research interview best practices

How to conduct qualitative interviews (tips and best practices)

Last updated

18 May 2023

Reviewed by

Miroslav Damyanov

However, conducting qualitative interviews can be challenging, even for seasoned researchers. Poorly conducted interviews can lead to inaccurate or incomplete data, significantly compromising the validity and reliability of your research findings.

When planning to conduct qualitative interviews, you must adequately prepare yourself to get the most out of your data. Fortunately, there are specific tips and best practices that can help you conduct qualitative interviews effectively.

What is a qualitative interview?

A qualitative interview is a research technique used to gather in-depth information about people's experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions. Unlike a structured questionnaire or survey, a qualitative interview is a flexible, conversational approach that allows the interviewer to delve into the interviewee's responses and explore their insights and experiences.

In a qualitative interview, the researcher typically develops a set of open-ended questions that provide a framework for the conversation. However, the interviewer can also adapt to the interviewee's responses and ask follow-up questions to understand their experiences and views better.

How to conduct interviews in qualitative research

Conducting interviews involves a well-planned and deliberate process to collect accurate and valid data.

Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to conduct interviews in qualitative research, broken down into three stages:

1. Before the interview

The first step in conducting a qualitative interview is determining your research question . This will help you identify the type of participants you need to recruit . Once you have your research question, you can start recruiting participants by identifying potential candidates and contacting them to gauge their interest in participating in the study.

After that, it's time to develop your interview questions. These should be open-ended questions that will elicit detailed responses from participants. You'll also need to get consent from the participants, ideally in writing, to ensure that they understand the purpose of the study and their rights as participants. Finally, choose a comfortable and private location to conduct the interview and prepare the interview guide.

2. During the interview

Start by introducing yourself and explaining the purpose of the study. Establish a rapport by putting the participants at ease and making them feel comfortable. Use the interview guide to ask the questions, but be flexible and ask follow-up questions to gain more insight into the participants' responses.

Take notes during the interview, and ask permission to record the interview for transcription purposes. Be mindful of the time, and cover all the questions in the interview guide.

3. After the interview

Once the interview is over, transcribe the interview if you recorded it. If you took notes, review and organize them to make sure you capture all the important information. Then, analyze the data you collected by identifying common themes and patterns. Use the findings to answer your research question.

Finally, debrief with the participants to thank them for their time, provide feedback on the study, and answer any questions they may have.

What kinds of questions should you ask in a qualitative interview?

Qualitative interviews involve asking questions that encourage participants to share their experiences, opinions, and perspectives on a particular topic. These questions are designed to elicit detailed and nuanced responses rather than simple yes or no answers.

Effective questions in a qualitative interview are generally open-ended and non-leading. They avoid presuppositions or assumptions about the participant's experience and allow them to share their views in their own words.

In customer research , you might ask questions such as:

What motivated you to choose our product/service over our competitors?

How did you first learn about our product/service?

Can you walk me through your experience with our product/service?

What improvements or changes would you suggest for our product/service?

Have you recommended our product/service to others, and if so, why?

The key is to ask questions relevant to the research topic and allow participants to share their experiences meaningfully and informally.

How to determine the right qualitative interview participants

Choosing the right participants for a qualitative interview is a crucial step in ensuring the success and validity of the research . You need to consider several factors to determine the right participants for a qualitative interview. These may include:

Relevant experiences : Participants should have experiences related to the research topic that can provide valuable insights.

Diversity : Aim to include diverse participants to ensure the study's findings are representative and inclusive.

Access : Identify participants who are accessible and willing to participate in the study.

Informed consent : Participants should be fully informed about the study's purpose, methods, and potential risks and benefits and be allowed to provide informed consent.

You can use various recruitment methods, such as posting ads in relevant forums, contacting community organizations or social media groups, or using purposive sampling to identify participants who meet specific criteria.

How to make qualitative interview subjects comfortable

Making participants comfortable during a qualitative interview is essential to obtain rich, detailed data. Participants are more likely to share their experiences openly when they feel at ease and not judged.

