process writing analysis

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10.5 Process Analysis

Learning objectives.

• Determine the purpose and structure of the process analysis essay.
• Understand how to write a process analysis essay.

The Purpose of Process Analysis in Writing

The purpose of a process analysis essay is to explain how to do something or how something works. In either case, the formula for a process analysis essay remains the same. The process is articulated into clear, definitive steps.

Almost everything we do involves following a step-by-step process. From riding a bike as children to learning various jobs as adults, we initially needed instructions to effectively execute the task. Likewise, we have likely had to instruct others, so we know how important good directions are—and how frustrating it is when they are poorly put together.

Writing at Work

The next time you have to explain a process to someone at work, be mindful of how clearly you articulate each step. Strong communication skills are critical for workplace satisfaction and advancement. Effective process analysis plays a critical role in developing that skill set.

On a separate sheet of paper, make a bulleted list of all the steps that you feel would be required to clearly illustrate three of the following four processes:

• Tying a shoelace
• Parallel parking
• Planning a successful first date
• Being an effective communicator

The Structure of a Process Analysis Essay

The process analysis essay opens with a discussion of the process and a thesis statement that states the goal of the process.

The organization of a process analysis essay typically follows chronological order. The steps of the process are conveyed in the order in which they usually occur. Body paragraphs will be constructed based on these steps. If a particular step is complicated and needs a lot of explaining, then it will likely take up a paragraph on its own. But if a series of simple steps is easier to understand, then the steps can be grouped into a single paragraph.

The time transition phrases covered in the Narration and Illustration sections are also helpful in organizing process analysis essays (see Table 10.1 “Transition Words and Phrases for Expressing Time” and Table 10.2 “Phrases of Illustration” ). Words such as first , second , third , next , and finally are helpful cues to orient reader and organize the content of essay.

Always have someone else read your process analysis to make sure it makes sense. Once we get too close to a subject, it is difficult to determine how clearly an idea is coming across. Having a friend or coworker read it over will serve as a good way to troubleshoot any confusing spots.

Choose two of the lists you created in Note 10.52 “Exercise 1” and start writing out the processes in paragraph form. Try to construct paragraphs based on the complexity of each step. For complicated steps, dedicate an entire paragraph. If less complicated steps fall in succession, group them into a single paragraph.

Writing a Process Analysis Essay

Choose a topic that is interesting, is relatively complex, and can be explained in a series of steps. As with other rhetorical writing modes, choose a process that you know well so that you can more easily describe the finer details about each step in the process. Your thesis statement should come at the end of your introduction, and it should state the final outcome of the process you are describing.

Body paragraphs are composed of the steps in the process. Each step should be expressed using strong details and clear examples. Use time transition phrases to help organize steps in the process and to orient readers. The conclusion should thoroughly describe the result of the process described in the body paragraphs. See Chapter 15 “Readings: Examples of Essays” to read an example of a process analysis essay.

Choose one of the expanded lists from Note 10.54 “Exercise 2” . Construct a full process analysis essay from the work you have already done. That means adding an engaging introduction, a clear thesis, time transition phrases, body paragraphs, and a solid conclusion.

Key Takeaways

• A process analysis essay explains how to do something, how something works, or both.
• The process analysis essay opens with a discussion of the process and a thesis statement that states the outcome of the process.
• The organization of a process analysis essay typically follows a chronological sequence.
• Time transition phrases are particularly helpful in process analysis essays to organize steps and orient reader.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Write the Perfect Process Analysis Essay (With a Sample Essay)

A process analysis essay is a kind of expository essay that explains the process or actions someone needs to take to complete a task. You can think of it like a recipe, stating all of the necessary ingredients and steps, allowing the reader to follow along in logical order.

A process analysis essay can be written about a wide scope of topics, from highly technical processes to cleaning and organizing your closet. Writing a process analysis essay forces you to slow down and consider every tool and step involved in completing a task, and then explain what's needed in logical order for your reader to do the same.

Format of a process analysis essay

For this type of essay assignment, you will not be following the traditional five-paragraph essay outline. There is still an introduction and body to your essay, but your conclusion is more like the "analysis" part and the essay will end when you've completed explaining the steps involved in a process. Below, we'll break down exactly what should be included in each of these parts. Also keep in mind that you can still create an outline before beginning writing your process analysis essay, although it might look more like a list of bullet points rather than a traditional five-paragraph essay outline.

Introduction

The introduction to your process analysis essay will include information about the process you are analyzing and why it is important. This will likely be the shortest part of your essay. If there is a unique history to the process you'll be analyzing, the introduction is where you might mention that. You basically want to use this paragraph as a brief introduction to your reader of 1) what process you'll be analyzing and 2) how or why that process might be useful information to know.

The body of your process analysis essay will mention any prerequisites, materials, or instruments needed to complete the process. It should also mention any risks or warnings involved that are relevant to the process. It's important to include everything that the reader will need to complete the process, and even extra tools that might help the process go smoother but are not necessary. For example, in the sample process analysis essay provided below on how to make apple butter, I included a spoon to stir the butter as part of the list of tools that will be needed. Additionally, I mentioned that a food processor will make the apple butter cook better and have a more butter-like consistency, but it's not necessary to have as a tool to cook apple butter.

Following these sections, you'll write the actual process in sequential order required to complete the task. Make sure you include transitional words within and between paragraphs, as these are required to show the sequence of the process in logical order. Your analysis will likely be across several paragraphs, so make sure each paragraph describes a separate part of the process to avoid confusion for your reader.

Sample process analysis essay

To show you how a process analysis essay might look, we've provided a sample essay that includes the separate sections discussed above. Notice that the introduction paragraph is short, providing basic information about the process that will be discussed, while the remaining paragraphs are longer and more detailed.

Sample essay

Apple butter is similar to apple sauce but is different in that it is highly concentrated and used more often as a butter-like topping on bread or crackers. It's cooked long and slow, allowing the sugar in the apples to caramelize and turn it a deep brown color.

To make apple butter, you will need a slow cooker, food processor, cutting board, peeling knife, large spoon, apples, sugar, and spices for the desired flavoring (usually cinnamon and nutmeg). You might also want to use an apple slicer, which cuts down on the preparation time. Note that when you begin cooking your apple butter, the more minced the peeled apples are, the smoother the final product will be. If you want your apple butter to have a true butter-like consistency, mince the apples well in the food processor before cooking.

Now, let's look at the process of cooking apple butter. To begin, prepare a large, clean space for cutting and processing the apples. Five to six cups of fresh apples will likely only result in a few cups (at most) of apple butter, so depending on how much butter you want to make, you could be peeling and preparing apples for several hours. Each apple will need to be sliced, peeled, and minced in a food processor for maximum butter-like consistency.

Next, add the minced apples to a slow cooker and place the slow cooker on "high". You will notice that the top of the mixture is watery, once the larger pieces settle. Add sugar and spices until you reach the taste you want for the apple butter. Keep in mind that apples vary in sweetness, depending on what type of apple you are using, and sugar can be added slowly throughout the cooking process. Be careful not to add too much sugar at first, as the butter will get sweeter as the apples cook down. In fact, you might even choose to not at sugar at all at this stage of the cooking process, especially if you want a final product that is not too sweet. The spices can also be added as the apple butter cooks or not at all (if that's your preference). Be sure to stir every 10-15 minutes during the first hour as the apple butter is cooking on high and let it cook uncovered.

After one hour of cooking on high, turn the slow cooker to low and cover it. Depending on the type of apple you have used, it should cook for 8-10 hours, until there is no water left at the top and around the sides of the slow cooker. During this slow cooking time, stir occasionally (once per hour should be fine). This is also when the apple butter makes your kitchen smell amazing!

Finally, when the apple butter has reached the consistency and taste you want, remove it from the slow cooker. If you choose to can the apple butter, you can do that immediately or keep the apple butter in the refrigerator until you are able to can it.

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Process Analysis

Writing for Success

Learning Objectives

• Determine the purpose and structure of the process analysis essay.
• Understand how to write a process analysis essay.

THE PURPOSE OF PROCESS ANALYSIS IN WRITING

The purpose of a process analysis essay is to explain how to do something or how something works. In either case, the formula for a process analysis essay remains the same. The process is articulated into clear, definitive steps.

Almost everything we do involves following a step-by-step process. From riding a bike as children to learning various jobs as adults, we initially needed instructions to effectively execute the task. Likewise, we have likely had to instruct others, so we know how important good directions are—and how frustrating it is when they are poorly put together.

WRITING AT WORK

The next time you have to explain a process to someone at work, be mindful of how clearly you articulate each step. Strong communication skills are critical for workplace satisfaction and advancement. Effective process analysis plays a critical role in developing that skill set.

On a separate sheet of paper, make a bulleted list of all the steps that you feel would be required to clearly illustrate three of the following four processes:

• Tying a shoelace
• Parallel parking
• Planning a successful first date
• Being an effective communicator

THE STRUCTURE OF A PROCESS ANALYSIS ESSAY

The process analysis essay opens with a discussion of the process and a thesis statement that states the goal of the process.

The organization of a process analysis essay typically follows chronological order. The steps of the process are conveyed in the order in which they usually occur. Body paragraphs will be constructed based on these steps. If a particular step is complicated and needs a lot of explaining, then it will likely take up a paragraph on its own. But if a series of simple steps is easier to understand, then the steps can be grouped into a single paragraph.

The time transition phrases covered in the Narration and Illustration sections are also helpful in organizing process analysis essays (see Table 10.1 “Transition Words and Phrases for Expressing Time” and Table 10.2 “Phrases of Illustration”). Words such as first, second, third, next, and finally are helpful cues to orient reader and organize the content of essay.

Always have someone else read your process analysis to make sure it makes sense. Once we get too close to a subject, it is difficult to determine how clearly an idea is coming across. Having a friend or coworker read it over will serve as a good way to troubleshoot any confusing spots.

Choose two of the lists you created in Exercise 1 and start writing out the processes in paragraph form. Try to construct paragraphs based on the complexity of each step. For complicated steps, dedicate an entire paragraph. If less complicated steps fall in succession, group them into a single paragraph.

WRITING A PROCESS ANALYSIS ESSAY

Choose a topic that is interesting, is relatively complex, and can be explained in a series of steps. As with other rhetorical writing modes, choose a process that you know well so that you can more easily describe the finer details about each step in the process. Your thesis statement should come at the end of your introduction, and it should state the final outcome of the process you are describing.

Body paragraphs are composed of the steps in the process. Each step should be expressed using strong details and clear examples. Use time transition phrases to help organize steps in the process and to orient readers. The conclusion should thoroughly describe the result of the process described in the body paragraphs. 

Choose one of the expanded lists from Exercise 2. Construct a full process analysis essay from the work you have already done. That means adding an engaging introduction, a clear thesis, time transition phrases, body paragraphs, and a solid conclusion.

Key Takeaways

• A process analysis essay explains how to do something, how something works, or both.
• The process analysis essay opens with a discussion of the process and a thesis statement that states the outcome of the process.
• The organization of a process analysis essay typically follows a chronological sequence.
• Time transition phrases are particularly helpful in process analysis essays to organize steps and orient reader.

Process Analysis Copyright © 2016 by Writing for Success is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

5.5 Process Analysis

Learning objectives.

• Determine the purpose and structure of the process analysis essay.
• Understand how to write a process analysis essay.

The Purpose of Process Analysis in Writing

The purpose of a process analysis essay  is to explain how to do something or how something works. In either case, the formula for a process analysis essay remains the same. The process is articulated into clear, definitive steps.

Almost everything we do involves following a step-by-step process. From riding a bike as children to learning various jobs as adults, we initially needed instructions to effectively execute the task. Likewise, we have likely had to instruct others, so we know how important good directions are—and how frustrating it is when they are poorly put together.

Connecting the Pieces: Writing at Work

The next time you have to explain a process to someone at work, be mindful of how clearly you articulate each step. Strong communication skills are critical for workplace satisfaction and advancement. Effective process analysis plays a critical role in developing that skill set.

On a separate sheet of paper, make a bulleted list of all the steps that you feel would be required to clearly illustrate three of the following four processes:

• Tying a shoelace
• Parallel parking
• Planning a successful first date
• Being an effective communicator

The Structure of a Process Analysis Essay

The process analysis essay opens with a discussion of the process and a thesis statement that states the goal of the process.

The organization of a process analysis essay typically follows chronological order. The steps of the process are conveyed in the order in which they usually occur. Body paragraphs will be constructed based on these steps. If a particular step is complicated and needs a lot of explaining, then it will likely take up a paragraph on its own. But if a series of simple steps is easier to understand, then the steps can be grouped into a single paragraph.

The time transition phrases covered in the Narration and Illustration sections are also helpful in organizing process analysis essays (see Table 5.1 “Transition Words and Phrases for Expressing Time” and Table 10.2 “Phrases of Illustration”) . Words such as first , second , third , next , and finally are helpful cues to orient reader and organize the content of essay.

Always have someone else read your process analysis to make sure it makes sense. Once we get too close to a subject, it is difficult to determine how clearly an idea is coming across. Having a friend or coworker read it over will serve as a good way to troubleshoot any confusing spots.

Choose two of the lists you created in Exercise 1 and start writing out the processes in paragraph form. Try to construct paragraphs based on the complexity of each step. For complicated steps, dedicate an entire paragraph. If less complicated steps fall in succession, group them into a single paragraph.

Writing a Process Analysis Essay

Choose a topic that is interesting, is relatively complex, and can be explained in a series of steps. As with other rhetorical writing modes, choose a process that you know well so that you can more easily describe the finer details about each step in the process. Your thesis statement should come at the end of your introduction, and it should state the final outcome of the process you are describing.

Body paragraphs are composed of the steps in the process. Each step should be expressed using strong details and clear examples. Use time transition phrases to help organize steps in the process and to orient readers. The conclusion should thoroughly describe the result of the process described in the body paragraphs. See Appendix B: Examples of Essays  to read an example of a process analysis essay.

Choose one of the expanded lists from Exercise 2 . Construct a full process analysis essay from the work you have already done. That means adding an engaging introduction, a clear thesis, time transition phrases, body paragraphs, and a solid conclusion.

Key Takeaways

• A process analysis essay explains how to do something, how something works, or both.
• The process analysis essay opens with a discussion of the process and a thesis statement that states the outcome of the process.
• The organization of a process analysis essay typically follows a chronological sequence.
• Time transition phrases are particularly helpful in process analysis essays to organize steps and orient reader.

Putting the Pieces Together Copyright © 2020 by Andrew Stracuzzi and André Cormier is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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The process writing approach: A meta-analysis

Research output : Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

The process approach to writing instruction is one of the most popular methods for teaching writing. The authors conducted meta-analysis of 29 experimental and quasi-experimental studies conducted with students in Grades 1-12 to examine if process writing instruction improves the quality of students' writing and motivation to write. For students in general education classes, process writing instruction resulted in a statistically significant, but relatively modest improvement in the overall quality of writing (average weighted effect size [ES] = 0.34). Variation in ES was not related to grade, reliability of the writing quality measure, professional development, genre assessed, or quality of study. The process writing approach neither resulted in a statistically significant improvement in students' motivation nor enhanced the quality of struggling writers' compositions.

• Meta-analysis
• Writing process

ASJC Scopus subject areas

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• 10.1080/00220671.2010.488703

Other files and links

• Link to publication in Scopus

Fingerprint

• writing instruction Social Sciences 100%
• general education Social Sciences 27%
• student Social Sciences 26%
• genre Social Sciences 23%
• writer Social Sciences 22%
• school grade Social Sciences 18%
• Teaching Social Sciences 11%

T1 - The process writing approach

T2 - A meta-analysis

AU - Graham, Steve

AU - Sandmel, Karin

N2 - The process approach to writing instruction is one of the most popular methods for teaching writing. The authors conducted meta-analysis of 29 experimental and quasi-experimental studies conducted with students in Grades 1-12 to examine if process writing instruction improves the quality of students' writing and motivation to write. For students in general education classes, process writing instruction resulted in a statistically significant, but relatively modest improvement in the overall quality of writing (average weighted effect size [ES] = 0.34). Variation in ES was not related to grade, reliability of the writing quality measure, professional development, genre assessed, or quality of study. The process writing approach neither resulted in a statistically significant improvement in students' motivation nor enhanced the quality of struggling writers' compositions.

AB - The process approach to writing instruction is one of the most popular methods for teaching writing. The authors conducted meta-analysis of 29 experimental and quasi-experimental studies conducted with students in Grades 1-12 to examine if process writing instruction improves the quality of students' writing and motivation to write. For students in general education classes, process writing instruction resulted in a statistically significant, but relatively modest improvement in the overall quality of writing (average weighted effect size [ES] = 0.34). Variation in ES was not related to grade, reliability of the writing quality measure, professional development, genre assessed, or quality of study. The process writing approach neither resulted in a statistically significant improvement in students' motivation nor enhanced the quality of struggling writers' compositions.

KW - Meta-analysis

KW - Writing

KW - Writing process

UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=81255136535&partnerID=8YFLogxK

UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/citedby.url?scp=81255136535&partnerID=8YFLogxK

U2 - 10.1080/00220671.2010.488703

DO - 10.1080/00220671.2010.488703

M3 - Article

AN - SCOPUS:81255136535

SN - 0022-0671

JO - Journal of Educational Research

JF - Journal of Educational Research

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4.7: Process Analysis

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The Purpose of the Process Essay

The purpose of a process analysis essay is to explain how to do something or how something works. In either case, the formula for a process analysis essay remains the same. The process is articulated into clear, definitive steps.

