of different roles and assumed commitments ( Erikson, 1968 ). Achieved identity is associated with a lower expression of psychosomatic and neurotic symptoms ( Chen et al., 2007 ), and reduced anxiety ( Crocetti, Klimstra, Keijsers, Hale, & Meeus, 2009 ), depression and suicidal tendencies ( Ramgoon, Bachoo, Patel, & Wig, 2006 ). Achieved identity is also related to psychological well-being ( Sandhu, Singh, Tung & Kundra, 2012 ), emotional adjustment ( Dumas et al., 2009 ), and greater emotional stability ( Crocetti, Rubini, Luyckx, & Meeus, 2008 ).

Similarly, relationships with peers are also associated with better mental health of adolescents and his/her successful adaptation to the environment ( La Greca & Harrison, 2005 ; Yeung & Leadbeater, 2010 ). Although relationships with parents are still relevant for adolescents ( Eckstein, Rasmussen, & Wittschen, 1999 ), relationships with peers become the centre of adolescents’ life ( Tarrant, 2002 ). Research has shown that belonging to the “normal” - or - popular peer group is positively associated with better adolescent adaptation to the environment ( Heaven, Ciarrochi, & Cechaviciute, 2005 ). Research has shown that peer group acceptance and good relationships work as protecting factors against social anxiety and depression ( La Greca, & Harrison, 2005 ). It is also related with less internal and external problems regardless of adolescent’ sex, age and family structure characteristics ( Newman, Lohman, & Newman, 2007 ). If adolescents are unable to resist peer pressure and negative influences, they may be more prone to delinquent behaviour or use of psychoactive substances. This may be so as, adolescents may seek to conform to behavioural norms of the peer group with, which they identify themselves with ( Stewart-Knox et al., 2005 ). Identification with a delinquent peer group is a predictor of physical and relationship aggression ( Pokhrel, Sussman, Black, & Sun, 2010 ). Aggression experienced in adolescents’ romantic relationships, peer pressure, and peer rejection are associated with increased symptoms of depression, alcohol use, psychosocial functioning problems ( Schad, Szwed, Antonishak, Hare, & Allen 2008 ), internal distress and social anxiety ( La Greca & Harrison, 2005 ).

In adolescence, a self-comparison with peers becomes more important when adolescents try to associate their identities with their peers ( Hill, Bromell, Tyson, & Flint, 2007 ). Members of the peer group can model their behaviour according to group norms’, therefore peer groups can have significant impact on adolescents’ development ( Steinberg & Morris, 2001 ). A peer group not only provides emotional support for adolescents, but also provides a social status necessary for his/her identity development ( Nawaz, 2011 ). However, it is not clear what psychosocial factors may link adolescent identity development and relationship with peers.

Research has shown that adolescents’ identity development is related to their relationship with peers. According to Rassart and colleagues (Rassart, Luyckx, Apers, Goossens, & Moons, 2012 ), good and supporting relationship with peers is positively related to adolescent identity development because it can help prevent stagnation in the process of identity exploration. Attachment to peers and belonging to peer groups, as well as the support one get from romantic relationships and good relationships with friends, are also positively related to adolescent identity development ( Nawaz, 2011 ; Pugh & Hart, 1999 ; Klimstra et al., 2013 ; Meeus, Oosterwegel, & Vollebergh 2002 ). However, appears that only a few studies examining the links between adolescent identity development and relationships with peers has been published in the peer-reviewed literature. Studies that have been published appear to show that high-quality relationships with peers are positively related to adolescent identity development. However, the dimensions of relationships with peers discussed in these studies substantially vary, ranging from intimate romantic relationships to membership within wider social peer groups. In addition, these studies are mainly based on correlation analysis, which cannot determine causal relationships between the variables, and also do not address what other factors could predict the links of adolescent identity development and relationships with peers. In order to summarize the research about adolescent identity development in the context of relationship with peers, a systematic literature review was conducted. The main tasks of this literature review were to: summarize results of adolescents’ identity development and relationships with peers; and, discuss the theoretical factors that could predict the links of adolescent identity development and relationships with peers.

Methodology

Inclusion criteria for the systematic literature review.