Here are some ways to make interview subjects comfortable:

Explain the purpose of the study

Start the interview by explaining the research topic and its importance. The goal is to give participants a sense of what to expect.

Create a comfortable environment

Conduct the interview in a quiet, private space where the participant feels comfortable. Turn off any unnecessary electronics that can create distractions. Ensure your equipment works well ahead of time. Arrive at the interview on time. If you conduct a remote interview, turn on your camera and mute all notetakers and observers.

Build rapport

Greet the participant warmly and introduce yourself. Show interest in their responses and thank them for their time.

Use open-ended questions

Ask questions that encourage participants to elaborate on their thoughts and experiences.

Listen attentively

Resist the urge to multitask . Pay attention to the participant's responses, nod your head, or make supportive comments to show you’re interested in their answers. Avoid interrupting them.

Avoid judgment

Show respect and don't judge the participant's views or experiences. Allow the participant to speak freely without feeling judged or ridiculed.

Offer breaks

If needed, offer breaks during the interview, especially if the topic is sensitive or emotional.

Creating a comfortable environment and establishing rapport with the participant fosters an atmosphere of trust and encourages open communication. This helps participants feel at ease and willing to share their experiences.

How to analyze a qualitative interview

Analyzing a qualitative interview involves a systematic process of examining the data collected to identify patterns, themes, and meanings that emerge from the responses.

Here are some steps on how to analyze a qualitative interview:

1. Transcription

The first step is transcribing the interview into text format to have a written record of the conversation. This step is essential to ensure that you can refer back to the interview data and identify the important aspects of the interview.

2. Data reduction

Once you’ve transcribed the interview, read through it to identify key themes, patterns, and phrases emerging from the data. This process involves reducing the data into more manageable pieces you can easily analyze.

The next step is to code the data by labeling sections of the text with descriptive words or phrases that reflect the data's content. Coding helps identify key themes and patterns from the interview data.

4. Categorization

After coding, you should group the codes into categories based on their similarities. This process helps to identify overarching themes or sub-themes that emerge from the data.

5. Interpretation

You should then interpret the themes and sub-themes by identifying relationships, contradictions, and meanings that emerge from the data. Interpretation involves analyzing the themes in the context of the research question .

6. Comparison

The next step is comparing the data across participants or groups to identify similarities and differences. This step helps to ensure that the findings aren’t just specific to one participant but can be generalized to the wider population.

7. Triangulation

To ensure the findings are valid and reliable, you should use triangulation by comparing the findings with other sources, such as observations or interview data.

8. Synthesis

The final step is synthesizing the findings by summarizing the key themes and presenting them clearly and concisely. This step involves writing a report that presents the findings in a way that is easy to understand, using quotes and examples from the interview data to illustrate the themes.

Tips for transcribing a qualitative interview

Transcribing a qualitative interview is a crucial step in the research process. It involves converting the audio or video recording of the interview into written text.

Here are some tips for transcribing a qualitative interview:

Use transcription software

Transcription software can save time and increase accuracy by automatically transcribing audio or video recordings.

Listen carefully

When manually transcribing, listen carefully to the recording to ensure clarity. Pause and rewind the recording as necessary.

Use appropriate formatting

Use a consistent format for transcribing, such as marking pauses, overlaps, and interruptions. Indicate non-verbal cues such as laughter, sighs, or changes in tone.

Edit for clarity

Edit the transcription to ensure clarity and readability. Use standard grammar and punctuation, correct misspellings, and remove filler words like "um" and "ah."

Proofread and edit

Verify the accuracy of the transcription by listening to the recording again and reviewing the notes taken during the interview.

Use timestamps

Add timestamps to the transcription to reference specific interview sections.

Transcribing a qualitative interview can be time-consuming, but it’s essential to ensure the accuracy of the data collected. Following these tips can produce high-quality transcriptions useful for analysis and reporting.

Why are interview techniques in qualitative research effective?

Unlike quantitative research methods, which rely on numerical data, qualitative research seeks to understand the richness and complexity of human experiences and perspectives.