Almost everything we do involves following a step-by-step process. From riding a bike as children to learning various jobs as adults, we initially needed instructions to effectively execute the task. Likewise, we have likely had to instruct others, so we know how important good directions are—and how frustrating it is when they are poorly put together.

What is the difference between process instruction and process explanation?

Process instruction is direct instruction (such as how to change a tire), so direct address (2nd person) can be used. It is okay to communicate to the audience because you imagine their purpose in reading the instruction is to learn and follow said instruction. Process explanations are more like what we get in textbooks (e.g., the Krebs Cycle explained in a biology textbook). They are more formal and involve third person with the process itself at the heart. No more direct address or command language allowed, and paragraph structure is the norm.

Writing at Work

The next time you have to explain a process to someone at work, be mindful of how clearly you articulate each step. Strong communication skills are critical for workplace satisfaction and advancement. Effective process analysis plays a critical role in developing that skill set.

On a separate sheet of paper, make a bulleted list of all the steps that you feel are required to clearly illustrate three of the following five processes. Also, identify whether each of these are process instruction or process explanation.

• Tying a shoelace
• Parallel parking
• Planning a successful first date
• Being an effective communicator
• How a historical event occurred (pick one you know well!)

The Structure of a Process Essay

The process essay opens with a discussion of the process and a thesis statement that states the goal of the process. The organization of a process essay typically follows chronological order. The steps of the process are conveyed in the order in which they usually occur, and so your body paragraphs will be constructed based on these steps. If a particular step is complicated and needs a lot of explaining, then it will likely take up a paragraph on its own. But if a series of simple steps is easy to understand, then the steps can be grouped into a single paragraph.

The time transition phrases covered in the Narration section are also helpful for organizing process analysis essays (see Table of Transition Words and Phrases for Expressing Time). Words such as first, second, third, next, and finally are cues to orient readers and organize the content of the essay.

Finally, it’s a good idea to always have someone else read your process analysis to make sure it makes sense. Once we get too close to a subject, it is difficult to determine how clearly an idea is coming across. Having a peer read over your analysis will serve as a good way to troubleshoot any confusing spots and ensure no steps have been omitted. Can your reader follow the steps to recreate the process?

Choose two of the lists you created in Exercise 1 and start writing out the processes in paragraph form. Try to construct paragraphs based on the complexity of each step. For complicated steps, dedicate an entire paragraph. If less complicated steps fall in succession, group them into a single paragraph.

Choose something that you know how to do well or that your understand thoroughly. Make sure it is complex enough to warrant instructions (i.e. skip instructions for basic tasks – brushing teeth, driving a car, etc.). If you are writing process instructions , be sure to include a section at the beginning explaining what materials or tools are required, what clothing is recommended and what environment is necessary. If you are writing process explanation , be sure to introduce what you plan to explain, and any information about it the reader needs to understand your explanations. Conclude with some idea of what the reader should expect after the steps are done.

Contributors and Attributions  

Adapted from  Successful College Composition (Crowther et al.) . Sourced from  LibreTexts , licensed under  CC BY-NC-SA  .

Adapted from  Let's Get Writing (Browning, DeVries, Boylan, Kurtz and Burton) . Sourced from  LibreTexts , licensed under  CC BY-NC-SA  .

Process Analysis in Composition

Guidelines and examples

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In composition , process analysis is a method of paragraph or essay development by which a writer explains step by step how something is done or how to do something.

Process analysis writing can take one of two forms, depending on the topic :

•  Information about how something works ( informative )
•  An explanation of how to do something ( directive ).

An informative process analysis is usually written in the third-person point of view ; a directive process analysis is usually written in the second person . In both forms, the steps are typically organized in chronological order --that is, the order in which the steps are carried out.

Process Analysis in Academics

Academics and grammarians have explained the actual "process" of process analysis, as well as the specific steps a writer should follow in using this method as these items demonstrate.

G. H. Muller and H. S. Wiener

Planning a good process analysis requires the writer to include all the essential steps. Be sure you have all the tools or ingredients needed. Arrange the steps in the correct sequence. Like all good writing, a process essay requires a thesis to tell the reader the significance of the process. The writer can tell the reader how to do something, but also should inform the reader about the usefulness or importance of the endeavor." ( The Short Prose Reader . McGraw-Hill, 2006)

Robert Funk, et al.

Process analysis in popular culture.

Of course, the notion of using a step-by-step method, which is the definition of process analysis, provides plenty of fodder for works in popular culture, ranging from explanations of how to remove items from a child's hair to notating a book. Even humorists and popular poets have demonstrated process analysis.

Joshua Piven et al.

With one hand, hold the stuck section of the hair between the gum clot and the scalp, and break the frozen gum into small pieces.

Gently pull the frozen gum pieces from the hair using your other hand. If the warmth of your hand begins to melt the gum, refreeze and repeat until all the gum has been removed from the hair. ( The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook: Parenting . Chronicle Books, 2003)

Mortimer Adler

Underlining: of major points, of important or forceful statements.

• Vertical lines at the margin: to emphasize a statement already underlined.
• Star, asterisk, or another doo-dad at the margin: to be used sparingly, to emphasize the ten or twenty most important statements in the book. . . .
• Numbers in the margin: to indicate the sequence of points the author makes in developing a single argument.
• Numbers of other pages in the margin: to indicate where else in the book the author made points relevant to the point marked; to tie up the ideas in a book, which, though they may be separated by many pages, belong together.
• Circling of keywords or phrases.
• Writing in the margin, or at the top or bottom of the page, for the sake of: recording questions (and perhaps answers) which a passage raised in your mind; reducing a complicated discussion to a simple statement; recording the sequence of major points right through the book. I use the end-papers at the back of the book to make a personal index of the author's points in the order of their appearance. ("How to Mark a Book." Saturday Review , July 6, 1940)

Izaak Walton

"[I]f he be a large Chub, then dress him thus: "First scale him, and then wash him clean, and then take out his guts; and to that end make the hole as little and near to his gills as you may conveniently, and especially make clean his throat from the grass and weeds that are usually in it (for if that be not very clean, it will make him to taste very sour); having so done, put some sweet herbs into his belly, and then tie him with two or three splinters to a spit, and roast him, basted often with vinegar, or rather verjuice and butter, with good store of salt mixt with it.

"Being thus drest, you will find him a much better dish of meat than you, or most folk, even than Anglers themselves do imagine; for this dries up the fluid watery humor with which all Chubs do abound.

"But take this rule with you, that a Chub newly taken and newly drest, is so much better than a Chub of a days keeping after he is dead, that I can compare him to nothing so fitly as to Cherries newly gathered from a tree, and others that have been bruised and lain a day or two in water. Being thus used and drest presently, and not washt after he is gutted (for note that lying long in water, and washing the blood out of the Fish after they be gutted, abates much of their sweetness), you will find the Chub to be such meat as will recompense your labour." ( The Compleat Angler , 5th edition, 1676)

Shel Silverstein

"First grow a moustache A hundred inches long, Then loop it over a hick'ry limb (Make sure the limb is strong). Now pull yourself up off the ground And wait until the spring-- Then swing!" ("How to Make a Swing With No Rope or Board or Nails." A Light in the Attic . HarperCollins, 1981)

"Lay the suit on its back on a flat surface such as a tennis court. Take the sleeves and place them at the side. Take the left sleeve and place it on the suit's hip, and hold the right sleeve over the suit's head as though the suit is waving in a jaunty manner. Now put both sleeves straight up over the suit's head and shout, 'Touchdown!' Ha ha! Isn't this fun? You may feel silly, but trust me, you're not half as silly as the people who think they can fold a suit so it won't come out wrinkled." ( Dave Barry's Only Travel Guide You'll Ever Need . Ballantine Books, 1991)

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• Process Analysis Essay: "How to Catch River Crabs"
• How to Break in a New Baseball Glove
• 50 Great Topics for a Process Analysis Essay
• Evaluating a Process Analysis Essay
• How to Use Exemplification in Writing
• Development in Composition: Building an Essay
• First Grade Writing Prompts
• Understanding General-to-Specific Order in Composition
• Focusing in Composition
• Organizational Strategies for Using Chronological Order in Writing
• Learning Ideas for Students with a Tactile, Kinesthetic Learning Style
• Analysis of 'Snow' by Charles Baxter
• Thinking About Reading
• 501 Topic Suggestions for Writing Essays and Speeches
• Composition Type: Problem-Solution Essays

Module: Analysis

Process analysis, learning objectives.

• Identify different types of analytic processes
• Apply different types of analytic processes

Process analysis is one of the most common types of analysis writing that you will encounter in business and in technical fields. Process analysis can directly result in changes to the process. If you were to analyze the process of order distribution at an underperforming fast-food restaurant, you could, for example, use the analysis to develop changes to improve the restaurant’s performance.

In order to effectively analyze a process, you first have to understand how to write about processes more generally. Processes can be classified a few ways, but for our purposes, they can be broken down into processes by people , processes by machines , and processes by nature.

Let’s think of some examples for each category:

The first step in analyzing a process is understanding what the process is. In fact, part of writing the analysis is usually describing the process itself. Process analysis relies heavily on exposition but, depending upon the purpose of your analysis, may be more or less comprehensive. Process analysis can be be classified as descriptive and prescriptive .

What does this mean for you as a college student given an assignment to write a “process analysis”? Well, it means you should pay very close attention to the assignment description to find out what kind of analysis you should do. Let’s look at the following sample assignment:

Example assignment

Engineers are generally great problem solvers. But first they need to thoroughly understand and analyze the problem before they can suggest a solution.

Your assignment is to analyze a problem or issue that you routinely encounter here on campus or in Oxford. You will identify the problem or issue, investigate it to understand how or why it exists, then collect and analyze data through field observations, and finally present the results of your analysis in the form of a 3–4 page report. Your report will conclude with recommendations for resolving the issue.

Purpose : To recommend a resolution to a problem or issue on the basis of an analysis you conduct using field observations.

Audience : Members of the University or Oxford community who would be interested in the resolution of the issue.

Format: 3–4-page report format with at least one graphic. Raw data should be collected on the Field Observation template and attached to the final report.

Answer the following questions to help you develop a plan for writing to this process analysis assignment.

• Process Analysis. Authored by : Andrew Davis. Provided by : University of Mississippi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Technical Writing. Authored by : Dr. Elizabeth Lohman. Provided by : Tidewater Community College. . Project : Z Degree Program. License : CC BY: Attribution

Jerz's Literacy Weblog (est. 1999)

Process description: how to write about a sequence of events.

Jerz > Writing > Technical >

This document describes how to write a process description  (or process analysis), a variation of the short report  designed to help a reader understand how a change takes place over time, through a series of stages.

You might use a process description to examine the photosynthesis of plants, the migration of animals, or the impeachment of presidents.

By contrast, the mechanism description focuses on an object in space (e.g. the physiology of a plant), and   instructions focus on actions the reader takes to make the process happen (e.g. how to care for a plant).

Parts of a Process Description

What follows is a general structure, which you should adapt to fit the specific needs of your writing task.

• Introduction
• Description
• Step-by-Step Description

1. Abstract

While the reader sees the abstract first, the author should expect to write it last.

We live in a tl;dr world. Summarize any professional document more than a few paragraphs long, for the benefit of a busy reader who may be reading hundreds of similar documents each day.

An abstract is a compressed summary that boils down the most important contents into a few sentences. (See “ Short Reports: Begin with the Conclusion .”)

An abstract is not a list of promises. Don’t think of it like a “stay tuned, we’ll tell you who won the big game and we’ll show you the best plays after these messages from our sponsor” teaser. Instead, an abstract actually gives the final scores, names the most valuable player, and breaks down the game-winning play.

In general, break the whole process up into smaller stages, and describe each stage in order. If the process is part of a continuing cycle (such as the evaporation and condensation of water), say so.

Caution : Students who are unfamiliar with the “process description” genre sometimes confuse it with  “helpful hints,” by which I mean a collection of many details that do not need to take place in any particular order.

2. Introduction

A good introduction is a concise paragraph that will accomplish two things:

• define the overall process in a single sentence.
• describe the document (you are describing the scope and purpose of the document you are writing; this is not the place to demonstrate your ability to introduce the field of knowledge you are about to draw on in order to help your reader understand the process)

Process Definition

Your introduction should be a concise paragraph that supplies a good sentence definition of the process.

Purpose and Scope of the Document

Like any technical document, it should also  state the scope and purpose of the paper.

3. Brief Description

As part of a brief paragraph (or, for a shorter document, possibly the same paragraph as the introduction), answer the question, “ How does it happen? ”

Provide any necessary context, such as

• Who or what performs the action each step?
• What local conditions or circumstances might affect each stage?
• How is each stage of the process significant to the overall process?

Give a concise overview of the process. This brief description should stand alone — that is, it should not refer to details, facts, or terms that aren’t explained within the summary.

You will probably have an easier time writing this section if you save it until you have written out the complete description. Conclude this section by breaking the process up into stages : “The principle stages of writing process are planning, drafting, revising, and proofreading.”

Your next section will work through each stage in turn.

4. Step-by-step Description

For each step in your description, write a miniature process description:

• define the step
• state its purpose (or function within the process)
• providing the necessary context , and
• include brief mechanism descriptions for any components that may be involved

This would probably be the longest section of your document.

Depending on the complexity of your process, you might divide up your process into sections, and treat each one as a separate subsection, concluding each subsection with a description of how this process fits in with the other subsections.

If you do break your process down into substages, before you launch into the details of any subsection, begin with a general introduction that orients your reader to all the major stages your document is going to cover.

A local table of contents can help readers skip to just the section they’re interested in.

A sentence definition is technical writing that specifies a thing by stating its category + what makes it unique in that category, with no extraneous details.

Name the parts and systems involved in those major processes, giving short sentence definitions of each major part, before you launch into the details. 

Because a process takes place over time, you should probably organize each subsection chronologically; however, if various components of a process happen at the same time, you might instead organize this section in some other way (such as starting at the top and moving down, or starting with what is most important and moving on to what is less important, or starting with what non-experts perceive with their senses and moving on to what experts can perceive with specialized equipment).

Work carefully from known information to unknown information.

Begin each section with a summary that identifies the topics to be covered in this section, and make sure you cover how those main topics relate to each other before you launch into the complex details about each section.

For instance, if you are writing about human anatomy, you should first establish the big-picture basics , such as the fact that the heart and lungs work together to circulate oxygen through the blood stream, before you go into specific details (such as what exactly happens on the cellular and molecular level in the alevoli where oxygen and carbon dioxide pass in opposite directions).

5. Conclusion

Without being excessively redundant, review the major steps in the process. Walk the reader through one complete cycle , emphasizing how the completion of each stage contributes to the final overall effect .

You might provide multiple different contrasting examples, or notable exceptions that don’t perfectly fit the process you just described.

—–

1997 — Handout created by Dennis G. Jerz, for the University of Toronto’s Engineering Writing 2003 — Updated version posted on jerz.setonhill.edu; modest tweaks over the years 03 Feb 2022 — After I noticed a spike in visits to this page, I freshened up the content, beefed up section 4, and added more cross-referencing links.

31 thoughts on “ Process Description: How to Write about a Sequence of Events ”

Hi Dr.Jerz. Didn’t see an email address on your about page so I’m just writing here to say “thank you” for your work thus far! I’m a university student in Jamaica currently trying to improve my academic writing for my final year (and beyond). Stumbled across your youtube playlist on critical thinking and then followed the link to your website. It’s been a great experience thus far and has totally changed how I viewed research.

Initially, I often had ideas and hypotheses around social and philosophical issues of my generation that I believed could go on to make me a great thought leader in the academic field, however, the requirements of evidence and contradictory views which research requires scared me; I developed a fear of losing ‘credit’ for my genius idea as I may: (1) fail to find support for such a Jamaica-focused idea; (2) encounter the same idea and lose the possibility (and joy) of being a creator, a ‘genius’ after investing so much time to read several papers. My ego desired to have the public speaking authority which I saw my professors exercise without any understanding of how they have developed and eared that level of credibility.

Your explanations have truly shown me that these research requirements exists to assist me in pursuing truth (rather than fame haha). I’ve come to accept that there were people here before me that have invested years into the topics that I am only recently discovering, and through their help I could : (i) strengthen my hypotheses; (ii) save time by not recreating the wheel; (iii) or identify areas (or gaps) that require further research.

The battle with the ego isn’t finished but has definitely improved. This has been enlightening so far and I will definitely be reviewing your notes regularly. The videos may be old but the knowledge is definitely timeless. Keep up the great work Dr. Jerz :)

Thank you very much for your kind words. I tell my students that their goal should be to demonstrate their ability to make original connections between published experts who disagree with each other. If they develop that skill early in their undergraduate career, then they’ll be prepared to do original work after they’ve gained the foundational knowledge and skills their professors in their major courses want them to learn. You are right that credibility and genuine authority come only with experience, and that they are not the same thing as fame and power. It sounds like you are well on your way to success, Chris!

Actually I’m trying to find an example to under stand the question

Describe a situation in which part of a process description might not be organized chronologically.

That sounds like a homework assignment. If you had made some effort, and asked what I think about your attempt, I might have given you an opinion. If you make no effort at all, and expect me to do all the work for you, I will probably go watch cat videos.