Only empirical studies which examined:

• adolescent’ identity development according to Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development; and,
• various aspects of adolescents’ relationships with peers were included in the systematic literature review. In addition, studies were only included if the participants were non-clinical samples.

Excluded were studies that only presented theoretical content and studies that only examined gender, racial or ethnic identity because gender, racial and ethnic identity are more reflective of different types of identity, rather than identity itself. Other inclusion criteria were studies’ availability, quality, language and year of publication: only freely available, peer-reviewed, full-text articles in English, which were published between 1985 and 2014, were included. The following databases were searched: Medline, Social Psychology Network, Google Scholar and EBSCO. The following combinations of key words were used: identity, development, adolescent *, relationship *, peer *, friend *. In total 53 articles were found: 16 – in Medline, 0 –in Social Psychology Network, 16 – in Google Scholar and 26 – in EBSCO. All articles were screened according to titles, abstracts and used methodologies. Articles, which did not match inclusion criteria, were not included into systematic review.

Assessment of study quality and data extraction

The quality of the studies was assessed according to the following criteria to determine which of the 53 studies to retain for analysis:

• Adolescent’s identity development was analyzed in accordance with Erikson psychosocial development theory;
• Information about the participants of the study was provided;
• Participants were non-clinical samples;
• Research concepts were clearly defined;
• Reliability coefficients of used instruments were given;
• Organization and implementation of the research were described;
• Obtained results and findings of the study were clearly described.

In total seven of the 53 studies identified in the systematic literature review met the quality criteria: four – from EBSCO database and three – from Google’s Scholar search engine. The data about participants’ age and reliability of used instruments were extracted. The data from the analysis of the links between adolescent’ relationships with peers and identity development were also extracted. Different methods of assessment of identity development and relationships with peers were used across the included studies, therefore meta-analytic calculations were not performed.

In total seven articles identified through the systematic literature review met the inclusion and quality criteria. The main characteristics of these studies are presented in Table 1 . There were different methodologies used in assessing adolescent identity development and relationships with peers in the included studies. Adolescents’ relationships with peers were most frequently analyzed by measuring attachment to peers (4 of 7, #2, #4, #6, #7). Other relationships considered in one study each included: orientation to peer group (#1), having a romantic relationship (#3), conformist behaviour (#5), and adjustment to peers (#5). Reliability coefficients of the measures used in the various studies met a proposed threshold indicating suitability for use in psychological research for group comparisons (i.e., Cronbach α> 0.5) ( Streiner & Norman, 2008 ).

Characteristics of the population and measures used in the studies identified in the systematic literature review

Findings from the included studies are summarized in Table 2 . In the majority of studies (6 of 7, #1–4, #6–7) statistically significant links between adolescent identity development and relationships with peers were found. Achieved sense of identity is positively associated with attachment to peers (#2, #4, #6, #7), adolescents’ orientation to the formal peer groups’ achievements (#1), stability and robustness in romantic relationships (#3), better relationships with peers, and reduced sense of loneliness (#7). In contrast, mixed findings were found in one study. More specifically, Adams et al. (1985) (#5) found achievement of identity is associated with better interpersonal characteristics (attentiveness to social information, capability of addressing numerous ideas and thoughts, being less controlling and expressing less negative emotions in the context of interpersonal relationships) while conformist behaviour with peers is not predicted by identity statuses.

Summary of links between adolescent identity development and relationships with peers from studies identified in the systematic literature review

The importance of relationships with peers increases markedly in adolescence ( Tarrant, 2002 ) and is related with adolescent identity development ( Pugh & Hart, 1999 ). However, based on this systematic review there is an overall lack of studies analyzing links between adolescents’ relationships with peers and their identity development using Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. In addition, the different contexts, methodologies, and measures used in the included studies leave uncertainties in a number of areas. First, the links of identity development and relationship with peers were analyzed in samples of participants of different age and contexts. The ages ranged from 14 to 25 years. Analyzed aspects of relationship with peers also varied including relationships with friends, classmates or other peers in the school, and relationship with romantic partners. Given these variations, there are still questions as to “how identity development is related with adolescents’ age and specificity of relationship type with peers”. Second, the included studies were primarily based on correlation analysis and thus not able to determine causal relationships between variables.