Interview techniques involve asking open-ended questions that allow participants to express their views and share their stories in their own words. This approach can help researchers to uncover unexpected or surprising insights that may not have been discovered through other research methods.

Interview techniques also allow researchers to establish rapport with participants, creating a comfortable and safe space for them to share their experiences. This can lead to a deeper level of trust and candor, leading to more honest and authentic responses.

What are the weaknesses of qualitative interviews?

Qualitative interviews are an excellent research approach when used properly, but they have their drawbacks.

The weaknesses of qualitative interviews include the following:

Subjectivity and personal biases

Qualitative interviews rely on the researcher's interpretation of the interviewee's responses. The researcher's biases or preconceptions can affect how the questions are framed and how the responses are interpreted, which can influence results.

Small sample size

The sample size in qualitative interviews is often small, which can limit the generalizability of the results to the larger population.

Data quality

The quality of data collected during interviews can be affected by various factors, such as the interviewee's mood, the setting of the interview, and the interviewer's skills and experience.

Socially desirable responses

Interviewees may provide responses that they believe are socially acceptable rather than truthful or genuine.

Conducting qualitative interviews can be expensive, especially if the researcher must travel to different locations to conduct the interviews.

Time-consuming

The data analysis process can be time-consuming and labor-intensive, as researchers need to transcribe and analyze the data manually.

Despite these weaknesses, qualitative interviews remain a valuable research tool . You can take steps to mitigate the impact of these weaknesses by incorporating the perspectives of other researchers or participants in the analysis process, using multiple data sources , and critically analyzing your biases and assumptions.

Mastering the art of qualitative interviews is an essential skill for businesses looking to gain deep insights into their customers' needs , preferences, and behaviors. By following the tips and best practices outlined in this article, you can conduct interviews that provide you with rich data that you can use to make informed decisions about your products, services, and marketing strategies.

Remember that effective communication, active listening, and proper analysis are critical components of successful qualitative interviews. By incorporating these practices into your customer research, you can gain a competitive edge and build stronger customer relationships.

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How to carry out great interviews in qualitative research.

11 min read An interview is one of the most versatile methods used in qualitative research. Here’s what you need to know about conducting great qualitative interviews.

What is a qualitative research interview?

Qualitative research interviews are a mainstay among q ualitative research techniques, and have been in use for decades either as a primary data collection method or as an adjunct to a wider research process. A qualitative research interview is a one-to-one data collection session between a researcher and a participant. Interviews may be carried out face-to-face, over the phone or via video call using a service like Skype or Zoom.

There are three main types of qualitative research interview – structured, unstructured or semi-structured.

Structured interviews Structured interviews are based around a schedule of predetermined questions and talking points that the researcher has developed. At their most rigid, structured interviews may have a precise wording and question order, meaning that they can be replicated across many different interviewers and participants with relatively consistent results.
Unstructured interviews Unstructured interviews have no predetermined format, although that doesn’t mean they’re ad hoc or unplanned. An unstructured interview may outwardly resemble a normal conversation, but the interviewer will in fact be working carefully to make sure the right topics are addressed during the interaction while putting the participant at ease with a natural manner.
Semi-structured interviews Semi-structured interviews are the most common type of qualitative research interview, combining the informality and rapport of an unstructured interview with the consistency and replicability of a structured interview. The researcher will come prepared with questions and topics, but will not need to stick to precise wording. This blended approach can work well for in-depth interviews.

Free eBook: The qualitative research design handbook

What are the pros and cons of interviews in qualitative research?

As a qualitative research method interviewing is hard to beat, with applications in social research, market research, and even basic and clinical pharmacy. But like any aspect of the research process, it’s not without its limitations. Before choosing qualitative interviewing as your research method, it’s worth weighing up the pros and cons.