I appreciate to have your opinion

I didn’t create the assignment and I won’t be marking it for you, so I really don’t know what your instructor would consider to be a good example. But if you give me an example, I’m willing to offer my opinion about whether it meets the criteria you describe.

From ISO 9001 Quality Management System point of view, can you give examples or outline of this subject please?

That is a very specific question, that would require me to do some time-consuming work in order to offer a professional answer.

Whether Process description should be written in paragraphwise or in pointwise ?

There is no one correct answer. Can you ask an expert to recommend a particularly well-written process description to use as a model? Does that model use paragraphs or bullets? My students have generally been trained to write in paragraphs, because they are used to writing for teachers who want to teach them how to write paragraphs. I often encourage them to try out bullet points, but that doesn’t mean paragraphs are wrong.

when series of processes are numbered ,it is right to consider it as a process description?

Maybe. I could number a list of “10 ways to make a baby happy,” but that wouldn’t make each item on the list part of a single process.

introduction about acid rain . is that an a sequence of events ?

Yes, it is possible to write a process description about how acid rain is formed and how it impacts the environment. If you focus instead on the chemical composition of acid rain, or you present a debate about what the government and corporations should do about acid rain, or you write a poem about how mad you are about companies that contribute to acid rain, then no.

tnx man . your’e nice

how can you handle the problem of the use of illustration in the description process?

Clifford, if this is a job assignment or homework assignment, whoever assigned the task is your best resource. There is nothing special about the use of an illustration in a description process that does not also apply for using an illustration in any technical document. The general subject of using illustrations is not something I tried to tackle on this short page.

GREAT INFORMATION……AT LAST I HAVE A REPORT…

GREAT INFORMATION….AT LAST, I HAVE A REPORT FOR TECHNICAL WRITTING….

i want to know about the difference between process description, functional description and instruction.. anyone help me?

I could help more if I knew the context for the question, but instructions are a special kind of process description that emphasize what the reader needs to do to make the process happen. You could describe the process of how the body digests an apple, or how a NASA probe tests for life on Mars, or how tectonic plates form mountains and volcanoes, but those would be very different as instructions.

http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/technical-writing/instructions-how-to-write-for-busy-grouchy-people/

A functional description describes how the parts of an object work together to do something useful. This handout on the mechanism description may help.

http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/technical-writing/mechanism-description/

My handouts are just suggestions. If you have been asked to write a document for your workplace, ask someone to show you models of good documents to emulate. If this is for a class, then your instructor or the course textbook are your best resources.

Merhaba. ben türkiyeden bu siteye bakıyorum. fakat bir türlü bulamıyorum. benim paragraflarım var onlari ingilizceye çevirmem gerek ama çeviremiyorum. İngilizceyi daha yeni öğrenmeye başladım. Lütfen cevap verin. Please

Wonderful explaination， thanks！

yah your right!!!

can you give me an example paragraph of a mechanism description and process description?please… thank you so much!

This page does contain a brief example of a process description, as well as a link to a similar page on writing a mechanism description. Any technical writing textbook should contain more detail. Good luck!

mechanism operation and conceptual process are both process descriptions. how are they different? what is the outline that can be used as a guide? kindly answer.. thanks

What is the context for this question? If this is part of a classroom assignment, your instructor and your textbook would be the sources most likely to help your grade. If you are trying to solve.a problem for a client, the subject matter experts and other technical writers who have worked on this problem before will be a better resource.

what is the difference between operation description and mechanism description?

Those terms may have specialized meanings in some fields. In general, I would say a mechanism description describes a thing with many parts, and typically focuses on the relationship of those parts in space. An operation description would focus on time — what conditions are necessary before you start step one, how you know when you are ready to go onto step two, that sort of thing. Beyond that, the answer would depend on the context.

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16.5 Writing Process: Thinking Critically About Text

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Develop a writing project focused on textual analysis.
• Complete the stages of the writing process, including generating ideas, drafting, reviewing, revising, rewriting, and editing.
• Integrate the writer’s ideas with ideas of others.
• Collaborate in the peer review process.

When analyzing a text, writers usually focus on the content of the text itself and deliberately leave themselves in the background, minimizing personal presence and bias. To write this way, they avoid first-person pronouns and value judgments. In reality, of course, writers do reveal their presence by the choices they make: what they include, what they exclude, and what they emphasize. Although your own subjectivity and situation will likely affect your inferences and judgments, recognizing these potential biases will help you keep the focus on your subject and off yourself.

Summary of Assignment

Write an analytical essay about a short story or another short text of your choice, either fiction or literary nonfiction. If desired, you may choose “The Storm” by Kate Chopin, reprinted above. Consider the author’s form and organization, tone, or stylistic choices, including diction and sensory or figurative language. You might also consider the historical or social context, the theme, the character development, or the relation between setting and plot or characterization. If you are free to choose your own text and topic, consider the following approaches:

• Analyze the literary components mentioned and focus your essay on their significance in the work.
• Like student author Gwyn Garrison, choose one or several components and examine how different authors use them and how they relate to broader contexts.

Convincing textual analysis essays usually include the following information:

• overview of the text, identifying author, title, and genre
• very brief summary
• description of the text’s form and structure
• explanation of the author’s point of view
• summary of the social, historical, or cultural context in which the work was written
• assertion or thesis about what the text means: your main task as an analyst

When writing about a novel or short story, explain how the main elements function:

• narrator (who tells the story)
• plot (what happens in the story)
• one or more characters (who are acting or being acted upon)
• setting (when and where things are happening)
• theme (the meaning of the story)

Keep in mind that the author who writes the story is different from the narrator and invented characters in it. Keep in mind, too, that what happens in the story—the plot—is different from the meaning of the story—the theme. Understanding what happens will help you discover what the text means.

The elements of literary or narrative nonfiction are similar to those of a fictional story except that everything in the text is supposed to have really happened. For this reason, the author and the narrator of the story may be one and the same. Informational nonfiction—essays, reports, and textbook chapters—is also meant to be believed; here, however, ideas and arguments must be strong and well supported to be convincing. When analyzing nonfiction, pay special attention to the author’s thesis or claim and to how it is supported through reasoning and evidence. Also note interesting or unusual tone, style, form, or voice.

Another Lens 1. In writing from a personal or subjective viewpoint, the writer and their beliefs and experiences are necessarily part of your analysis and may need to be expressed and examined. For example, you may write subjectively and compare and contrast your situation with that of the author or a character. You might explain how your personal background causes you to read the text in a particular way that is meaningful to you. If you choose this option, be sure to analyze the text as you would for a more objective analysis before focusing on your personal views.

Another Lens 2. A leading contemporary example of narrative nonfiction writing is Jon Krakauer ’s (b. 1954) Into the Wild , the story of Chris McCandless (1968– c. 1992), a young college graduate who lived at subsistence level in the backwoods of Alaska for 113 days. The text is somewhat similar thematically to Henry David Thoreau ’s (1817–1862) Walden (1854), written more than a century earlier and discussed later in this section. Both are about dropping out of society to create a meaningful life. After reading the excerpt of Into the Wild linked above, you may choose to write a textual analysis of it either on its own or in light of the sample analysis of Thoreau’s writings later in this section. Consider comparing and contrasting McCandless’s situation with Thoreau’s life in Walden and how Krakauer and Thoreau use various literary elements in their writing. Topics for analysis might be setting, character traits, motives, cultural communities, historical context, and attitudes toward life and society.

Quick Launch: Start with Your Thesis

For textual analysis, your thesis should be a clear, concise statement that identifies your analytical stance on which readers will expect you to elaborate.

Develop a working thesis

A working thesis is referred to as such because the thesis is subject to revision. You may have to revisit it later in the writing process, for it is almost impossible to craft a thesis without having analyzed some of the text first. Your thesis, therefore, will come from the element(s) you choose to analyze, such as the following:

• an aspect or several aspects of form and structure and their significance
• social, historical, or cultural context in which the text was written and its significance
• style elements such as diction, imagery, or figurative language and their significance
• aspects of characters, plot, or setting
• overall theme of a single work or more than one work
• comparison or contrast of elements within one or more works
• relation to issues outside the text

To develop a working thesis, use the formula shown in Table 16.1 , basing your answers on one of the bulleted items listed above.

You can also start with an analytical question: For what reason(s) does Chopin use linguistic variety? Your initial answer might yield the thesis above. Or you can ask another analytical question, such as this one: In what ways do the plot and setting of “The Storm” reinforce its theme?

Drafting: Explore Possible Areas of Analysis for Fiction: Approach 1

Analytical essays begin by answering basic questions: What genre is this text—poem, play, story, biography, memoir, essay? What is its title? Who is the author? When was it published?

Identify and Summarize the Text

In addition to the basic questions, analytical essays provide a brief summary of the plot or main idea. Summarize briefly, logically, and objectively to provide a background for what you plan to say about the text. This information may be incorporated into the introduction or may follow it.

Explain the Form and Organization

To analyze the organizational structure of a text, ask: How is it put together? Why does the author start here and end there? Why does the author sequence information in this order? What connects the text from start to finish? For example, by repeating words, ideas, and images, writers call attention to these elements and indicate that they are important to the meaning of the text. No matter what the text, some principle or plan holds it together and gives it structure. Fiction and nonfiction texts that tell stories are often, but not always, organized as a sequence of events in chronological order. Poems may have formal structures or other organizational elements. Other texts may alternate between explanations and examples or between first-person and third-person narrative. You will have to decide which aspects of the text’s form and organization are most important for your analysis.

For example, this student analyzes the point of view of Gwendolyn Brooks ’s poem “ We Real Cool .”.

student sample text Gwendolyn Brooks writes “We Real Cool” (1963) from the point of view of members of a street gang who speak as one voice. The boys have dropped out of school to spend their lives hanging around pool halls—in this case “The Golden Shovel.” These guys speak in slangy lingo, such as “Strike straight,” that reveals their need for a melded identity in their rebellious attitude toward life. The plural speaker in the poem, “We,” celebrates what adults might call adolescent hedonism—but the speaker, feeling powerful in the group identity, makes a conscious choice for a short, intense life over a long, safe, and dull existence. end student sample text

Place the Work in Context

To analyze the context of a text, ask: What circumstances (historical, social, political, biographical) produced this text? How does this text compare or contrast with another by the same author or with a similar work by a different author? No text exists in isolation. Each was created by a particular author in a particular place at a particular time. Describing this context provides readers with important background information and indicates which conditions you think were most influential.

For example, this student analyzes the social context of Gwendolyn Brooks ’s poem “We Real Cool.”

student sample text From society’s viewpoint, the boys are nothing but misfits—refusing to work, leading violent lives, breaking laws, and confronting police. However, these boys live in a society that is dangerous for Black men, who often die at the hands of police even when they are doing the right thing. The boys are hopeless, recognizing no future but death, regardless of their actions, and thus “Die soon.” end student sample text

Explain the Theme of the Text

To analyze the theme of a text, determine the implied theme in fiction, poetry, and narrative nonfiction. One purpose for writing a textual analysis is to point out the theme. Ask yourself: So what? What is this text really about? What do I think the author is trying to say by writing this text? What problems, puzzles, or ideas are most interesting? In what ways do the characters change between the beginning and end of the text? Good ideas for a thesis arise from material in which the meaning is not obviously stated.

For example, this student analyzes one theme of Gwendolyn Brooks’s poem “We Real Cool.”

student sample text For the “Seven at the Golden Shovel,” companionship is everything. For many teenagers, fitting in or conforming to a group identity is more important than developing an individual identity. Brooks expresses this theme through the poem’s point of view, the plural “We” repeated at the end of each line. end student sample text

Analyze Stylistic Choices

To analyze stylistic choices, examine the details of the text. Ask yourself: Why does the author use this word or phrase instead of a synonym for it? In what ways does this word or phrase relate to other words or phrases? In what ways do the author’s figurative comparisons affect the meaning or tone of the text? In what ways does use of sensory language (imagery) affect the meaning or tone of the text? In what ways does this element represent more than itself? In what ways does the author use sound or rhythm to support meaning?

For example, this student analyzes the diction of Gwendolyn Brooks’s poem “We Real Cool.”

student sample text Brooks chooses the word cool to open the poem and build the first rhyme. Being cool is the code by which the boys live. However, the word cool also suggests the idiom “to be placed ‘on ice,’” a term that suggests a delay. The boys live in a state of arrested development, anticipating early deaths. In addition, the term to ice someone means “to kill,” another reference to the death imagery at poem’s end. The boys are not suggesting suicide; they expect to be killed by members of society who find them threatening. end student sample text

Support Your Analysis

Analytical interpretations are built around evidence from the text itself. You’ll note the quotations in the examples above. Summarize larger ideas in your own language to conserve space. Paraphrase more specific ideas, also in your own words, and quote directly to feature the author’s diction. See Editing Focus: Paragraphs and Transitions and Writing Process: Integrating Research for more information about summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting directly. If you include outside information for support, comparison, or contrast, document the sources carefully: MLA Documentation and Format .

Use a graphic organizer such as Table 16.2 to gather ideas for drafting.

Drafting: Explore Possible Areas of Analysis for Literary Nonfiction: Approach 2

Although similar to fiction, narrative or literary nonfiction has a basic orientation toward exposition: relating real events in a creative way rather than inventing fictional events and characters. In reading and analyzing expository prose, you also may encounter literary language, narrative structure, characters, setting, theme, and plot development, depending on the type of prose. Therefore, your approach to analyzing nonfiction will call on many of the same strategies you use to analyze fiction. Two basic differences, however, are that literary nonfiction may have less dialogue, depending on the genre, and that the author and narrator may be the same. In other words, no intermediary or artistic filter may exist between the author and the work. The nonfiction author is assumed to be speaking a truth, which may be serious, comic, controversial, or neutral. Fictional characters, on the other hand, are creations of an author’s mind; they think and speak as they were created to do.

Planning the Essay

In writing your essay, you will need to present the same kinds of text evidence as you would when analyzing fiction to give credibility to your claims and to support your thesis. And you’ll need to keep in mind the rhetorical situation—purpose, audience, stance, context, and culture—as well, for it remains the building block of an effective analysis. As in most academic essays, body paragraphs refer to the thesis through topic sentences and move consistently toward supporting it before you finally arrive at a convincing conclusion that has grown out of the analysis. In nonfiction, because you assume you are dealing with a truthful explanation of facts and views, your task should be to give a new view and understanding of something that already may be familiar to readers. In writing your analysis, consider the following plan:

• Begin your analysis of nonfiction with an introductory overview in which you include the work’s genre, title, author, and publication date.
• Identify the literary point of view, if relevant: first person— I or plural we —or third-person— he, she , or they .
• Continue with a brief summary of the work, and place it in context: the work’s social, historical, and cultural background will help readers follow your points about its theme.
• Present your thesis near the end of the introduction. It should be argumentative, in an academic sense, so that you can “prove” your points.
• Support your thesis with well-elaborated body paragraphs, as you do with all thesis-based writing. Include paraphrases, summaries, and quotations from the text (and outside sources, if you do research for the assignment). Body paragraphs support the topic sentences, which in turn support the thesis.
• Conclude by restating your thesis (using different words and an appropriate transition). Add a general statement about the work and its significance or, if applicable, its relation to culture, history, current events, art, or anything else outside it.

Use the applicable suggestions in Table 16.3 in planning your essay :

Literary Nonfiction Model

A frequent theme in literary nonfiction is the examination of alternative ways of living, often solitary and away from society, and finding truth in individualism and self-sufficiency. Although most people live in social groups and willingly accept the identity and security that communities offer, dropping out and going it alone have long been a part of emotional as well as physical life for some.

You have the option to analyze the nonfiction accounts of writers exploring solitary human behavior in American life. If you select Another Lens 2 , you will read an excerpt from the story of Chris McCandless (1968–c. 1992), who chose a brief and uncomfortable solitary existence in Alaska. Or you can read the following section dealing with the works of Henry David Thoreau , the American philosopher and author who dropped out of society temporarily, largely because of his strong opposition to government policies he believed to be morally wrong and because of his refusal to conform to social practices and expectations he found objectionable.

Introduction

Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) is best known as a thinker and writer on nature, as reflected in his two famous works, the highly influential Civil Disobedience (1849) and Walden ; or, Life in the Woods (1854). Both works celebrate individual freedoms: the right to protest against what one believes is morally or ethically wrong and the choice to live as one believes. In describing his life over a period of precisely two years, two months, and two days in a 10-by-15-foot cabin he built on Walden Pond, 20 miles northwest of Boston near Concord, Massachusetts, Thoreau wrote:

public domain text I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately [carefully, unhurried], to front [confront] only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. I did not wish to live what was not life, living is so dear; nor did I wish to practise resignation, unless it was quite necessary. I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life. end public domain text

Thoreau’s insistence on standing by his principles and on living a simple life by choice are two abiding themes in his work. Even before the physical move to Walden, Thoreau had refused to pay his poll tax (granting him the right to vote) for a number of years because he strongly objected to the government’s use of his money to support enslavement and the war with Mexico. He went peacefully to jail as a result, until he was bailed out (the next day). In “Civil Disobedience,” Thoreau advocates for more individual freedom and for individuals to defy unjust laws in nonviolent ways. His writings on “passive resistance” inspired the thoughts and actions of influential figures such as Indian leader Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948), American religious and civil rights leader Martin Luther King , Jr. (1929–1968), and other leaders of nonviolent liberation movements. In Walden , Thoreau describes and advocates for a simple life in which a person breaks with society when they feel the need to express their individualism, often based on ideas others do not share.