Results of the systematic literature review found that adolescent identity development is positively associated with an attachment to peers ( Nawaz, 2011 ; Rassart et al., 2012 ; Meeus et al., 2002 ; Doumen et al., 2012 ), a better quality of relationship with peers and a lower tendency to experience negative feelings such as loneliness ( Doumen et al., 2012 ). The reached identity is also positively related to being less nervous or competitive in interpersonal relations ( Adams et al., 1985 ) and being more satisfied in romantic relationships ( Klimstra et al., 2013 ). In addition, reached identify is positively related to the ability to reflect on one’s interpersonal relationships and to be less controlling ( Adams et al., 1985 ).

Desire to belong to a peer group and active involvement and participation in various peer groups activities are also linked with a reached identity ( Pugh & Hart, 1999 ). This could be explained by the fact that peer groups become the place where adolescents can compare themselves with each other and achieve a personal sense of identity ( Nawaz, 2011 ) which may be constructed in the context of social relationships. Participation in new activities and new experiences in the peer group allows adolescents to explore different values and norms. Discussions with peers may also help them to understand themselves better. In this way, adolescents could construct their identity by adopting certain values and norms of their peer group and rejecting others, which they have found as unacceptable with their world-view. Social interactions with peers with similar or different values also could help adolescents to clarify their world-view and values. This could be so as, communication with peers could give adolescents a supportive social environment where they can freely discuss what they are and who they would like to be. The peer group where adolescents belong can also provide values and norms which adolescents can identify with ( Pugh & Hart, 1999 ). By communicating with peers, adolescents can not only discuss their identity issues with significant others, but can get their approval and in turn achieve identity more easily ( Rassart et al., 2012 ). The fact that a high-quality relationship with peers is associated with the achieved identity could also be related to the fact that a good relationship between peers characterized by mutual cooperation, negotiation, and mutual understanding, helps adolescents to explore their identity with minimal risk to their self-image, which, in turn, may stimulate adolescents to commit to their goals and beliefs. In this way, good relationship with peers can enhance adolescent’s self-esteem and help to define themselves and work as a protecting factor against the anxiety related with identity development ( Rassart et al., 2012 ). Results of this study revealed that achieved identity is related to better relationships with peers. Being a part of a peer group, good, positive communication with peers may provide appropriate social context for adolescent’s personal identity development. Although the results of the systematic literature review do not disclose causal relationship between adolescent identity development and relationships with peers.

Despite identifying links between adolescent identity development and relationship with peers from the literature review, some theoretical ambiguities remain. In many of the analyzed studies (study #1–4, #6) it is not clear what other factors could be related or predict quality of relationships with peers and how these other factors might link with adolescent identity development. Adams & Ryan (1985) (study #5) and, Doumen and colleagues (2012) (study #7) touch on personality traits that may be related to identity development, but these links are mentioned only secondarily (study #5) or only as very specific characteristics, for example, anxiety or tendency to experience more loneliness (study #7). However, it still remains unclear what other factors could be related with adolescent identity development and quality of relationships with peers. Some additional factors, that are often examined in the context of relationships and are associated with quality of relationships, could be adolescents’ ability to be empathic and differentiation of self.