Pros of qualitative interviews:

provide in-depth information and context
can be used effectively when their are low numbers of participants
provide an opportunity to discuss and explain questions
useful for complex topics
rich in data – in the case of in-person or video interviews , the researcher can observe body language and facial expression as well as the answers to questions

Cons of qualitative interviews:

can be time-consuming to carry out
costly when compared to some other research methods
because of time and cost constraints, they often limit you to a small number of participants
difficult to standardize your data across different researchers and participants unless the interviews are very tightly structured
As the Open University of Hong Kong notes, qualitative interviews may take an emotional toll on interviewers

Qualitative interview guides

Semi-structured interviews are based on a qualitative interview guide, which acts as a road map for the researcher. While conducting interviews, the researcher can use the interview guide to help them stay focused on their research questions and make sure they cover all the topics they intend to.

An interview guide may include a list of questions written out in full, or it may be a set of bullet points grouped around particular topics. It can prompt the interviewer to dig deeper and ask probing questions during the interview if appropriate.

Consider writing out the project’s research question at the top of your interview guide, ahead of the interview questions. This may help you steer the interview in the right direction if it threatens to head off on a tangent.

Avoid bias in qualitative research interviews

According to Duke University , bias can create significant problems in your qualitative interview.

Acquiescence bias is common to many qualitative methods, including focus groups. It occurs when the participant feels obliged to say what they think the researcher wants to hear. This can be especially problematic when there is a perceived power imbalance between participant and interviewer. To counteract this, Duke University’s experts recommend emphasizing the participant’s expertise in the subject being discussed, and the value of their contributions.
Interviewer bias is when the interviewer’s own feelings about the topic come to light through hand gestures, facial expressions or turns of phrase. Duke’s recommendation is to stick to scripted phrases where this is an issue, and to make sure researchers become very familiar with the interview guide or script before conducting interviews, so that they can hone their delivery.

What kinds of questions should you ask in a qualitative interview?

The interview questions you ask need to be carefully considered both before and during the data collection process. As well as considering the topics you’ll cover, you will need to think carefully about the way you ask questions.

Open-ended interview questions – which cannot be answered with a ‘yes’ ‘no’ or ‘maybe’ – are recommended by many researchers as a way to pursue in depth information.

An example of an open-ended question is “What made you want to move to the East Coast?” This will prompt the participant to consider different factors and select at least one. Having thought about it carefully, they may give you more detailed information about their reasoning.

A closed-ended question , such as “Would you recommend your neighborhood to a friend?” can be answered without too much deliberation, and without giving much information about personal thoughts, opinions and feelings.

Follow-up questions can be used to delve deeper into the research topic and to get more detail from open-ended questions. Examples of follow-up questions include:

What makes you say that?
What do you mean by that?
Can you tell me more about X?
What did/does that mean to you?

As well as avoiding closed-ended questions, be wary of leading questions. As with other qualitative research techniques such as surveys or focus groups, these can introduce bias in your data. Leading questions presume a certain point of view shared by the interviewer and participant, and may even suggest a foregone conclusion.

An example of a leading question might be: “You moved to New York in 1990, didn’t you?” In answering the question, the participant is much more likely to agree than disagree. This may be down to acquiescence bias or a belief that the interviewer has checked the information and already knows the correct answer.

Other leading questions involve adjectival phrases or other wording that introduces negative or positive connotations about a particular topic. An example of this kind of leading question is: “Many employees dislike wearing masks to work. How do you feel about this?” It presumes a positive opinion and the participant may be swayed by it, or not want to contradict the interviewer.

Harvard University’s guidelines for qualitative interview research add that you shouldn’t be afraid to ask embarrassing questions – “if you don’t ask, they won’t tell.” Bear in mind though that too much probing around sensitive topics may cause the interview participant to withdraw. The Harvard guidelines recommend leaving sensitive questions til the later stages of the interview when a rapport has been established.

More tips for conducting qualitative interviews

Observing a participant’s body language can give you important data about their thoughts and feelings. It can also help you decide when to broach a topic, and whether to use a follow-up question or return to the subject later in the interview.

Be conscious that the participant may regard you as the expert, not themselves. In order to make sure they express their opinions openly, use active listening skills like verbal encouragement and paraphrasing and clarifying their meaning to show how much you value what they are saying.

Remember that part of the goal is to leave the interview participant feeling good about volunteering their time and their thought process to your research. Aim to make them feel empowered , respected and heard.