These themes are the focus of analysis in the following excerpts from an essay by student Alex Jones for a first-year composition class.

student sample text The Two Freedoms of Henry David Thoreau by Alex Jones end student sample text

student sample text Henry David Thoreau led millions of people throughout the world to think of individual freedom in new ways. During his lifetime he attempted to live free of unjust governmental restraints as well as conventional social expectations. In his 1849 political essay “On the Duty of Civil Disobedience,” he makes his strongest case against governmental interference in the lives of citizens. In his 1854 book Walden; or Life in the Woods , he makes the case for actually living free, as he did in his own life, from social conventions and expectations. end student sample text

annotated text The title clearly identifies Thoreau and sets the expectation that two aspects or definitions of freedom will be discussed in two different works. Alex Jones wants readers to know that millions of people worldwide figure in Thoreau’s legacy. He gives the examples of “unjust governmental restraints” and “conventional social expectations” as the parts of social life Thoreau rejected, thus limiting the scope of the analysis and preparing for the body of the essay. end annotated text

annotated text Jones notes the titles and publication dates of both works and immediately moves ahead to analyze the two works, “Civil Disobedience” first. He will show how this political statement leads to the narrative of Walden , the actual story of a man’s life in temporary exile. end annotated text

student sample text Thoreau opens “Civil Disobedience” with his statement “that government is best which governs not at all.” end student sample text

annotated text The analysis moves immediately to the first work to be discussed and features the memorable quotation regarding a government that does not govern. The statement may seem contradictory, but for Thoreau it is a direct statement in that someone who allows himself to be imprisoned will find freedom by distancing himself from all others to prove his point. end annotated text

student sample text He argues that a government should allow its people to be as free as possible while providing for their needs without interfering in daily life. In other words, in daily life a person attends to the business of eating, sleeping, and earning a living and not dealing in any noticeable way with an entity called “a government.” end student sample text

annotated text Jones repeats “in daily life” to give a rhythm to his own prose and to emphasize the importance to Thoreau of daily activities that are simple and meaningful. The word government is repeated for emphasis as the negative subject of this essay—in literary terms, a powerful and constant antagonist that constrains and disempowers. end annotated text

student sample text Because Thoreau did not want his freedom overshadowed by government regulations, he tried to ignore them. However, the American government of 1845 would not let him. He was arrested and put in the Concord jail for failing to pay his poll tax, a tax he believed unjust because it supported the government’s war with Mexico as well as the immoral institution of slavery. Instead of protesting his arrest, he celebrated it and explained its meaning by writing “Civil Disobedience,” one of the most famous English-language essays ever written. In it, he argues persuasively, “Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison” (230). Thus, the idea of passive resistance—and accepting unjust arrest to make a point—was formed, a doctrine that advocated protest against the government by nonviolent means: end student sample text

student sample text How does it become a man to behave toward this American government today? I answer that he cannot without disgrace be associated with it. I cannot for an instant recognize that political organization as my government which is the slave’s government also. (224) end student sample text

annotated text Jones strengthens his own writing by calling the essay one of the most famous works ever written. This is not an ordinary technique in textual analysis, but when done for emphasis, it helps the analysis gain power. Using “instead of protesting” at the start of his sentence is another example of strong contrast and linkage. end annotated text

student sample text For nearly 200 years, Thoreau’s formulation of passive resistance has been a part of the human struggle for freedom. In fact, it changed the world by inspiring the resistance movements led by Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. end student sample text

annotated text The total effect is to make Jones’s analytical essay more important for readers, as Thoreau’s writings have indeed changed the world despite being written humbly as the voice of one man’s conscience and isolation in his own freedom. end annotated text

student sample text Thoreau also wanted to be free from the everyday pressures to conform to society’s expectations. end student sample text

annotated text Jones transitions from the first short work to the different and equally famous nonfiction narrative Walden , moving smoothly from one freedom to the next with the transition “also wanted.” This second analysis of freedom is the second part of the essay’s thesis. end annotated text

student sample text He believed in doing and possessing only the essential things in life. To demonstrate his case, in 1845, he moved to the outskirts of Concord, Massachusetts, and lived by himself for just over two years in a cabin he built at Walden Pond. Thoreau wrote Walden to explain the value of living simply, far removed from the unnecessary complexity of society: “simplicity, simplicity, simplicity! I say, let your affairs be as two or three, and not a hundred or a thousand” (66). At Walden, he lived as much as possible by this statement, building his own house and furniture, growing his own food, bartering for simple necessities, and attending to his own business rather than seeking employment from others. end student sample text

annotated text Jones uses textual evidence to support his claim. He summarizes Thoreau’s activities at Walden and quotes Thoreau as evidence to reinforce the freedom of mind that simple living allows. end annotated text

student sample text Living at Walden Pond gave Thoreau the chance to formulate many of his ideas about living an unencumbered, economical life. At Walden, he lived simply to “front only the essential facts of life” (66) and to center his thoughts on “living” instead of on unnecessary details of mere livelihood. He developed survival skills that freed him from the constraints of city dwellers whose lives depended upon a web of material things and services provided by others. He preferred to “take rank hold on life and spend my day more as animals do” (117). end student sample text

annotated text Jones uses the poetic language of high rhetoric directly from Thoreau. The body of the essay gives specific evidence of how Thoreau ate, built, read, and provided for his needs, cutting away all but the essential man in the two settings of his life. end annotated text

student sample text While living at Walden Pond, Thoreau was free to occupy his time in any way that pleased him, which for him meant mostly writing and tending his bean patch. The details of his gardening appear frequently, as he concentrated on it during his time there. He wasn’t troubled by a boss hounding him with deadlines or a wife and children who needed his attention. His neighbors accused him of being selfish and did not understand that he sought most of all “to live deliberately” (66), as he felt all people should learn to do. end student sample text

student sample text Then, as now, most people had more responsibilities than Thoreau had and could not just pack up their belongings and go live in the woods—if they could find free woods to live in. Today, people are intrigued to read about Thoreau’s experiences and are inspired by his thoughts, but few people can actually live or do as he suggests. The idea of life without cell phones or Internet seems inconceivable, even if one grows one’s own food and lives mostly off the grid. end student sample text

annotated text The next-to-last paragraph recognizes what could be a counterclaim: not everyone in contemporary times would view living alone for two years as a pleasure. Rather, they might see it as a different kind of prison, perhaps even a dangerous one. Indeed, such deprivation has less appeal these days, and people who do go off by themselves may be seen to have questionable motives. end annotated text

student sample text The theme of exploring how a man lives in or outside governmental control is clear in the choices he must make to define himself as a free person. Nevertheless, practical or not, Thoreau’s writings about freedom from government and society have inspired countless people to reassess how they live their lives. Though unable to live as Thoreau advocated, readers everywhere remain inspired by his ideals and his belief in the two freedoms. end student sample text

annotated text Jones concludes by emphasizing the strength of Thoreau’s ideas—his two freedoms—and the influence they have had in the world. end annotated text

Review the Essay

After reading Alex Jones’s essay, complete the following sentences to review his work:

• He identifies and summarizes the content by ________.
• He describes the form and structure of Thoreau’s works when ________.
• He places Thoreau and his works in context by ________.
• He clearly states his own theme in reading Thoreau, which is ________.
• He indicates Thoreau’s unusual language at times, such as ________.
• He gives supporting evidence for his points, such as ________.
• He includes a visual to ________.
• He concludes with a balanced and convincing viewpoint by ________.

For Reference: excerpt from Walden by Henry David Thoreau from “Where I Lived and What I Lived For”

public domain text When first I took up my abode in the woods, that is, began to spend my nights as well as days there, which, by accident, was on Independence Day, or the Fourth of July, 1845, my house was not finished for winter, but was merely a defense against the rain, without plastering or chimney, the walls being of rough, weather-stained boards, with wide chinks, which made it cool at night. The upright white hewn studs and freshly planed door and window casings gave it a clean and airy look, especially in the morning, when its timbers were saturated with dew, so that I fancied that by noon some sweet gum would exude from them. To my imagination it retained throughout the day more or less of this auroral character, reminding me of a certain house on a mountain which I had visited the year before. This was an airy and unplastered cabin, fit to entertain a travelling god, and where a goddess might trail her garments. The winds which passed over my dwelling were such as sweep over the ridges of mountains, bearing the broken strains, or celestial parts only, of terrestrial music.… end public domain text

public domain text The only house I had been the owner of before, if I except a boat, was a tent, which I used occasionally when making excursions in the summer, and this is still rolled up in my garret; but the boat, after passing from hand to hand, has gone down the stream of time. With this more substantial shelter about me, I had made some progress toward settling in the world. This frame, so slightly clad, was a sort of crystallization around me, and reacted on the builder. It was suggestive somewhat as a picture in outlines. I did not need to go outdoors to take the air, for the atmosphere within had lost none of its freshness. It was not so much within doors as behind a door where I sat, even in the rainiest weather. The Harivansa [important Sanskrit text] says, “An abode without birds is like a meat without seasoning.” Such was not my abode, for I found myself suddenly neighbor to the birds; not by having imprisoned one, but having caged myself near them.… end public domain text

public domain text For the first week, whenever I looked out on the pond it impressed me like a tarn high up on the side of a mountain, its bottom far above the surface of other lakes, and, as the sun arose, I saw it throwing off its nightly clothing of mist, and here and there, by degrees, its soft ripples or its smooth reflecting surface was revealed, while the mists, like ghosts, were stealthily withdrawing in every direction into the woods, as at the breaking up of some nocturnal conventicle. The very dew seemed to hang upon the trees later into the day than usual, as on the sides of mountains. end public domain text

public domain text This small lake was of most value as a neighbor in the intervals of a gentle rain storm in August, when, both air and water being perfectly still, but the sky overcast, mid-afternoon had all the serenity of evening, and the wood-thrush sang around, and was heard from shore to shore. A lake like this is never smoother than at such a time; and the clear portion of the air above it being shallow and darkened by clouds, the water, full of light and reflections, becomes a lower heaven itself so much the more important. From a hill top nearby, where the wood had been recently cut off, there was a pleasing vista southward across the pond, through a wide indentation in the hills which form the shore there, where their opposite sides sloping toward each other suggested a stream flowing out in that direction through a wooded valley, but stream there was none. That way I looked between and over the near green hills to some distant and higher ones in the horizon, tinged with blue. Indeed, by standing on tiptoe I could catch a glimpse of some of the peaks of the still bluer and more distant mountain ranges in the north-west, those true-blue coins from heaven’s own mint, and also of some portion of the village. But in other directions, even from this point, I could not see over or beyond the woods which surrounded me. It is well to have some water in your neighborhood, to give buoyancy to and float the earth. One value even of the smallest well is, that when you look into it you see that earth is not continent but insular. This is as important as that it keeps butter cool. When I looked across the pond from this peak toward the Sudbury meadows, which in time of flood I distinguished elevated perhaps by a mirage in their seething valley, like a coin in a basin, all the earth beyond the pond appeared like a thin crust insulated and floated even by this small sheet of interverting water, and I was reminded that this on which I dwelt was but dry land . end public domain text

public domain text We must learn to reawaken and keep ourselves awake, not by mechanical aids, but by an infinite expectation of the dawn, which does not forsake us in our soundest sleep. I know of no more encouraging fact than the unquestionable ability of man to elevate his life by a conscious endeavor. It is something to be able to paint a particular picture, or to carve a statue, and so to make a few objects beautiful; but it is far more glorious to carve and paint the very atmosphere and medium through which we look, which morally we can do. To affect the quality of the day, that is the highest of arts. Every man is tasked to make his life, even in its details, worthy of the contemplation of his most elevated and critical hour. If we refused, or rather used up, such paltry information as we get, the oracles would distinctly inform us how this might be done. end public domain text

public domain text I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. I did not wish to live what was not life, living is so dear; nor did I wish to practise resignation, unless it was quite necessary. I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life, to live so sturdily and Spartan-like as to put to rout all that was not life, to cut a broad swath and shave close, to drive life into a corner, and reduce it to its lowest terms, and, if it proved to be mean, why then to get the whole and genuine meanness of it, and publish its meanness to the world; or if it were sublime, to know it by experience, and be able to give a true account of it in my next excursion. For most men, it appears to me, are in a strange uncertainty about it, whether it is of the devil or of God, and have somewhat hastily concluded that it is the chief end of man here to “glorify God and enjoy him forever.” end public domain text

public domain text Still we live meanly, like ants; though the fable tells us that we were long ago changed into men; like pygmies we fight with cranes; it is error upon error, and clout upon clout, and our best virtue has for its occasion a superfluous and evitable wretchedness. Our life is frittered away by detail. An honest man has hardly need to count more than his ten fingers, or in extreme cases he may add his ten toes, and lump the rest. Simplicity, simplicity, simplicity! I say, let your affairs be as two or three, and not a hundred or a thousand; instead of a million count half a dozen, and keep your accounts on your thumb nail. In the midst of this chopping sea of civilized life, such are the clouds and storms and quicksands and thousand-and-one items to be allowed for, that a man has to live, if he would not founder and go to the bottom and not make his port at all, by dead reckoning, and he must be a great calculator indeed who succeeds. Simplify, simplify. Instead of three meals a day, if it be necessary eat but one; instead of a hundred dishes… end public domain text

public domain text Why should we live with such… waste of life? We are determined to be starved before we are hungry. Men say that a stitch in time saves nine, and so they take a thousand stitches to-day to save nine to-morrow. end public domain text

Peer Review:

After you have completed your first draft, exchange essays with a partner for peer review. Look at the questions you answered to address the essay about Thoreau. Then, to provide helpful feedback, answer these questions about your peer’s draft.

• Does the introduction include the author, title of the work, publication date, historical context, and a brief summary?
• What is your peer’s main claim, or thesis? Is it clearly stated? If not, how might your peer clarify it?
• Is the thesis effectively supported throughout the essay? How does each paragraph support the thesis? What evidence does each contain? Has the writer included direct quotations, paraphrases, and summary as relevant and convincing support? Is there enough information to sustain the writer’s claims? How might the author improve their support? In working on this section, go through each body paragraph separately for these criteria.
• Does the analysis address counterclaims? If not, how might the writer include them?
• Which sentence or sentences restate the thesis? If a restatement is not there, what might the writer include?

Once you have feedback from a peer, consider their suggestions. Read all comments, and think carefully before making changes.

• Use your discretion . Sometimes writers do not agree with their peers’ suggestions; indeed, authors do not always revise everything suggested by editors. However, it is important to clarify what might have prompted a response from a peer, such as “This seems like more of an unsupported opinion than text-based evidence.” Here you might consider including a source citation either from the text or from an outside resource, or consider further explaining your claim. However, if you think your peer reviewer misinterpreted or read your claim superficially, do not revise it. At all times, though, maintain ownership. It is your paper; you are the ultimate judge of whether the ideas in it represent you and your views. Never include someone else’s idea in your paper if you do not understand it or believe it. Whether or not you decide to revise, be sure to read and consider all suggestions carefully.
• Focus on global suggestions first. Global feedback applies to your entire paper. You may have to revise your topic or thesis so that your paper meets assigned guidelines or does what it should. It is important to revise global feedback first, for these revisions might necessitate changes in content and organization, among other things.
• Complete a close revision. Check your paper to revise for clarity at the sentence level, and double-check citations, if you have them, for accuracy and style.

In Chapter 16, you have learned about the revision process, including how to evaluate suggestions for revision from peer review. In this activity, evaluate each revision suggestion for specificity. A specific suggestion is helpful and easy to implement. A general suggestion is not helpful and should be ignored unless you can go back and ask the reviewer to provide more details. Based on your evaluation, look at each revision suggestion and decide whether to implement or to ignore.

Student Revision Model

Below is a paragraph from the first draft of Gwyn Garrison’s paper. It was reviewed by a peer, who made the suggestions indicated. First, read the draft. Next, read the reviewer’s suggestions and consider whether you would accept or reject each one. Then, read the paragraph as it appears in the final version. After each suggestion, consider why you think Gwyn Garrison accepted or rejected the reviewer’s comment.

Original Draft

student sample text When Calixta acts outside of societal norms, she discovers the freedom of self-expression and passion. Chopin’s diction evokes a spiritual transcendence that allows Calixta to exist momentarily outside social norms that exist only in the physical plane of existence: “when he possessed her, they seemed to swoon at the very borderland of life’s mystery.” The affair becomes a vehicle that allows Calixta to get to a place of true self-expression. The storm, an aspect of nature or the natural world, acts as the catalyst in Calixta’s natural self-realization of womanhood. The storm breaks externally and internally for Calixta. Chopin’s depiction of Calixta’s sexual liberation and fulfillment outside of her marriage is an early step in the fight to bridge the gap between women’s bodies and their sociopolitical lives. By presenting female sexuality in a way that is enlightening rather than degrading, Chopin helps destigmatize labels such as whore, which have been used to shame women for acting outside of traditional gender expectations. end student sample text

Peer Reviewer’s Comments

• A transition would help link this paragraph with the previous one.
• At the beginning of the paragraph, after the first sentence, add a short description or explanation of what is happening in the scene.
• The quotation from the text doesn’t help explain your claim. Anyway, you left out a word.
• Perhaps you could add a quotation about the storm.
• Can you clarify the relationship between the storm and Calixta’s self-realization?