Empathy is an essential communication skill that helps to understand the views of others and to predict their emotional reactions. Empathy is most commonly defined as the emotional trait which helps to facilitate the other person’s emotional experience. It is also the cognitive skill that facilitates other person’s emotion understanding (Hogan, 1969 and Mehrabian & Epstein, 1972, as cited in Jolliffe & Farrington, 2007 ). Empathy can also be defined as a relatively neutral or pleasant feeling for others that awakens altruistic motivation to reduce distress or meet the needs of other persons ( Ocejo, López-Pérez, Ambrona, & Fernández, 2009 ). High levels of adolescent empathy are associated with a reduced experience of bullying and, a desire to protect victims of bullying ( Gini, Albiero, Benelli, & Altoe, 2007 ). It is also related to adolescents’ pro-social behaviour and, positive evaluations of the quality of their relationship with peers ( Barr & Higgins-Dalessandro, 2007 ). Higher self-control, desire to cooperate, decrease conflict with peers (Mount, 2010) and helping others in emergency situations ( Masten, Eisenberger, Pfeifer, & Dapretto, 2010 ) are also linked with empathy. Research shown that empathy is also associated with a successful adaptation in social relationships and more developed social competence ( Glick & Rose, 2011 ), as well as better communication skills in adolescence and adulthood ( Allemand, Steiger, & Fend, 2014 ). In considering links between empathy and identity development Smits, Doumen, Luyckx, Duriez, & Goossens (2011) have found that empathy can be predicted by information-oriented and diffuse-avoidant identity styles, and empathy can predict adolescent interpersonal behaviour in social relationships. It means that empathy mediates relationship between adolescent information-oriented and diffuse-avoidant identity styles and behaviour in interpersonal relationships. Therefore, it could be that empathy may also be one of the intermediate factors that links adolescents’ identity development and relationships with peers and be in alignment with the finding from the systematic literature review that good relationships with peers are important for adolescent identity development ( Doumen et al., 2012 ; Klimstra et al., 2013 ; Meeus et al., 2002 ; Nawaz, 2011 ; Rassart et al., 2012 ).

Differentiation of self is a personality factor which is associated with better interpersonal relationships, adaptive functioning in the environment ( Jenkins, Buboltz, Schwartz, & Johnson, 2005 ), lower anxiety levels ( Skowron & Dendy, 2004 ) and greater psychological well-being ( Skowron, Stanley & Shapiro, 2009 ). The concept of differentiation of self becomes important in adolescence when the adolescent seeks to create their identity in the context of relationships with peers. Many adolescents tend to copy the behaviour of their friends or other important people in order to adapt to peers and/or to belong to a peer group. Through communication with peers adolescents have an opportunity to check their beliefs about themselves and the world and compare it with their peers. In communication processes adolescents also gets an opportunity to discuss, oppose and change their thinking about the world and themselves which is essential to identity development. Peer groups also provides values and norms which adolescents can identify with ( Pugh & Hart, 1999 ). Susceptibility to peer pressure and conformism become problematic when adolescents encourage each other to participate in antisocial, or deviant activities such as smoking, substance use, early sexual behavior or bullying ( Chan & Chan, 2008 ). The concept of differentiation of self, developed by Bowen (1978) , involves a person’s ability to distinguish him or herself as a separate, autonomous individual from other persons. Individuals with a high level of differentiation of self are able to perceive and distinguish their thoughts, opinions and worldview from other people and understand the other person’s position simultaneously. Such a person is also able to share his/her experiences, feelings, opinions and respected differences with other persons and accept them at the same time. A person with a high differentiation of self is also aware of his/her autonomy and personality boundaries and is able to take responsibility for his/her behaviour ( Bowen, 1978 ). High differentiation of self is related to a better ability to create and maintain interpersonal relationships ( Lal & Bartle-Haring, 2011 ; Holman & Busby, 2011 ). In adolescence, differentiation of self is important in order to establish and maintain good relationships with peers, realize one’s unique place within relationships, and to be able to resist negative pressure of peers. Thus, differentiation of self could be a second factor which could be related to successful adolescent’ relationships with peers and how he/she will be able to resist the negative values, group norms and behaviours of peers that he/she does not agree. Therefore adolescents’ differentiation of self could also be one of the intermediate factors that could link adolescent’ identity formation and relationships with peers and could predict direction and strength of these links. In order to examine these interrelationships, further empirical research in this area is needed.

Conclusions

• Adolescents’ identity development is positively related with their relationships with peers. Belonging to a peer group and good relationships with peers based on mutual respect and acceptance are positively related with adolescent identity development.
• Personality related factors that could be linked with adolescents’ identity development and their relationship with peers are not clear. Potential factors of interest, which are associated with good social relationships, are adolescent’s ability to be empathic and his/her differentiation of self. Further empirical research investigating links between adolescent identity development, empathy, differentiation of self, and relationships with peers is needed.

Acknowledgements/Conflicts of Interest

The author has no conflicts to disclose.

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Erikson’s Stages of Development

An eight stage theory of identity and psychosocial development.