Unstructured interviews can demand a lot of a researcher, both cognitively and emotionally. Be sure to leave time in between in-depth interviews when scheduling your data collection to make sure you maintain the quality of your data, as well as your own well-being .

Recording and transcribing interviews

Historically, recording qualitative research interviews and then transcribing the conversation manually would have represented a significant part of the cost and time involved in research projects that collect qualitative data.

Fortunately, researchers now have access to digital recording tools, and even speech-to-text technology that can automatically transcribe interview data using AI and machine learning. This type of tool can also be used to capture qualitative data from qualitative research (focus groups,ect.) making this kind of social research or market research much less time consuming.

Data analysis

Qualitative interview data is unstructured, rich in content and difficult to analyze without the appropriate tools. Fortunately, machine learning and AI can once again make things faster and easier when you use qualitative methods like the research interview.

Text analysis tools and natural language processing software can ‘read’ your transcripts and voice data and identify patterns and trends across large volumes of text or speech. They can also perform khttps://www.qualtrics.com/experience-management/research/sentiment-analysis/

which assesses overall trends in opinion and provides an unbiased overall summary of how participants are feeling.

Another feature of text analysis tools is their ability to categorize information by topic, sorting it into groupings that help you organize your data according to the topic discussed.

All in all, interviews are a valuable technique for qualitative research in business, yielding rich and detailed unstructured data. Historically, they have only been limited by the human capacity to interpret and communicate results and conclusions, which demands considerable time and skill.

When you combine this data with AI tools that can interpret it quickly and automatically, it becomes easy to analyze and structure, dovetailing perfectly with your other business data. An additional benefit of natural language analysis tools is that they are free of subjective biases, and can replicate the same approach across as much data as you choose. By combining human research skills with machine analysis, qualitative research methods such as interviews are more valuable than ever to your business.

Related resources

Market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, qualitative research questions 11 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, request demo.

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Five Tips for Conducting Effective Qualitative Interviews

An interviewer conducts household survey in rural El Salvador for a Center for Health Policy and Inequalities Research study. Photo by Hy V. Huynh.

Published March 12, 2018 under Research News

In qualitative research, in-depth interviews can be an immensely helpful investigative tool. However, the nuances of one-on-one interviewing can sometimes make it difficult to obtain useful results. Rae Jean Proeschold-Bell , associate research professor and founding director of the Evidence Lab at the Duke Global Health Institute, frequently integrates qualitative interviews into her research. In this article, she shares five interviewing tips that have served her well.

1. Convey Intent

Proeschold-Bell says it’s important for the interviewer to know the intent behind each question so that it can be clearly conveyed to the interviewee. Understanding the intent of a question, she’s found, helps interviewers decide whether or not the participant has fully answered the question. This way, they can ask follow-up questions and not leave gaps at the time of data collection. Proeschold-Bell recommends writing the intent of each question below it in italics on the interview script.

Proeschold-Bell also suggests a few more subtle techniques for helping interviewees understand what is really being asked and soliciting pertinent and thorough responses. Asking the question in several different ways can help clarify its meaning. Follow-up prompts such as “That’s really helpful; tell me more about that,” or “Can you describe what was unpleasant about it?” can also give interviewees helpful guidance in crafting their responses.

“You can also convey intent by explaining more broadly why you’re doing the research, so interviewees will be more likely to give you relevant information,” Proeschold-Bell said.

2. Don’t Sway the Participants

Acquiescence bias, which occurs when interviewees agree with what they think the interviewer wants to hear instead of giving their unbiased answer, can often prevent interviewees from sharing all relevant information. Research from Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research shows that when power dynamics are present in an interview, it may be especially difficult for an interviewee to give an honest answer.

To minimize acquiescence bias, interviewers can emphasize that the participant is the expert in the subject matter of the interview. For example, they can start the interview by saying, “I’ve asked you to talk with me today because you are an expert in what it’s like to be a patient in Eldoret.”