Final Version

student sample text When Calixta acts outside of societal norms, however , she discovers the freedom of self-expression and passion. All of the parts of her womanhood that have no place in the society in which she lives have been repressed until this one moment. In this scene, Chopin takes possession of the term whore and redefines Calixta’s behavior as a transformative awakening. Chopin’s diction evokes a spiritual transcendence that allows Calixta to exist momentarily outside social norms that exist only in the physical plane of existence: “when he possessed her, they seemed to swoon together at the very borderland of life’s mystery.” The affair becomes a vehicle that allows Calixta to get to a place of true self-expression. The storm, an aspect of nature or the natural world, acts as the catalyst in Calixta’s natural self-realization of womanhood. As the storm breaks externally, it also breaks internally for Calixta. Chopin’s depiction of Calixta’s sexual liberation and fulfillment outside of her marriage is an early step in the fight to bridge the gap between women’s bodies and their sociopolitical lives. By presenting female sexuality in a way that is enlightening rather than degrading, Chopin helps destigmatize labels such as whore, which have been used to shame women for acting outside of traditional gender expectations. end student sample text

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How to Write a Process Analysis Essay: Examples & Outline

Process analysis is an explanation of how something works or happens. Want to know more? Read the following article prepared by our custom writing specialists and learn about:

• process analysis and its types
• a process analysis outline tips
• free examples and other tips that might be helpful for your college assignment

So, let’s start digging deeper into this topic!

• ♻ Process Analysis Definition
• ✏️ Process Analysis Types

☑️ How to Write a Process Analysis Essay

• 📑 Examples & Bonus Tips

♻️ What Is Process Analysis?

A process analysis describes and explains the succession of actions, points out a specific result, and provides a detailed plan.

To be more precise, process analysis is targeted at explaining:

• how things work;
• how to do or make something;
• how something operates or happens.

So, if you want to know how an aircraft flies or how to start a business, you need to deal with process analyses that detail these procedures. You might be asking yourself: Are these two processes similar to each other? In fact, they are different. Moreover, there exist other types of processes. That’s why we have united some basic types into categories for your convenience.

Let’s get into the details.

• Processes that are either related to people or performed by them, such as relationships, psychological aspects, or some manuals. These include descriptions of how to overcome depression, work in a team, or change the oil in your car.
• Processes that take place within a society. For example, it can be a description of the electoral process or how the judicial system works.
• Processes that occur in nature. It may be an explanation of cell division, the process of season change, or the life cycle of an organism. Process analysis plays a crucial role in scientific research. It helps to describe complex mechanisms and procedures, leading to advancements in science.
• Processes that are performed by machines. It can be an explanation of how a car engine works or how a helicopter flies.
• documenting knowledge;
• analyzing some separate actions;
• finding problematic issues;
• identifying the options for further improvements.

As you can see, some of these processes just need to be described , while others should be explained . There is a considerable difference between a description and an analysis. If you want to find it out, read the following part of this article.

✏️ Two Types of Process Analysis

As you already know, a process can be either described or explained. Following this, the two types of process analysis are:

• Directive process analysis: a description of a process.
• Informational process analysis: an explanation of how something works.

The primary difference concerns the purpose of these analyses. Now, let’s go into details.

Directive Process Analysis: Examples & Definition

Directive process analysis (also called prescriptive) answers the question of how to do or make something . In other words, it serves as an outline of specific steps a person should take to achieve the desired result. For example, it may be a description of how to plan a party or write a particular essay type (like this article.)

This type of process analysis is used in tutorials, manuals, or policy guides. In most cases, technicians and decision-makers utilize it.

Informational Process Analysis Essay: Examples & Definition

In contrast, an informational process analysis (also called explanatory or descriptive) demonstrates how something works or is done . To be more precise, it presents information about the way some things or phenomena function. For example, it can describe how a disease affects our bodies.

A descriptive analysis consists of two parts:

• data gathering;
• identifying casual relationships.

This combination helps find out the essence of the process.

An informational process analysis may be found in essays, magazine or newspaper articles, or videos. Mostly, students, researchers, or just curious people are interested in this type.

We have talked about the process analysis definition and types. Now, it’s time to find out about a process analysis essay and how to write it correctly. In this section, you will find lots of interesting and helpful information on how to write each part of the essay, some tips on topics selection, and examples.

Process Analysis Essay Outline

Let’s start with the essay structure. Keep in mind that a process analysis should be written in chronological order. If you want your readers to understand the presented process clearly, divide it into stages and then into steps. It will make your essay more coherent.

A process paper outline consists of 4 parts. Here they are:

Process Analysis Essay Topics: How to Choose

Choosing a topic may seem confusing. You have many things you want to talk about, and you simply can’t decide. Sounds familiar? Don’t worry; these tips will help determine what process analysis essay topic to choose.

To select a topic, you need to:

• Analyze your interests and hobbies;
• Choose a process related to your interests;
• Look for something you are familiar with and don’t need any further research;

To sum it up, write about something you like and know about.

How to Start a Process Analysis Essay

You’ve chosen the topic but don’t know how to start writing about it? Don’t worry; we’ve collected the most effective strategies to help you create an excellent introduction.

It’s worth mentioning that your introductory part depends on the type of your process analysis. If it’s a directive essay, you need to explain the process to your readers. If it’s an informational essay, you describe the process.

STEP #1: Start with a definition . It’s necessary to mention the purpose and importance of your paper. The audience should have a meaningful reason for reading your essay.

Writing a perfect essay is easier than you think (directive.)

Stress is one of the reasons for health problems (informational.)

STEP #2: Add some background information . Expand on the details and define the process.  

Baking requires particular skills and time. However, if you do everything correctly, you will get an excellent cake (directive.)

Constant stress exposure leads to the development of various health disorders, resulting in complex treatment (informational).

STEP #3: End your introduction with a thesis statement . Present the steps or stages of the process in one sentence.

To write a perfect essay, one needs to search for information from different sources, analyze the gathered data, and organize the ideas into a coherent text (directive.)

Chronic stress leads to the rise of blood pressure, the release of histamine, and a change of insulin level (informational.)

Just follow these steps to make sure you included all the necessary aspects in your introduction.

Process Analysis Thesis Examples and Tips

A thesis statement is a roadmap of your essay. That’s why it’s important to make it an effective one. Here’s what to keep in mind when writing a powerful thesis.

• Its content. It should contain all the essential information on your topic. A thesis is like a presentation of your paper in one sentence. That’s why you need to be clear and concise. Each of the aspects mentioned in a thesis should be expanded in a body paragraph.

Baking a pie is a simple process as all you need to do is to mix all the products, prepare the filling, and bake the combined ingredients in the oven.

When you see such a thesis, you understand that the paper will be about baking a pie rather than changing a tire.

• The number of parts. In fact, a process analysis thesis consists of two parts: the main point and the organizational format. The first element focuses on the purpose of the thesis. It’s worth mentioning that the content of the second part depends on the type of your process analysis essay.
• Its place in the text. Your thesis should be situated at the end of your introduction. To be more precise, it’s the last sentence of this part. In such a way, our audience will get a hint about the content of the following body paragraphs.

Feel free to check out the additional tips below. They will make your thesis perfect.

• Make it an affirmative sentence . Don’t write your thesis in the form of a question. This statement should be the answer to the question of the audience.
• Try to make it emphatic . Don’t start your thesis with trite phrases such as   “this essay will explain,” “I will inform you about,” or “I will describe.”
• Add more aspects if necessary.  For example, the thesis may state the inefficiency or unfairness of the process in question.

Process Analysis: Paragraphs for the Main Body

Similar to a thesis statement, the content and structure of the main body depend on your essay type. We have prepared several useful strategies for both types.

Informational Process Analysis: Body Paragraphs

Directive process analysis: body paragraphs, transition words for process essay & examples.

Each process has a beginning, a middle part, and an ending. To present a process analysis, divide it into meaningful parts and organize them properly. The readers should always have a clear understanding of a succession of actions.

That’s why you need to use transitional words. They can help the readers follow the text. We have prepared a list of transition words with some examples. Check it out below.

Process Essay Conclusion Writing Strategies

Finally, we get to the concluding part and how it should be arranged. Here are some helpful strategies for you to write an effective conclusion.

• Briefly summarize all the information you mentioned in your body paragraphs.
• Don’t introduce any new details. This part intends to conclude the essay.
• Paraphrase your thesis statement.
• Relate your conclusion with the introduction. There should be a logical ending for your essay. Sum up the information presented in all the parts of your paper.

To conclude, stress produces a negative effect on health. That’s why you should do something to reduce its impact. Include meditation and yoga in your daily routine. Don’t forget to have enough sleep. If you follow all these recommendations, your mental and physical health will improve very soon.

📑 Process Paragraphs Examples & Bonus Tips

We have already composed the process analysis essay. Now you know what to include and what to pay attention to while writing such a type of essay. However, we would like to share a list of some additional tips with you. They will help you to look at your paper from different angles and make it perfect.

Bonus tips:

• Consider the tone of your writing. Try to sound as professional as possible.
• Don’t forget about the formal style. Avoid writing in 1 st person. Instead, use the 2nd person in directive and the 3rd person in informational process analyses:
• You can interrupt the chronology of your process description. Sometimes, it’s essential to specify the terms or concepts, show how the preceding and following steps are connected, or clarify why it’s necessary to do some steps simultaneously.
• Give your readers a specific reason to care about your essay. Before writing your thesis statement, ask yourself: Why do people need to know about this process? The thesis should reflect the answer to this question.

Finally, we would like to present you with a process analysis essay example. Pay attention to the contents of each essay part:

Below, you can find even more process analysis essay samples. Make sure to check them out to get some inspiration for your paper.

• A Medical Committee’s Group Process Analysis
• How to Groom Your Pet Dog: Process Analysis
• Agency Supervisory Process Analysis
• Passing a Test: Process Analysis

Process Analysis Essay Topics

• Analysis of engineering process.  
• Steps to successful aging.  
• Analysis of quality improvement process. 
• The process of data analysis . 
• How to lose weight .  
• Process of selecting a suitable theory or model in health intervention. 
• The important steps of images processing. 
• Strategic planning process analysis: stakeholders and initial agreement guidelines. 
• How to write: process analysis. 
• Steps for maintaining your mental health during pandemic.  
• Process for financial accounting cycle .
• Steps for creating a realistic buyer persona.
• How to make a final decision .
• Stages of problem-solving strategy . 
• The risk management in healthcare : process analysis. 
• How to organize a group: stages.
• Describe the contingency planning process. 
• Steps to planning a career.  
• Enhancing wireless network performance: process analysis. 
• How to cope with grief: five stages theory .  
• Process for conflict resolving .  
• How to analyze a primary source.  
• Communication problems at workplace: stages analysis.  
• How to conduct sociological research . 
• Process of prenatal development : main stages. 
• Stages of developing a new product . 
• Clear steps to conducting community-based research . 
• Making a dental public health policy : process analysis. 
• Conducting a utility test : process analysis. 
• The key steps to facilitate parent participation process.  
• The implementation plan for treating patients with cancer. 
• Discuss the steps of buying a product . 
• Describe the process of business development .  
• Analyze the brewery process . 
• Cognitive development of children: process analysis. 
• Describe the stages of different types of interviews . 
• Analyze the process of employees’ talents development. 
• How to buy a used motorcycle . 
• Steps to making ethical decision.  
• Analyze the ways of managing s diverse international team.  
• Process analysis for proper teeth cleaning.  
• Describe the steps of project management .  
• Four stages of business development .  
• How to cope with distress in nursing.  
• External auditing process analysis. 
• Analyze the stages of Alzheimer’s disease.  

We hope you find our article useful and apply these strategies to your process analysis essay. We wish you success with all your future assignments.

Further reading:

• Case Study Analysis: Examples + How-to Guide & Writing Tips
• How to Write a Visual Analysis Essay: Examples & Template
• How to Write a Film Analysis Essay: Examples, Outline, & Tips
• How to Write a Literary Analysis Essay Step by Step

🔍 References

• Process Analysis: The University of Toledo
• Business Process Analysis: UNICE
• Process Analysis: University of Minnesota Twin Cities
• Informative Process Analysis: Saint Leo University
• How to Write a Thesis for Process Analysis Essay: Seattle PI
• Informative Process Analysis: Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
• Introductions and Conclusions: University of Toronto
• Process Description: How to Write about a Sequence of Events: Seton Hill University
• Essay Introductions: University of Maryland
• Essay Structure: Harvard University
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Writing Academic Essays: Tips and Support: Informative Process Analysis

• Informative Process Analysis
• Cause and Effect Essay
• Compare and Contrast Essay
• Argumentative Essay
• Newspapers, Databases & Articles
• MLA Help, Grammar and Writing

More handouts for further help

Please see your syllabus for due dates for this essay. All essays will be turned in to the dropbox.

• Process Writing Print these tips to get you started.
• Process Reading Professional Example A great essay about writing a personal letter.

Module 2 Essay Notes

INFORMATIVE Process Analysis Essay.

Process analysis =  sequence of related events to explain how things work/ how things happen .

Directive process analysis =  how to do something step-by-step; directions for completing work (to make something). Examples: recipes, model kits, sewing patterns, etc.

***Informative process analysis*** = how something works. Examples: how to make a relationship that lasts; how to lose a guy in 10 days; how to be happy in life. Textbook example = how a zamboni works.

Topics : Should be something you know and do not have to research. A good way to find topics are to look at your hobbies, interests, and strengths. For example, you may wish to talk about how an oven works; how an internet search engine or face recognition works; or how a 2-year old child works!

Be sure you present the information chronologically (in time order). There are also many other ideas to think about before you start writing:

• Are you trying to persuade? Inform? (Yes, definitely.)
• Entertain? You may do more than one of these, by the way, but as per the title of the assignment, you MUST inform!
• your tone should always be professional - i t should not read like a text message, email, or letter to friend.
• For example, "Kids usually," "Fishermen often," or "Parents must.

The following information is true for all writing, but here it is again so you can refresh your memory.

Your introduction should:

• grab the reader's attention using some interesting facts or statistics or tell a story.
• include your thesis at the end of the first paragraph.

Your thesis:

• should introduce the process you will be explaining.
• will explain why the information given in your paper is important to know and understand.

Your conclusion should:

• restate the thesis, but not word-for-word.
• circle back to your introduction. In other words, if you told a story, finish that story here. If you cited a statistic, give another similar statistic here that makes better sense with the new information from the paper that has been given.
• it should not introduce any new ideas.
• Next: Cause and Effect Essay >>
• Last Updated: May 28, 2024 4:38 PM
• URL: https://slulibrary.saintleo.edu/essays_writing

Trump guilty, now what? Why the verdict isn't the most shocking part of the trial

The most shocking thing about the first-ever criminal trial of a former U.S. president may not be the guilty verdict that a New York jury delivered Thursday afternoon.

It's this: It is possible, even probable, that one of the most momentous trials in American history won't end up affecting American history − at least not in time to reshape the presidential campaign in which Donald Trump is all−but-guaranteed to be the Republican nominee.

"Unprecedented" − admittedly an overworked word since Trump announced his first presidential campaign nine years ago − undeniably applies. The 45th president of the United States is now a convicted felon.

In a hushed courtroom, the jury foreperson read their unanimous conclusion.

Count 1: Guilty.

Prep for the polls: See who is running for president and compare where they stand on key issues in our Voter Guide

Count 2: Guilty.

Count 3: Guilty.

Count 4: Guilty.

Count 5: Guilty.

And so, it went through all 34 counts: Guilty. Guilty. Guilty. Convicted of falsifying business records to cover up hush money payments to a porn star, part of an effort to affect the outcome of the 2016 election. The jury of seven men and five women dismissed the protestations of innocence from a defendant who once lived in the White House and has a realistic possibility of moving back in.

Judge Juan Merchan set sentencing for July 11, four days before the Republican National Convention begins in Milwaukee. None of the other three criminal cases against Trump is likely to go to trial before the November election.

"The FIX was always in..." Trump's campaign manager, Chris LaCivita, posted instantly on the social-media platform known as X, formerly called Twitter. Florida Sen. Marco Rubio, on the list of Trump's potential running mates, declared, "The verdict in New York is a complete travesty that makes a mockery of our system of justice," calling it "a political show trial."

A seething Trump, his face flushed, used the word "rigged" five times when he briefly addressed reporters outside the courtroom.

"This is far from over," he declared looking ahead to Election Day, now less than six months away. Calling it a "rigged, disgraceful trial," Trump said "the real verdict is going to be Nov. 5 by the people who know what happened here."

He blamed, without evidence, that President Biden had orchestrated a politically motivated prosecution.

Trump announced his determination to appeal, a process that will have to unfold before he could conceivably be sent to jail or be fined.

Even so, the unanimous verdict by 12 citizens, a decision that took them less than 12 hours of deliberation to reach, surely carried a certain force. For Trump, the conviction immediately became his leading grievance. "I'm a political prisoner!" he declared on Truth Social, asking for campaign contributions.

For Biden, it just as quickly became a rallying cry.

"There's only one way to keep Donald Trump out of the Oval Office: At the ballot box," the president, who generally shied from commenting on the trial while it was going on, posted on X.