Erik Erikson , a German psychoanalyst heavily influenced by Sigmund Freud, explored three aspects of identity: the ego identity (self), personal identity (the personal idiosyncrasies that distinguish a person from another, social/cultural identity (the collection of social roles a person might play) [1] .

Contributors Key Concepts Resources and References

Contributors

• Erik Erikson (1902 -1994)

Key Concepts

Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development considers the impact of external factors, parents and society on personality development from childhood to adulthood. According to Erikson’s theory, every person must pass through a series of eight interrelated stages over the entire life cycle [2] .

1. Infancy: Birth-18 Months Old

Basic Trust vs. Mistrust – Hope

During the first or second year of life, the major emphasis is on the mother and father’s nurturing ability and care for a child, especially in terms of visual contact and touch. The child will develop optimism, trust, confidence, and security if properly cared for and handled. If a child does not experience trust, he or she may develop insecurity, worthlessness, and general mistrust to the world.

2. Toddler / Early Childhood Years: 18 Months to 3 Years

Autonomy vs. Shame – Will

The second stage occurs between 18 months and 3 years. At this point, the child has an opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as he or she learns new skills and right from wrong. The well-cared for child is sure of himself, carrying himself or herself with pride rather than shame. During this time of the “terrible twos”, defiance, temper tantrums, and stubbornness can also appear. Children tend to be vulnerable during this stage, sometimes feeling shame and and low self-esteem during an inability to learn certain skills.

3. Preschooler: 3 to 5 Years

Initiative vs. Guilt – Purpose

During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take initiative in creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie’s and Ken’s, toy phones and miniature cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it means to be an adult. We also begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world—”WHY?”

While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the psychosocial features of conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless, he said that at this stage we usually become involved in the classic “Oedipal struggle” and resolve this struggle through “social role identification.” If we’re frustrated over natural desires and goals, we may easily experience guilt.

The most significant relationship is with the basic family.

4. School Age Child: 6 to 12 Years

Industry vs. Inferiority – Competence

During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of learning, creating and accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry. This is also a very social stage of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy and inferiority among our peers, we can have serious problems in terms of competence and self-esteem.

As the world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and neighborhood. Parents are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are still important.

5. Adolescent: 12 to 18 Years

Identity vs. Role Confusion – Fidelity

Up until this fifth stage, development depends on what is done to a person. At this point, development now depends primarily upon what a person does. An adolescent must struggle to discover and find his or her own identity, while negotiating and struggling with social interactions and “fitting in”, and developing a sense of morality and right from wrong.

Some attempt to delay entrance to adulthood and withdraw from responsibilities (moratorium). Those unsuccessful with this stage tend to experience role confusion and upheaval. Adolescents begin to develop a strong affiliation and devotion to ideals, causes, and friends.

6. Young adult: 18 to 35

Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation – Love

At the young adult stage, people tend to seek companionship and love. Some also begin to “settle down” and start families, although seems to have been pushed back farther in recent years.

Young adults seek deep intimacy and satisfying relationships, but if unsuccessful, isolation may occur. Significant relationships at this stage are with marital partners and friends.

7. Middle-aged Adult: 35 to 55 or 65

Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation – Care

Career and work are the most important things at this stage, along with family. Middle adulthood is also the time when people can take on greater responsibilities and control.

For this stage, working to establish stability and Erikson’s idea of generativity – attempting to produce something that makes a difference to society. Inactivity and meaninglessness are common fears during this stage.

Major life shifts can occur during this stage. For example, children leave the household, careers can change, and so on. Some may struggle with finding purpose. Significant relationships are those within the family, workplace, local church and other communities.

8. Late Adult: 55 or 65 to Death

Integrity vs. Despair – Wisdom

Erikson believed that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage and the last stage involves much reflection. As older adults, some can look back with a feeling of integrity — that is, contentment and fulfillment, having led a meaningful life and valuable contribution to society. Others may have a sense of despair during this stage, reflecting upon their experiences and failures. They may fear death as they struggle to find a purpose to their lives, wondering “What was the point of life? Was it worth it?”