Biden coupled it with an appeal for campaign contributions, too.

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Forensic lab making 'significant process' with Tulsa Race Massacre DNA analysis

by CJ Maclin

Tulsa, Okla. (KTUL) — Intermountain Forensics is assisting the city of Tulsa with DNA analysis for the Tulsa Massacre identification investigation.

According to both parties, they are making significant progress with help from the public, but they need more DNA from descendants to identify bodies from over a century ago.

“We have to have enough additional DNA comparison from the descendants. We need a lot of DNA comparisons right. A lot,” said the Director of Forensic Investigative Genetic Genealogy, Alison Wilde.

The 103rd anniversary of the 1921 Tulsa massacre is slowly approaching and as it inches closer, the city of Tulsa is continuing their search for relatives and victims from the world’s largest massacre.

Intermountain Forensics says they have successfully generated 8 usable forensic genealogy profiles from the Oaklawn cemetery excavations.

But now, they need more help from descendants to push that envelope even further.

“Anyone that takes the consumer DNA test can put their information in a number of different places, said Wilde. So that they can work on their own family history and find their own living DNA relatives; their cousins; and connect with family that way. Two of those databases allow comparisons for projects like this; that are seeking to identify human remains. Those databases are Jed match and family tree DNA.”

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As Intermountain Forensics continues to search for answers, they identified two additional genealogy profiles from previous exhumed burials.

Alison also said that they get about 5-10 people who reach out to them after surnames are released in a local news story.

But a question many Oklahomans want to know.

How close are they to identifying bodies from the Tulsa Massacre that happened over a century ago?

“If we had contact with every individual that we are seeking to make contact right now with DNA comparisons, said Wilde. From every person that we are hoping to compare DNA with; we would already have identifications now. I’m confident of that.”

Alison continued to echo that their genealogy is working and it’s going to take some time because they are connecting the DNA profiles who are generations away from one another.

Here is the full list of the updated surnames and more information on how to help the 1921 Graves investigation.

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Exploring Students’ Generative AI-Assisted Writing Processes: Perceptions and Experiences from Native and Nonnative English Speakers

• Original research
• Open access
• Published: 30 May 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Chaoran Wang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4140-2757 1  

Generative artificial intelligence (AI) can create sophisticated textual and multimodal content readily available to students. Writing intensive courses and disciplines that use writing as a major form of assessment are significantly impacted by advancements in generative AI, as the technology has the potential to revolutionize how students write and how they perceive writing as a fundamental literacy skill. However, educators are still at the beginning stage of understanding students’ integration of generative AI in their actual writing process. This study addresses the urgent need to uncover how students engage with ChatGPT throughout different components of their writing processes and their perceptions of the opportunities and challenges of generative AI. Adopting a phenomenological research design, the study explored the writing practices of six students, including both native and nonnative English speakers, in a first-year writing class at a higher education institution in the US. Thematic analysis of students’ written products, self-reflections, and interviews suggests that students utilized ChatGPT for brainstorming and organizing ideas as well as assisting with both global (e.g., argument, structure, coherence) and local issues of writing (e.g., syntax, diction, grammar), while they also had various ethical and practical concerns about the use of ChatGPT. The study brought to front two dilemmas encountered by students in their generative AI-assisted writing: (1) the challenging balance between incorporating AI to enhance writing and maintaining their authentic voice, and (2) the dilemma of weighing the potential loss of learning experiences against the emergence of new learning opportunities accompanying AI integration. These dilemmas highlight the need to rethink learning in an increasingly AI-mediated educational context, emphasizing the importance of fostering students’ critical AI literacy to promote their authorial voice and learning in AI-human collaboration.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

The rapid development of large language models such as ChatGPT and AI-powered writing tools has led to a blend of apprehension, anxiety, curiosity, and optimism among educators (Warner, 2022 ). While some are optimistic about the opportunities that generative AI brings to classrooms, various concerns arise especially in terms of academic dishonesty and the biases inherent in these AI tools (Glaser, 2023 ). Writing classes and disciplines that use writing as a major form of assessment, in particular, are significantly impacted. Generative AI has the potential to transform how students approach writing tasks and demonstrate learning through writing, thus impacting how they view writing as an essential literacy skill. Educators are concerned that when used improperly, the increasingly AI-mediated literacy practices may AI-nize students’ writing and thinking.

Despite the heated discussion among educators, there remains a notable gap in empirical research on the application of generative AI in writing classrooms (Yan, 2023 ) and minimal research that systematically examines students’ integration of AI in their writing processes (Barrot, 2023a ). Writing–an activity often undertaken outside the classroom walls–eludes comprehensive observation by educators, leaving a gap in instructors’ understandings of students’ AI-assisted writing practices. Furthermore, the widespread institutional skepticism and critical discourse surrounding the use of generative AI in academic writing may deter students from openly sharing their genuine opinions of and experiences with AI-assisted writing. These situations can cause disconnect between students’ real-life practices and instructors’ understandings. Thus, there is a critical need for in-depth investigation into students’ decision-making processes involved in their generative AI-assisted writing.

To fill this research gap, the current study explores nuanced ways students utilize ChatGPT, a generative AI tool, to support their academic writing in a college-level composition class in the US. Specifically, the study adopts a phenomenological design to examine how college students use ChatGPT throughout the various components of their writing processes such as brainstorming, revising, and editing. Using sense-making theory as the theoretical lens, the study also analyzes students’ perceived benefits, challenges, and considerations regarding AI-assisted academic writing. As writing is also a linguistic activity, this study includes both native and non-native speaking writers, since they may have distinct needs and perspectives on the support and challenges AI provides for writing.

2 Literature Review

2.1 ai-assisted writing.

Researchers have long been studying the utilization of AI technologies to support writing and language learning (Schulze, 2008 ). Three major technological innovations have revolutionized writing: (1) word processors, which represented the first major shift from manual to digital writing, replacing traditional typewriters and manual editing processes; (2) the Internet, which introduced web-based platforms, largely promoting the communication and interactivity of writing; and (3) natural language processing (NLP) and artificial intelligence, bringing about tools capable of real-time feedback and content and thinking assistance (Kruse et al., 2023 ). These technologies have changed writing from a traditionally manual and individual activity into a highly digital nature, radically transforming the writing processes, writers’ behaviors, and the teaching of writing. This evolution reflects a broader need towards a technologically sophisticated approach to writing instruction.

AI technologies have been used in writing instruction in various ways, ranging from assisting in the writing process to evaluating written works. One prominent application is automatic written evaluation (AWE), which comprises two main elements: a scoring engine producing automatic scores and a feedback engine delivering automated written corrective feedback (AWCF) (Koltovskaia, 2020 ). Adopting NLP to analyze language features, diagnose errors, and evaluate essays, AWE was first implemented in high-stakes testing and later adopted in writing classrooms (Link et al., 2022 ). Scholars have reported contrasting findings regarding the impact of AWE on student writing (Koltovskaia, 2020 ). Barrot ( 2023b ) finds that tools offering AWCF, such as Grammarly, improves students’ overall writing accuracy and metalinguistic awareness, as AWCF allows students to engage with self-directed learning about writing via personalized feedback. Thus the system can contribute to classroom instruction by reducing the burden on teachers and aiding students in writing, revision, and self-learning (Almusharraf & Alotaibi, 2023 ). However, scholars have also raised concerns regarding its accuracy and its potential misrepresentation of the social nature of writing (Shi & Aryadoust, 2023 ). Another AI application that has been used to assist student writing is intelligent tutoring system (ITS). Research shows that ITS could enhance students’ vocabulary and grammar development, offer immediate sentence- and paragraph-level suggestions, and provide insights into students’ writing behaviors (Jeon, 2021 ; Pandarova et al., 2019 ). Scholars also investigate chatbots as writing partners for scaffolding students’ argumentative writing (Guo et al., 2022 ; Lin & Chang, 2020 ) and incorporating Google’s neural machine translation system in second language (L2) writing (Cancino & Panes, 2021 ; Tsai, 2019 ).

Research suggests that adopting AI in literacy and language education has advantages such as supporting personalized learning experiences, providing differentiated and immediate feedback (Huang et al., 2022 ; Bahari, 2021 ), and reducing students’ cognitive barriers (Gayed et al., 2022 ). Researchers also note challenges such as the varied level of technological readiness among teachers and students as well as concerns regarding accuracy, biases, accountability, transparency, and ethics (e.g., Kohnke et al., 2023 ; Memarian & Doleck, 2023 ; Ranalli, 2021 ).

2.2 Integrating Generative AI into Writing

With sophisticated and multilingual language generation capabilities, the latest advancements of generative AI and large language models, such as ChatGPT, unlock new possibilities and challenges. Scholars have discussed how generative AI can be used in writing classrooms. Tseng and Warschauer ( 2023 ) point out that ChatGPT and AI-writing tools may rob language learners of essential learning experiences; however, if banning them, students will also lose essential opportunities to learn how to use AI in supporting their learning and their future work. They suggest that educators should not try to “beat” but rather “join” and “partner with” AI (p. 1). Barrot ( 2023a ) and Su et al. ( 2023 ) both review ChatGPT’s benefits and challenges for writing, pointing out that ChatGPT can offer a wide range of context-specific writing assistance such as idea generation, outlining, content improvement, organization, editing, proofreading, and post-writing reflection. Similar to Tseng and Warschauer ( 2023 ), Barrot ( 2023a ) is also concerned about students’ learning loss due to their use of generative AI in writing and their over-reliance on AI. Moreover, Su et al. ( 2023 ) specifically raise concerns about the issues of authorship and plagiarism, as well as ChatGPT’s shortcomings in logical reasoning and information accuracy.

Among the existing empirical research, studies have explored the quality of generative AI’s feedback on student essays in comparison to human feedback. Steiss et al. ( 2024 ) analyzed 400 feedback instances—half generated by human raters and half by ChatGPT—on the same essays. The findings showed that human raters provided higher-quality feedback in terms of clarity, accuracy, supportive tone, and emphasis on critical aspects for improvement. In contrast, AI feedback shone in delivering criteria-based evaluations. The study generated important implications for balancing the strengths and limitations of ChatGPT and human feedback for assessing student essays. Other research also examined the role of generative AI tools in L1 multimodal writing instruction (Tan et al., 2024 ), L1 student writers’ perceptions of ChatGPT as writing partner and AI ethics in college composition classes (Vetter et al., 2024 ), and the collaborative experience of writing instructors and students in integrating generative AI into writing (Bedington et al., 2024 ).

Specifically with regard to classroom-based research in L2 writing, Yan ( 2023 ) examined the use of ChatGPT through the design of a one-week L2 writing practicum at a Chinese university. Analyzing eight students’ classroom behaviors, learning logs, and interviews, the study showed that the use of generative AI helped L2 learners write with fewer grammatical errors and more lexical diversity. The study also found that the students’ biggest concerns were the threat to academic honesty and educational equity. This study is a pioneer in exploring students’ strategies and engagement with ChatGPT in writing; however, it was only conducted through a one-week practicum which did not involve authentic writing assignment tasks. Furthermore, students’ use of ChatGPT was limited to editing AI-generated texts instead of incorporating AI in a wider range of writing activities such as pre-writing and revising human generated texts. In another study by Han et al. ( 2023 ), the authors designed a platform that integrated ChatGPT to support L2 writers in improving writing quality in South Korea. Analyzing 213 students’ interaction data with the platform, survey results, as well as a focus group interview with six students and one instructor, the study found that the students generally held positive experiences with ChatGPT in supporting their academic writing. Although the study undertook a more extensive investigation involving a larger poll of participants with authentic writing assignments, it only explored generative AI’s role as a revision tool without examining its use across various stages of writing. Furthermore, participants in this study were tasked with engaging with a ChatGPT embedded platform of predefined prompts designed by the researchers. Consequently, how students interact with ChatGPT in natural settings remains largely unknown for researchers and educators.

2.3 Writing Process

Since the early 1980s until now, scholars have proposed various writing process models (e.g., Abdel Latif, 2021 ; Flower & Hayes, 1981 ; Hayes, 2012 ; Kellogg, 1996 ), yet they are still trying to form a complete understanding of composing processes. Despite the distinct specific aspects that different models highlight in the writing process, they all negate writing as a linear, sequential process of simply a text generation labor, but emphasize the non-linear and recursive nature of the writing process. Abdel Latif ( 2021 ) noted that various components of writing process such as ideational planning, searching for content, and revising interact with each other, and that both novice and experienced writers employ all of the components but with varying degrees and strategies. For instance, skilled writers refine and revise their ideas during writing, whereas novice writers mostly engage in sentence level changes such as fixing grammatical and lexical issues (e.g., Khuder & Harwood, 2015 ). For L2 students, writing can be very complex and cognitively daunting (Mohsen, 2021 ) due to reasons including but not limited to linguistic barriers (Johnson, 2017 ). Furthermore, writing is more than a cognitive process, it is also a social, cultural, and situated activity. For instance, the concept of plagiarism may carry different meanings and consequences across different cultural contexts. Thus, writing should be investigated in consideration of its dynamic interplay with institutional, cultural, and technological factors (Atkinson, 2003 ).

Considering the intricate nature of writing as a cognitive and social activity, it is thus important to investigate how generative AI may impact the different components of students’ writing processes. However, there is still a substantial gap in knowledge and research about students’ real-world integration of AI into their writing workflows, their decision-making processes, and the rationale behind their decision making while they interact with generative AI and utilize the technology in their writing in formal educational settings. While previous studies shed light on the impacts of generative AI on English writing, empirical classroom-based research remains limited. To further understand how students, both L1 and L2 writers, engage with generative AI in real-life classroom contexts, with authentic writing tasks, and throughout their various processes of writing, the current study thus undertook a naturalistic, exploratory direction that focused on how college students utilized ChatGPT in a first-year writing class in the US. Understanding and unpacking students’ AI-assisted writing processes could help educators better adjust their pedagogy in the face of the growing AI influences. The following research questions guided the present study:

How do students utilize ChatGPT in their writing processes?

How do student writers perceive the benefits of integrating ChatGPT into their writing?

What concerns and limitations do students experience when using ChatGPT to assist with their writing?

What considerations do students identify as important when engaging in generative AI-assisted writing?

3 Theoretical Framework

This study adopts sensemaking theory as its theoretical lens. Sensemaking has been conceptualized as the process through which individuals make meaning from ambiguous and puzzling situations that happen in their experience (Golob, 2018 ). Some scholars view sensemaking as a cognitive process of managing and processing information. This perspective focuses on the cognitive strategies employed in connecting and utilizing information to achieve the purpose of explaining the world (Klein et al., 2006 ). Alternatively, a socio-cultural orientation towards sensemaking regard it as construction of collective identity through an individual’s ongoing interactions with the educational context (Weick, 2005 ). Poquet ( 2024 ) integrates these two theoretical orientations, proposing that sensemaking encompasses both the individual and the collective, drawing attention to how learners explain the cognitive aspects of their learning as well as the social and cultural factors shape their learning experiences.

According to Poquet ( 2024 ), there are three components of the sensemaking process: (1) An individual’s understanding of the activity, available tools, and the situation is the antecedent of sensemaking. (2) Noticing and perceiving constitute the process of sensemaking per se. Noticing involves the identification of salient features of the tool(s) for the activity, while perceiving goes beyond noticing through making sense of the observed, taking into account contextual factors such as learner characteristics and the type of activity undertaken. Perceiving leads to the formulation of meaning and potential implications of what is noticed, playing a critical role in decision-making and action. (3) Outcomes of sensemaking may range from perceived affordances of tools for the activity to casual explanations for the observed phenomena. As defined by Poquet ( 2024 ), sensemaking involves learners crafting explanations for unclear situations through dynamically connecting information within the context of a specific activity. Essentially, sensemaking is both an intentional and intuitive process shaped by how learners understand their environment and their role within it.

Because sensemaking theories aim to examine people’s meaning-making, acting, and experience in “unknown,” “less deliberate,” and “more intuitive” situations (Poquet, 2024 , p. 5), it well aligns with the purpose of this study which is to form an emergent understanding of a less known situation given the relatively new phenomenon of generative AI-assisted writing practices among college students. Adopting a sensemaking lens helps to understand how students make sense of generative AI, how they perceive its affordances, what strategies they develop to use it to assist with their writing, what puzzling experiences they may have, and how they make decisions in those puzzling situations. The dual focus of the cognitive and the social is critical when examining how students engage with and perceive the AI technology and how they negotiate these perceptions and experiences within the learning communities of higher education. Sensemaking theory can also capture the range of individual experiences and shared interpretations among them, elucidating how they deal with uncertainty and make judgments generative AI usage.

4 Research Design

This qualitative study adopted a phenomenological research design, which focuses on understanding and interpreting a particular aspect of shared human experience (Moran, 2002 ; Smith, 1996 ). Phenomenology seeks to form a close and clear account of people’s perceptions and lived experiences as opposed to delivering a positivist conclusion of human encounters, as “pure experience is never accessible” (Smith et al., 2009 , p. 33). In the present study, as there is limited understanding of students’ engagement with ChatGPT in their writing process, a phenomenological lens could help capture participants’ own sense making of their AI-assisted writing experiences.