Additional Resources and References

• The Life Cycle Completed (Extended Version) : Erikson’s own well-written book that explains the stages and identity crisis directly from the firsthand source.
• Handbook of Identity Theory and Research [2 Volume Set] : This impressive handbook brings “unity and clarity to a diverse and fragmented literature.” presenting perspectives from many different theoretical schools and empirical approaches: psychology (e.g., narrative, social identity theory, neo-Eriksonian) and from other disciplines (e.g., sociology, political science, ethnic studies).
• Erikson, E. H. (1994). Identity: Youth and crisis (No. 7). WW Norton & Company.
• Erikson, E. H. (1993). Childhood and society. WW Norton & Company.

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Erik Erikson’s Theory: Understanding Human Development

This essay is about Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, which outlines eight stages of human growth from infancy to old age. Each stage presents a central conflict that must be resolved for healthy psychological development. The stages include “Trust vs. Mistrust” in infancy, “Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt” in early childhood, “Initiative vs. Guilt” in preschool years, “Industry vs. Inferiority” in school-age children, “Identity vs. Role Confusion” in adolescence, “Intimacy vs. Isolation” in young adulthood, “Generativity vs. Stagnation” in middle adulthood, and “Integrity vs. Despair” in late adulthood. The theory emphasizes the importance of social relationships and personal growth in shaping one’s identity and highlights the continuous nature of development throughout life.

How it works

Erik Erikson’s paradigm concerning psychosocial evolution stands as a fundamental pillar in comprehending human maturation and identity formation. Unlike certain psychological doctrines fixated solely on childhood, Erikson’s construct envelops the entirety of the human lifespan, positing that individuals persistently evolve and confront novel challenges from infancy to senescence. Each of his eight delineated stages encapsulates a pivotal dichotomy or quandary imperative for nurturing robust psychological development.

The inaugural stage, denoted as “Trust versus Mistrust,” transpires from birth to approximately 18 months.

During this epoch, neonates depend entirely on their caregivers. Should their requisites for sustenance, solace, and sanctuary be consistently gratified, they cultivate a rudimentary faith in their milieu and its denizens. This bedrock of trust assumes paramount importance as it underpins all subsequent interpersonal relationships. Conversely, should caregivers prove erratic, remiss, or excessively severe, infants might harbor mistrust, perceiving the world as capricious and perilous.

From roughly 18 months to three years, progeny ingress the “Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt” juncture. Herein, toddlers commence asserting their autonomy by exploring their surroundings and executing rudimentary decisions, such as attire selection or dietary preferences. Successful negotiation of this phase engenders a sense of self-governance and certitude. However, excessive parental strictness or disparagement may instill sentiments of shame and dubiety concerning their capabilities. Caregivers must delicately navigate this milieu, fostering independence whilst imposing judicious limits.

Succeeding this phase is the “Initiative versus Guilt” interlude, spanning ages three to five. At this juncture, children embark on instigating activities, concocting schemes, and undertaking novel challenges. Encouragement of their endeavors nurtures a sense of purpose and self-assurance. Conversely, dismissal or censure of their endeavors might inculcate feelings of culpability regarding their aspirations and aspirations. This stage represents a crucible for cultivating leadership and decision-making acumen.

Subsequently, offspring segue into the “Industry versus Inferiority” domain, spanning ages six to eleven. This epoch is characterized by a preoccupation with scholastic pursuits and peer interactions. Triumph in academic and communal endeavors begets a sense of industry, signifying a perception of competence and proficiency. Conversely, failure or recurrent adverse feedback may engender sentiments of inferiority and self-doubt. This phase accentuates the susceptibility of children’s self-esteem, necessitating nurturing environments conducive to their advancement.

Adolescence, approximating ages 12 to 18, precipitates the “Identity versus Role Confusion” phase. Herein, adolescents traverse the labyrinth of assorted roles, convictions, and ideologies in their quest to forge a personal identity. This juncture assumes seminal import in delineating a stable self-concept. Triumph begets a robust sense of identity and trajectory, while adversity yields role perplexity and vacillation regarding one’s niche in the world. It signifies an epoch of experimentation wherein familial and communal support proves invaluable in navigating this labyrinthine period.

Emerging adulthood, spanning approximately 18 to 40 years, is distinguished by the “Intimacy versus Isolation” phase. At this nexus, individuals aspire towards fostering intimate bonds and profound affiliations with their peers. Success in this endeavor augurs robust, supportive relationships, whilst failure portends solitude and isolation. This juncture underscores the criticality of cultivating intimate friendships and romantic entanglements for emotional well-being.

Middle adulthood, encompassing the age spectrum from about 40 to 65 years, engenders the “Generativity versus Stagnation” phase. During this interval, individuals pivot towards contributing to society and nurturing subsequent generations. This may be realized through parenthood, professional pursuits, and civic engagement. Generativity begets a sense of purpose and fulfillment, whereas stagnation ensues from lack of engagement and productivity, engendering feelings of discontent. This phase underscores the import of involvement in endeavors transcending personal gratification.

The denouement is epitomized by the “Integrity versus Despair” stage, manifesting in late adulthood, from approximately 65 years onward. As individuals reflect upon their life trajectory, they endeavor to distill meaning and coherence from their lived experiences. Those contented with their accomplishments and life choices attain a sense of integrity. Conversely, those burdened by remorse or a perception of squandered opportunities may befall despair and despondency. This phase underscores the import of retrospection suffused with contentment and acquiescence.

Erikson’s paradigm underscores the interconnectivity of these stages, with each stage serving as a scaffold for the subsequent one. Successful resolution of the quandaries attendant to each stage engenders the gestation of a robust, well-adjusted persona. Conversely, travails or failings in negotiating these quandaries may engender impediments in subsequent stages. This cumulative cascade underscores the import of addressing and buttressing each developmental epoch.

One of the salient virtues of Erikson’s paradigm is its universal applicability across diverse cultural and contextual milieus. Whilst the specific tribulations and societal expectations may fluctuate, the foundational dichotomies and developmental imperatives remain germane. This ubiquity endows the paradigm with invaluable utility in unraveling human comportment and evolution across variegated populations.

In the annals of contemporary psychology, Erikson’s paradigm remains a lodestar in developmental psychology. It furnishes an exhaustive framework for scrutinizing the interplay between individual maturation and societal influences. By discerning the pivotal stages of evolution and the import of resolving seminal quandaries, Erikson’s schema proffers insights into the factors undergirding robust development and the impediments militating against it.

Furthermore, Erikson’s oeuvre underscores the import of social affiliations in evolution. From the foundation of trust fostered with caregivers in infancy to the generative contributions tendered in middle adulthood, Erikson’s stages accentuate how our interactions and affiliations sculpt our psychological gestation. These affiliations furnish the succor and feedback imperative for traversing life’s vicissitudes successfully.

In summation, Erik Erikson’s paradigm of psychosocial development proffers profound insights into the vicissitudes of individual evolution and adaptation across the lifespan. It accentuates the import of social affiliations and personal evolution in shaping one’s identity, underscoring the continuous trajectory of evolution. As we navigate the labyrinthine vicissitudes of existence, Erikson’s stages serve as a poignant reminder of the import of addressing our psychological exigencies and nurturing supportive environs to actualize our latent potential. His paradigm remains an indispensable framework for unraveling the dynamic process of human evolution and the lifelong odyssey of personal development.

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Erik Erikson's Theory: Understanding Human Development. (2024, May 28). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/erik-eriksons-theory-understanding-human-development/

"Erik Erikson's Theory: Understanding Human Development." PapersOwl.com , 28 May 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/erik-eriksons-theory-understanding-human-development/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). Erik Erikson's Theory: Understanding Human Development . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/erik-eriksons-theory-understanding-human-development/ [Accessed: 1 Jun. 2024]

"Erik Erikson's Theory: Understanding Human Development." PapersOwl.com, May 28, 2024. Accessed June 1, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/erik-eriksons-theory-understanding-human-development/

"Erik Erikson's Theory: Understanding Human Development," PapersOwl.com , 28-May-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/erik-eriksons-theory-understanding-human-development/. [Accessed: 1-Jun-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). Erik Erikson's Theory: Understanding Human Development . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/erik-eriksons-theory-understanding-human-development/ [Accessed: 1-Jun-2024]

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