4.1 Context and Participants

The study took place in spring 2023 at a higher education institution in the US. I chose to focus on first-year writing as the study setting, as it is a required course in most colleges and universities, thus a typical writing and learning context for most college students. First-year writing serves as the foundation for cultivating academic writing skills, with the aim of developing students’ essential literacy and writing proficiency needed for their undergraduate learning experiences. The 14-week course focused on English academic reading, writing, and critical thinking and consisted of three major units.

This study focused on the last unit, which was about argumentative writing, a common type of academic essay writing (American Psychological Association, 2020 ). The final essay asked students to form an argumentative response to a research question of their own choice. The unit, lasting for three weeks, was structured as follows (see Fig.  1 ): During the first week, the instructor spent two classes, each for 75 min, introducing ChatGPT (GPT 3.5) as a large language model and inviting students to explore ChatGPT as a tool for writing. The instructor carefully chose and assigned five readings that allowed the students to grasp the ongoing academic and public debates and concerns regarding the use of ChatGPT in writing and educational settings. During the class sessions, students participated in various activities exploring the functionalities of ChatGPT, discussed ethics and academic integrity, and critiqued AI-generated writing. As part of the discussions on ethics, the instructor explicitly addressed academic integrity issues drawing upon both the writing program’s guidelines and the institution’s academic integrity policies to ensure that the students were aware of and committed to ethical use of generative AI in the writing class. During the second week, students learned various strategies for integrating sources in academic writing and practiced ways of using sources to build arguments. During the last week, students spent time peer reviewing each other’s work and met with the instructor individually to improve their drafts.

Unit design with key topics and learning tasks over the three weeks

The final essay allowed but did not mandate students to use ChatGPT. For those who used ChatGPT and AI writing tools, disclosure and transparency about how AI was used were required as part of the submission to the assignment. The instructor left using AI in their final essay as an open option to the students themselves, ensuring that students could pursue the option that works best for their individual needs. Thus the unit provided various opportunities and flexibility for planning, researching, drafting, reviewing, and editing with ChatGPT throughout students’ writing process.

There were 11 students, all freshmen, enrolled in the class. All but one reported using ChatGPT in their writing. Six students were recruited based on their willingness to participate and the diversity of their first language to ensure a balanced coverage. Table 1 shows the demographic information of the students (with pseudonyms).

4.2 Data Collection

Aligned with an interpretive phenomenological design that focuses on exploring participants’ lived experiences and how they construct meaning of their own experiences (Smith & Shinebourne, 2012 ), I collected three major types of data in order to uncover the students’ writing processes involving ChatGPT and their perceptions. First, I collected students’ written products and artifacts such as in-class writing, screenshots of students’ conversations with ChatGPT, informal short writing assignments, and the formal writing assignments for the final argumentative essay. Second, I collected students’ written self-reflections about their use of ChatGPT in writing. Finally, the participants were interviewed for around 30–40 min, and all interviews were audio-recorded. These semi-structured interviews were developed around students’ former experiences with ChatGPT, their views of the tool, and the ways they utilized ChatGPT for their writing assignments in this class.

Students’ conversational screenshots with ChatGPT and their in-class and outside class writing drafts could demonstrate their interactions with AI as well as the changes they made upon contemplating the responses from the chatbot. The interviews and students’ self-reflections could further shed light on their perceptions and decision-making. Multiple sources of data helped to understand students’ behaviors, perceptions, and engagement with AI during different stages of writing. Triangulation of the data also helped me to understand students’ rationale for and practices of integrating, discounting, and reflecting on the chatbot’s output into their writing.

It is important to note that a phenomenological qualitative research design like this aims to provide in-depth understanding and insights into participants’ experiences. The context of the study—a first year writing class—and the specific type of assignment investigated are both common scenarios in college classrooms, thereby enhancing the study’s relevance despite its limited sample size and scale. Furthermore, the incorporation of data collected from multiple and diverse sources for triangulation adds to insights into participants’ experiences, which helps strengthen the credibility of the study.

4.3 Data Analysis

Thematic analysis (Creswell, 2017 ) was used to analyze the written drafts and transcriptions of interview data as it is commonly used in qualitative studies to identify patterns across various types of data (Lapadat, 2012 ). While transcribing all the interview data verbatim into written scripts, I took notes with the research questions in mind. Then I organized and read through the various types of written data to get familiar with and form a holistic impression of participants’ perceptions and experiences of AI-assisted writing. The coding, conducted on Nvivo, a qualitative data analysis software, followed an inductive and iterative process. During the first cycle of coding, I reviewed the data line-by-line and applied in vivo coding to generate initial, descriptive codes using participants’ voices (Saldaña, 2016 ). For the second cycle, I identified patterns across the in vivo codes and synthesized them into 20 pattern codes (Saldaña, 2016 ). During the third cycle, I clustered and grouped the pattern codes into four emerging themes. To finalize and refine the themes, I double checked themes, codes, and the supporting data guided by the research questions. Table 2 shows the themes and pattern codes. To ensure the trustworthiness of the qualitative analysis, I also conducted a peer debriefing (Lincoln & Guba, 1985 ) on the codebook with an experienced qualitative researcher. Furthermore, member check was also conducted with each participant via email to minimize the possible misinterpretations of their perceptions and experiences.

5.1 How Do Students Utilize ChatGPT in Their Writing Processes?

The students reported using ChatGPT throughout different components of writing their argumentative essays including (1) brainstorming, (2) outlining, (3) revising, and (4) editing.

In terms of brainstorming, the students acknowledged the value of ChatGPT in helping them get initial ideas and inspirations prior to the research phase for their essays. For instance, Lydia was interested in writing about the cause of the low fertility rate in South Korea but she “had trouble thinking of any focus areas” (Lydia, Reflection). In order to narrow down the topic and find a good focus, she used ChatGPT for exploring possible directions she could pursue. As she noted:

It immediately gave me suggestions to approach the cause from demographic changes, economic factors, traditional gender roles, governmental policies, and cultural attitudes with detailed explanations beside each suggestion. So, I went on to pick economic reasons, which I think were the most accessible to write about. (Lydia, Reflection)

ChatGPT’s feedback facilitated a smoother decision-making process for Lydia regarding the specific topic to further investigate. Another student Kevin mentioned that running his initial research idea into ChatGPT was helpful because ChatGPT gave him “some relevant ideas that hadn’t crossed his mind when thinking about the topic” (Kevin, Written Assignment).

Considering ChatGPT’s suggestions did not mean that the students just took them for granted and incorporated them unquestioningly. For instance, Nora was interested in writing about the impact of AI on human lives. Upon putting her initial research question into ChatGPT, she found the feedback helpful and decided to do more research on the aspects highlighted by ChatGPT (see Fig.  2 ).

Screenshot of Nora’s conversation with ChatGPT

Students also reported using ChatGPT for outlining. Emma used ChatGPT extensively to help organize her outline and shared her procedure as follows:

I wrote my own outline first consisting of my own ideas and then put it into ChatGPT. I asked ChatGPT to make the outline flow better. I was surprised with the results it gave me. It made the ideas more concise and connected better off of each other...I tried it a few times, and every time it gave me a different version of the outline that I could potentially use. I ultimately compared the information from my sources and chose an outline I thought best suited my essay and my essay question. (Emma, Reflection)

Emma’s approach revolved around utilizing ChatGPT to unearth linkages among her various initial yet disorganized ideas she already had. By experimenting with diverse ways to build coherence and connection among her thoughts with the aid of AI, she shortcut the mental task of structuring her ideas from scratch.

Using ChatGPT for refining the flow of ideas was also a strategy adopted by other students, but not always during the outlining stage. For instance, after completing her first draft, Lydia “copied and pasted her entire essay into the chatbox and asked for suggestions on how to improve the structure and argument” (Lydia, Reflection). Lydia underlined that her revision process with ChatGPT was iterative, as she put her revised version back into the chatbot and went through another round of feedback and subsequent revision. Additional applications reported by students also encompassed employing ChatGPT to reduce redundancy and enhance conciseness of content (Emma) as well as to refine topic sentences for accurately summarizing the main ideas of body paragraphs (Kevin).

Apart from utilizing ChatGPT to assist with global level issues such as structure, argument, and coherence, the students also harnessed the AI tool for sentence-level issues. They unanimously agreed that ChatGPT was a valuable tool for language editing. Alex, a L1 student, commented that ChatGPT could edit essays “exceptionally well.” Alex not only used the AI tool to help improve the syntax of his writing such as “run-on sentences” but also consulted it as his dictionary for “providing academic diction” (Alex, Interview). The L2 participants particularly acknowledged ChatGPT as beneficial for enhancing the accuracy of their writing. Lydia shared that upon completing a paragraph of her essay, she would put it into ChatGPT and ask it to “revise the wording and grammar only” so she could refine her language and keep the content original (Lydia, Reflection). Another L2 student Nora noted that “when I struggle with expressing my thoughts accurately in English words, ChatGPT can help me express those ideas in a more powerful and accurate way. It removes communication barriers” (Nora, Written Assignment).

5.2 How Do Student Writers Perceive the Benefits of Integrating ChatGPT into Their Writing?

Utilizing ChatGPT in their various writing process components, the students reported that ChatGPT had the following benefits: (1) accelerating their writing process, (2) easing their cognitive load, (3) fostering new learning opportunities, (4) getting immediate feedback, and (5) promoting positive feelings about writing.

Students stated that using ChatGPT could “speed up the process of writing” (Alex, Interview) as exemplified by the following quotes: “ChatGPT really helped me to explore the essay topics that I’m interested in within a very short amount of time and identify what can be written about” (Nora, Interview); “I discovered after using it for my final essay that ChatGPT can greatly improve the efficiency of my writing” (Alex, Reflection). For L2 writers, it significantly saved the time they typically spent on editing, as mentioned by Lydia:

As an international student who is not a native English speaker, writing college essays would take me double the amount of time compared to those who write essays in their first language. Oftentimes, the biggest time I spent was on editing the grammar and trying to make my language readable and understandable. (Lydia, Reflection)

The benefits of saving the time and energy on language concerns, grammar, wording, and the organization of ideas and messy drafts, furthermore, reduced the cognitive burden among the student writers, both L1 and L2. For instance, knowing ChatGPT’s editing power, Alex felt that he was able to “focus more on the subject of the writing rather than the language itself” and “spew out thoughts freely” when drafting the essay (Alex, Interview). Likewise, the L2 students noted that ChatGPT allowed them to delay their concerns about the linguistic forms of ideas and alleviate the demanding cognitive load associated with L2 writing. As claimed by Lydia, “It freed my thoughts so that I could spend more time revising the content, but not worry about how to express my ideas for the essay” (Lydia, Interview).

The students conveyed that incorporating ChatGPT in different components of writing also fostered new learning opportunities for them to improve writing. Nora shared that “ChatGPT not only made my language more fluent and comprehensible, but it also helped me to learn new ways of expression in English” (Nora, Interview). Su remarked that although ChatGPT’s feedback was generic, it promoted her to do further research about her topic and learn more writing strategies (Su, Written Assignment).

Students particularly highlighted the “instant and personalized feedback” (Kevin, Reflection) provided by ChatGPT as a strong impetus and benefit. For instance, as a frequent visitor of the school’s writing center, Lydia mentioned she typically scheduled two to three appointments with a writing tutor for each major writing assignment she had worked. With ChatGPT, she could obtain feedback anytime: “Now I don’t have to physically go to the writing center at 11 pm, waiting for the previous visitor to finish their session” (Lydia, Interview). She used “my walking AI tutor” to describe the role of AI in her writing.

Ultimately, the students mentioned that these cognitive and practical benefits of ChatGPT not only improved their efficiency of writing, but also promoted positive feelings about writing. They used words such as “more relieved” (Emma), “sense of accomplishment” (Lydia), and “less anxious” (Nora) to describe the AI-assisted writing process. Although the students expressed different needs and utilization of ChatGPT, they all conveyed that they would like to continue using it in the future.

5.3 What Concerns and Limitations Do Students Experience When Using ChatGPT to Assist with Their Writing?

Despite the benefits and usefulness of ChatGPT for assisting with students’ writing, they also expressed many reservations and limitations regarding the AI tool. The first concern was about the false information it produced and its potential to mislead people. The students commented that ChatGPT tended to “make up information” (Emma), “make assumptions and guesses” (Su), and generate “inaccurate information” (Nora), “wrong information” (Alex), and “nonsense” (Lydia). Furthermore, the students pointed out that ChatGPT was inadequate in addressing high-level questions requiring critical thinking, as Su explained: “When I was consulting with ChatGPT, I learned that it has a very limited understanding of the topic I was talking about” (Su, Reflection). Other students also pointed out that the responses they got from ChatGPT could be “very generalized” (Kevin) and lacked “depth and complexity” (Nora).

The next shortcoming of ChatGPT, as noted by the students, is the lack of creativity and originality. Su highlighted that relying on ChatGPT’s ideas would not yield intriguing essays, as even though ChatGPT’s responses may “appear to make sense,” they usually came across as “cliched and superficial.” Su understood that it was because ChatGPT and large language models “work based on the patterns and data they have been trained on and cannot think outside of this” (Su, Reflection). Therefore, it is “not effective in generating new ideas” for an essay (Alex, Interview).

The algorithm unavoidably led to another limitation as observed by the students, which is the lack of reliable evidence and support for the content generated by ChatGPT. Su acknowledged that ChatGPT was not a good source for writing as it was impossible for a reader to trace the original information. Apart from the lack of clarity and transparency about the sources ChatGPT draws upon, Kevin pointed out an additional drawback that ChatGPT’s ideas were “not up to date,” thus not a good source for academic writing (Kevin, Written Assignment).

5.4 What Considerations Do Students Identify as Important When Engaging in Generative AI-Assisted Writing?

Presented with these limitations of ChatGPT, the students shared some important aspects they think should be considered when incorporating AI into writing, summarized as follows: (1) balanced and moderate use of AI, (2) critical use of AI, (3) ethical considerations, (4) the need for human voice, (5) the importance of authenticity, (6) seizing AI as a learning opportunity, and (7) transparency from and conversation between teachers and students.

The students worried that over-reliance on ChatGPT would undermine their writing ability, so they should use ChatGPT to a balanced and moderate extent. The students believed that ChatGPT should be used as “guidance,” “support,” “supplement,” and “assistant” (Alex, Reflection) rather than a “substitute” or “replacement” (Su, Reflection).

Furthermore, the students emphasized the importance of critical use of AI. Emma noted that AI platforms could “decline the need to think critically” as some students might want to “take the easy route and just get the answer” (Emma, Interview). They insisted keeping a critical eye on the information AI generated as it was not reliable. To do this, students shared similar strategies which was to use ChatGPT as a departure rather than a destination for writing, thinking, and research. They underscored the importance of validation and critical thinking in this process.

Another facet to consider is the ethical use of AI. The students believed that one must be very careful when using ChatGPT as it can easily walk the line of plagiarism. They deemed acts such as using ChatGPT to generate new ideas and write entire essays unethical, as these are forms of taking credit for other people’s work based on their language and ideas (Kevin, In-Class Writing). Thus students emphasized the importance of “doing research on your own” (Emma), “making sure the ideas are my own” (Lydia), and “not using everything (i.e. sentence by sentence, word by word) provided by ChatGPT” (Su).

The students also regarded the issue of retaining human voice a pivotal consideration for AI-assisted writing. They pointed out that writing should be a means to express the writer’s identity and thoughts, but AI was not able to personalize the text to their individual style and voice. Wary of the threat posed by extensive adoption of ChatGPT to individual expressions, Lydia commented, “ChatGPT tended to use similar dictions and patterns of wording and sentence structures. If everyone uses ChatGPT, our style will become more and more alike” (Lydia, Interview). Similarly, Su pointed out that ChatGPT could make the text “sound generic and impersonal,” which is a problem “when you are trying to convey your own ideas, feelings, and perspectives” (Su, Written Assignment). To “truly present a unique perspective and make writing individualized,” one must “take full control” of their writing to deliver a powerful message (Kevin, Reflection). This process requires the discernment to dismiss advice from ChatGPT to avoid generating an impersonal, blunt style of writing that lacks the writer’s distinct character.

Students also pointed out that the involvement of ChatGPT in writing may not only jeopardize how human voice is conveyed through the ideas ChatGPT generates, but also through the language it produces, thus “ruining the authenticity of an essay” (Alex, Reflection). He questioned himself for a paradoxical use of ChatGPT. On the one hand, he utilized ChatGPT for editing and better academic diction; on the other, he was perplexed and apprehended about the tipping point where the essay would start to sound “more like ChatGPT rather than yourself.” As he explained:

ChatGPT suggested some words I never would have used, and I decided not to include them. While they may obviously sound better than my own authentic words, I just did not feel honest using them. For instance, when writing this paper, ChatGPT suggested I use “judiciously” rather than “in moderation.” I never would have used “judiciously,” and it felt unauthentic to use it. (Alex, Reflection)

The students suggested cautious, strategic, and purposeful use of ChatGPT’s editing features to ensure it amplifies rather than conflicts with their own writing style.

However, boundaries like this still appeared to the students as vague. Hence, the students called for guidelines and instructions in the classroom and open conversation between teachers and students. The students expressed their confusion over the lack of clear guidelines across their classes. As Alex commented, “It’s hard to draw lines with different ways of using ChatGPT and which one would be considered cheating or not” (Alex, Interview). The students hoped that all their instructors, instead of only writing teachers, could engage in comprehensive discussions about what specific ways of using ChatGPT would be regarded as acceptable or problematic according to their disciplinary conventions and learning purposes.

Participants also expected that school policies and instructors would not shut down AI as a resource and learning opportunity for students. Emma said, “It’s tricky as there are a lot of different opinions, but technology is the world we live in. We should go with the grain as opposed to against it” (Emma, Interview). Cautious of possible missed learning opportunities that AI might bring to thinking, Lydia commented, “I am afraid of becoming lazy…But I guess it also depends on how you use it. It gives a shortcut for people who do not want to make the effort to learn and think. But it could be useful for those who really want to learn” (Lydia, Interview). Alex noted that to prevent the loss of learning opportunity, for instance, he decided that rather than taking ChatGPT’s diction suggestion immediately, he “would use those words in the next essay,” demonstrating his effort in learning and internalizing the knowledge. In general, the students were still exploring ways to use ChatGPT in critical, authentic, and ethical ways that would promote rather than harm their learning.

6 Discussion

Adopting sensemaking theory, the study investigated how students made sense of their AI-assisted writing practices, providing insights into students’ learning process and their shared practices emerging around the AI technology. Confirming previous research (e.g., Guo et al., 2022 ; Holmes et al., 2019 ; Su et al., 2023 ), this study found that the students overall had positive experiences with generative AI-assisted writing, for it could accelerate their writing process, reduce their cognitive load and anxiety, and provide prompt feedback. The students integrated ChatGPT into various components of their composing process, such as searching for content, ideational planning, language editing, and revising. Although the students acknowledged the cognitive and affective benefits (e.g., Ebadi & Amini, 2022 ; Fryer & Carpenter, 2006 ) of using ChatGPT in writing, they were very cautious about adopting its ideas and suggestions at different discourse levels (i.e., essay, paragraph, and sentence levels) due to critical, ethical, and authentic concerns. This finding extends previous research which identified that students’ primary concerns were academic dishonesty and educational inequity (Yan, 2023 ). Despite recognizing AI’s limitations such as the lack of in-depth insights (Gao et al., 2022 ), originality, creativity, and reliability—qualities essential for good academic writing—the students deemed it necessary to embrace rather than abandon the tool, with the purpose of fostering one’s critical thinking and writing skills. The results suggest that students’ sensemaking of AI-assisted writing is shaped by their prior knowledge and understanding of writing as a cognitive and sociocultural activity, their exploration of AI’s functionalities and strategies for leveraging them to achieve learning goals, and their interrogation of the appropriateness and limitations of AI in the specific context of academic writing.

The study highlights two emerging dilemmas students experienced in their generative AI-assisted writing processes. The first dilemma, as Alex put it, is the choice between sounding better or sounding like me when integrating AI into the decision making process of writing, reflecting a larger issue about academic integrity, authenticity, and voice in human-AI collaboration. The participants believed that it is crucial to prevent their writing from being AI-nized, which could lead to either plagiarism or a writing style resembling AI that overshadows their own voice—the very essence of their “identity and presentation of the self in writing” (Prince & Archer, 2014 , p. 40). The students’ beliefs align with a connectivism paradigm of AI in Education (AIEd) outlined by Ouyang and Jiao ( 2021 ), in which AI serves as a tool to augment human intelligence and capability (Yang et al., 2021 ) and learner agency is placed at the core. Reliance on AI could lead to superficial engagement with writing tasks, discouraging deeper, reflective thought processes essential for original creative expression. Furthermore, when AI suggests similar vocabulary, structures, and styles to various learners, it risks imposing a uniformity in expression that undermines the educational value of cultivating each individual’s unique and creative voice. AI may hinder students from exploring how language variation and linguistic diversity can be rich resources for meaning-making, creativity, identity formation, problem-solving (Wang et al., 2020 ). Such critical engagement with diverse language resources is crucial for developing students’ literacy skills in a digital age where multicultural awareness is an integral part of education (Sánchez-Martín et al., 2019 ). As Dixon-Román et al. ( 2020 ) noted, educators must be wary of AI’s “racializing forces,” which standardize learning processes in ways that can marginalize non-dominant forms of knowledge and communication, as well as students whose experiences and identities are either not represented or misrepresented in the system.

While the participants concurred that upholding human voice and agency entails possessing integrity and alignment not only at the ideational level but also in the linguistic expression of those ideas, the L2 writers in this study added another nuanced dimension to the impact of AI on human voice and authenticity in the context of AI-assisted writing. As the L2 students experienced, ChatGPT’s language suggestions might not pose a threat to their voice but serve as a catalyst for augmenting their voice, as AI helped overcome their language barriers and better express ideas true to themselves. In other words, generative AI afforded the L2 writers powerful language repertoires that enhanced the accuracy and efficiency of “linguistic rehearing” (Abdel Latif, 2021 ) or “translating” (Kellogg, 1996 ) component of their writing process, thus allowing L2 students to produce writing more authentic to themselves. The finding highlights how learner characteristics and individual differences play an important role in students’ sensemaking of AI-assisted writing, complicating the existing understanding of AI’s affordances for learners with diverse linguistic backgrounds and learning needs.

From earlier conceptualizations of authenticity as “ownedness” and “being one’s own” by Heidegger (1927/ 1962 ), to contemporary perceptions as the “self-congruency” of an individual, group, or symbolic identity (Ferrara, 1998 , p. 70), the notion of authenticity has been evolving and becoming more pluralistic. As Rings ( 2017 ) acknowledged, authenticity extends beyond adherent to personally endorsed commitments; it requires a comprehensive consideration of one’s self-awareness and the changing social context. Scholars should further pursue what it means by authenticity and academic integrity in an increasingly AI-mediated educational context, ways to promote students’ authorial voice and agency, as well as the complicated authorship issues (Jabotinsky & Sarel, 2022 ) involved in AI-human collaboratively generated texts. As Eaton ( 2023 ) claims, it is time to contemplate “postplagiarism” and academic integrity in a future where “hybrid human-AI writing will become normal”.

Apart from the sounding better or sounding like me dilemma experienced by students, another paradox is whether AI caused missed learning opportunities or created new learning opportunities . As noted by the previous literature, AI-writing tools may rob students of essential learning experiences (Barrot, 2023a ; Tseng & Warschauer, 2023 ). Adding to this concern from educators and scholars, the present study shows that the students themselves are also cognizant of the possible learning loss due to AI adoption. Furthermore, the study shows that rather than passively indulging themselves in the convenience of AI tools, a common concern among educators (Chan & Hu, 2023 ; Graham, 2023 ), the student writers attempted to seize new learning opportunities that emerged from AI technologies to promote their critical thinking and writing. This finding suggests a nuanced addition to sensemaking theory: the process of making sense of uncertainties in AI-infused literacy practices can also be uncertain, involving reconciling dilemmas and acknowledging perplexing experiences. While not always yielding clear-out outcomes or casual attributions for the observed phenomena and personal experience as suggested by Poquet ( 2024 ), noticing and perceiving the unpredictable impacts of generative AI on students’ own learning processes can, in itself, be empowering. The process fosters a sense of agency and critical engagement, suggesting that the outcomes of sensemaking in the context of AI-assisted writing can be open-ended yet profound.

This important finding leads scholars to reconsider the essence of learning in an era of generative AI. Hwang et al. ( 2020 ) and Southworth et al. ( 2023 ) argued that AI is likely to transform not only the learning environment, but also the learning process, and even what it means to learn. This perspective finds resonance in the experiences of the participants in this study. While AI may shortcut traditional ways of doing writing, it does not inherently imply a reduction in students’ cognitive, behavioral, and affective engagement with writing, learning, and thinking. AI does not necessarily make writing easier; on the contrary, a critical, ethical, and authentic approach to AI-assisted writing pushes students to think further and prioritize their own voice, originality, and creativity, leading to high quality writing. In this sense, when used properly, AI has the potential to introduce a new avenue for humanizing writing and education. As generative AI technologies are advancing rapidly, an expanding array of AI-powered writing assistance, intelligent tutoring systems, and feedback tools has the promise to cater to the diverse needs and learning styles of language learners and writers. These tools are not limited to mere textual assistance; the multimodal functionalities of generative AI can also allow writers to explore creative expressions and multimodal writing, enriching students’ literacy practices by integrating more visual, auditory, and interactive elements into the composition process (Kang & Yi, 2023 ; Li et al., 2024 ). As noted by Cao and Dede ( 2023 ), our educational model has long been centered around the product , directing our focus towards the outcomes and grades students achieve, often overlooking the learning process itself. The judgmental calls involved in students’ interactions with AI, as showcased in the nuances of participants’ AI-assisted writing process in this study, represent emerging learning opportunities that require students to draw upon a range of knowledge, skills, awareness of ethics and the self, criticality, and self-reflection to make informed decisions about AI in learning. The present study shows that such decision making process can play a pivotal role in cultivating students’ “AI literacy” (Ng et al., 2021 ) and promoting their responsible use of AI. Therefore, it should also be recognized as a valuable teaching opportunity that educators should not overlook.

7 Conclusion

This study explored students’ generative AI-assisted writing processes in a first-year writing class in an American college. The study found that students utilized generative AI for assisting with both global (e.g., argument, structure, coherence) and local issues of writing (e.g., syntax, diction, grammar), while they also had various ethical and practical concerns about the use of AI. Findings showed that large language models offer unique benefits for L2 writers to leverage its linguistic capabilities. The study highlights the urgency of explicit teaching of critical AI literacy and the value of (post)process-oriented writing pedagogy (e.g., Graham, 2023 ) in college writing classrooms so that students not only understand AI writing tools’ functions and limitations but also know how to utilize and evaluate them for specific communication and learning purposes.

However, writing instruction is still at the beginning stage of addressing this pressing need. Thus, pedagogical innovations, policy adjustments, new forms of writing assessments, and teacher education (Zhai, 2022 ) are needed to adapt to the potential impact of AI on desired student learning outcomes within specific writing curriculums. For instance, integrating critical digital pedagogy into writing instruction and inviting students to reflect on their relevant AI literacy practices allow writing instructors to more effectively guide students in critically engaging with AI technologies in their academic literacy development. Policy adjustments should aim to cultivate an inclusive rather than “policing” environment (Johnson, 2023 ) that encourages students to use AI responsibly and as a means of fostering self-learning. Furthermore, writing assessment methods should evolve to not just evaluate final learning outcomes such as the written products but also the learning journey itself such as the decision-making involved in their AI-assisted writing. This shift encourages students to appreciate learning processes and the productive struggles they encounter along the way, so that they can move beyond seeing AI as a shortcut but as assistance in their quest for learning and writing development. In this way, students can leverage the linguistic, multimodal, interactive, and adaptable affordances of generative AI tools for personalized learning. This facilitates greater student ownership of their learning, enhancing their learner competence through self-direction, self-assessment, and self-reflection when interacting with AI tools (Barrot, 2023c ; Fariani et al., 2023 ).

Following a phenomenological research design, the present study aims to provide in-depth understanding of college students’ use of ChatGPT in their academic writing, yet it is limited due to its small sample size and duration. Therefore, the findings may not apply to other classroom contexts and to a wide range of student populations. Future research could benefit from adopting a large scale, longitudinal design to examine generative AI’s impacts on student writing and students’ long-term engagement with generative AI tools, both in formal classroom settings and in informal learning contexts. It is also worth exploring students of diverse age groups and language proficiency levels as well as writing courses of different languages, purposes, and writing genres to examine other factors that may influence students’ generative AI assisted writing. After all, the participants in this study have already developed some proficiency and skills in academic writing, but holding learner agency (Ouyang & Jiao, 2021 ) can be more complex and challenging for younger learners. Further research is needed to understand students with varied domain knowledge, expertise, and writing abilities (Yan, 2023 ) and uncover individual differences in AI-assisted writing. Additionally, the participants in this study utilized GPT 3.5 for their AI-assisted writing practices. Given the rapid advancement of AI technologies, new AI models and applications are continuously emerging. Thus, future research should investigate how various AI models and functionalities might differently influence students, taking into account the ongoing developments and innovations in AI.

Data Availability

The data are available from the author upon reasonable request.

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What You Need to Know About Marijuana Rescheduling

by Victoria Litman, M.Div., J.D., LL.M.

On May 21, 2024, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) published a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) signed by Attorney General Merrick Garland in the Federal Register. This publication kicks off a 62-day comment period on a rule that would move marijuana to Schedule 3 of the Controlled Substances Act (CSA), classifying it as a substance with “a moderate to low potential for physical and psychological dependence.” The process of rescheduling may be long and is unlikely to create a pathway to federal compliance for state-legal marijuana businesses without further federal legislation. Ultimately, Congress likely will need to clarify the division of federal and state regulatory powers over cannabis.

The CSA is a federal law that classifies substances into schedules based on their potential for medical use and risk of abuse. The cannabis plant has been in the most restrictive category, Schedule 1, since the CSA was enacted in 1970. In the 2018 Farm Bill , cannabis plants with less than .3% concentration of the major psychoactive component of marijuana, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), were removed from the CSA and legally defined as hemp. All other cannabis remains Schedule 1 , defined as a substance with no currently accepted medical use (CAMU), lack of safety for use under medical supervision, and a high potential for abuse.

Despite ongoing cannabis restrictions on the federal level, since 1996 many states have enacted legislation regulating and taxing medical and recreational marijuana and creating dispensaries for patients and consumers to access it. For several decades, these state-regulated businesses have existed under the shadow of federal illegality. Marijuana’s Schedule 1 status has impacted the economic feasibility of these businesses due to punitive federal taxes , significant burdens on banks willing to work with cannabis businesses, and no legal interstate commerce.

Since 2014, Congress has passed spending amendments that limit the use of federal funds for enforcement against state-compliant medical marijuana programs. From 2009-2018, several U.S. Attorneys General issued memos directing federal prosecutors to limit enforcement against all state-compliant marijuana businesses, medical and recreational. In 2018 Attorney General Jeff Sessions technically rescinded prior memos and encouraged prosecution of federally illegal marijuana activity; however, in practice there has been limited federal enforcement.

In the fall of 2022, President Biden issued a statement on marijuana reform, announcing federal pardons for some federal crimes involving marijuana and urging state governors to pardon state-level cannabis possession charges. Biden also asked the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Attorney General to initiate the administrative process to review the scheduling of cannabis under the CSA.

In August 2023,  HHS sent an official recommendation to the DEA that it categorize marijuana under the less restrictive Schedule 3 category. The recommendation became public in early 2024 as a result of a lawsuit . Notably, the recommendation was the first statement from a federal government agency that marijuana has a currently accepted medical use and a low potential for abuse. An April 11, 2024 opinion from the Office of Legal Counsel (OLC) asserted that DEA must “accord significant deference” to HHS’ recommendation until the beginning of formal rulemaking. However, the NPRM notes that DEA has not decided how marijuana should be scheduled.

Now that the NPRM has been published, individuals and businesses may submit comments on the proposal until July 22nd. Interested persons (defined in regulations ) may request an administrative law hearing before June 20th in accordance with the requirements of the Administrative Procedure Act.

Once comments are received and after any hearing, the DEA will review all evidence and generally respond to comments when publishing the final rule. There is no set statutory time for this process but in other situations, for example telemedicine , it has taken over a year.

Once published, the DEA’s final rule will not go into effect for 30 days, during which time aggrieved parties who submitted comments and can demonstrate they have standing can challenge the final rule in court. At least one major opposition group is already fundraising for the legal effort.

The two main issues likely to be challenged are the impact of rescheduling on adherence to United Nations treaty obligations and the way HHS determined that marijuana has a CAMU. For the first time, HHS considered the existing widespread use of medical marijuana under the supervision of health care practitioners within state medical marijuana programs. The OLC’s opinion addresses these issues directly.

A letter from Democratic senators opposing rescheduling and supporting removal of marijuana from the CSA entirely explains that although rescheduling likely provides tax relief, it does not impact criminal justice and immigration issues related to cannabis criminalization. Rescheduling would not be a panacea for the challenges faced by state legal marijuana businesses and would not necessarily make marijuana easier to research .

Schedule 3 drugs must be approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA,) prescribed by a doctor, and distributed by a pharmacy. Thus, none of the existing state-regulated marijuana dispensaries would be able to comply without extreme cost or further regulation or legislation. Another Attorney General’s memo is expected to clarify enforcement priorities against marijuana-related businesses that are legal in the state, but federally non-compliant.

I have previously written that no matter what happens with rescheduling, Congress will need to clarify the division of federal and state regulatory powers over cannabis. Congress must specify that FDA’s jurisdiction over cannabis should be no more than that over alcohol and designate cannabis in food as “generally recognized as safe.” These, and other FDA-related fixes, already drafted as part of proposed legislation, the States Reform Act , would create legal pathways for existing state-licensed marijuana operators to be in compliance with the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act . By doing so, Congress could reduce unnecessary spending on unfeasible federal enforcement and preserve limited federal resources to evaluate clinical research on cannabis-derived drugs . Thus, even if marijuana is moved to Schedule 3, federal legislation is necessary. The only question is how long it will take Congress to act.

Victoria Litman M.Div, J.D., LL.M. is a nonprofit tax lawyer focused on the emerging cannabis and psychedelic tax exempt sectors and an adjunct law professor. She is also an Affiliated Researcher of the Project on Psychedelics Law and Regulation (POPLAR) at the Petrie-Flom Center for Health Law Policy, Biotechnology, and Bioethics at Harvard Law School.

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