Interviewers should also avoid nodding or other body language that expresses agreement with the participant. Instead, interviewers should say, “That’s very helpful,” or “Thank you for those thoughts.” Otherwise, participants might elaborate on a point that isn’t actually very important to them just because the interviewer seemed to agree.

Proeschold-Bell also recommends that interviewers pay attention to—and record—interviewees’ non-verbal responses, which often communicate feelings and attitudes that the verbal response doesn’t capture.

3. Eliminate Interviewer Bias

Proeschold-Bell says it’s critically important to eliminate interviewer bias through the interview process. Knowing the interview guide extremely well helps an interviewer pace the interview to avoid running out of time, and adhering to the scripted wording for each question helps maintain unbiased prompting across all interviews. Additionally, if an interviewee starts answering a question that is going to be asked later, the interviewer can ask them to wait.

It’s best to ask interview questions in a specific order because covering certain questions first may influence how interviewees think during later questions. Finally, she recommends, “Ask all questions of all respondents, even if you think you know what they’ll say. They will surprise you sometimes!”

4. Consider a “Test Run” Period

Proeschold-Bell sees her first several interviews for a study as pilots. Learning from these first few test runs and improving questions and interview techniques for future interviews can have a significant impact on the quality of the study. This means that data quality from the first few interviews may not be as strong since some of the questions change, but the data from the interviews later on will be more useful. Proeschold-Bell recommends numbering interviews chronologically to link interviews to the phase of development in which they were conducted.

5. Make Time for Post-Interview Reflection

After an interview, Proeschold-Bell recommends immediately reviewing the data. “This helps capture good ideas that may otherwise be forgotten,” she says. In fact, she suggests creating a review form with a few open-ended questions that can help capture strong reactions and flag questions that didn’t work well or questions that should be added.

It’s also helpful, she says, to note responses that were different from those given in previous interviews. Doing this may generate ideas to analyze more carefully later on.

Looking for more research design tools? Check out Proeschold-Bell’s recent article, “ Five Tips for Designing an Effective Survey .”

Proeschold-Bell recommends that interviewers pay attention to—and record—interviewees’ non-verbal responses, which often communicate feelings and attitudes that the verbal response doesn’t capture.

Rae Jean Proeschold-Bell

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Chapter 11. Interviewing

Introduction.

Interviewing people is at the heart of qualitative research. It is not merely a way to collect data but an intrinsically rewarding activity—an interaction between two people that holds the potential for greater understanding and interpersonal development. Unlike many of our daily interactions with others that are fairly shallow and mundane, sitting down with a person for an hour or two and really listening to what they have to say is a profound and deep enterprise, one that can provide not only “data” for you, the interviewer, but also self-understanding and a feeling of being heard for the interviewee. I always approach interviewing with a deep appreciation for the opportunity it gives me to understand how other people experience the world. That said, there is not one kind of interview but many, and some of these are shallower than others. This chapter will provide you with an overview of interview techniques but with a special focus on the in-depth semistructured interview guide approach, which is the approach most widely used in social science research.

An interview can be variously defined as “a conversation with a purpose” ( Lune and Berg 2018 ) and an attempt to understand the world from the point of view of the person being interviewed: “to unfold the meaning of peoples’ experiences, to uncover their lived world prior to scientific explanations” ( Kvale 2007 ). It is a form of active listening in which the interviewer steers the conversation to subjects and topics of interest to their research but also manages to leave enough space for those interviewed to say surprising things. Achieving that balance is a tricky thing, which is why most practitioners believe interviewing is both an art and a science. In my experience as a teacher, there are some students who are “natural” interviewers (often they are introverts), but anyone can learn to conduct interviews, and everyone, even those of us who have been doing this for years, can improve their interviewing skills. This might be a good time to highlight the fact that the interview is a product between interviewer and interviewee and that this product is only as good as the rapport established between the two participants. Active listening is the key to establishing this necessary rapport.

Patton ( 2002 ) makes the argument that we use interviews because there are certain things that are not observable. In particular, “we cannot observe feelings, thoughts, and intentions. We cannot observe behaviors that took place at some previous point in time. We cannot observe situations that preclude the presence of an observer. We cannot observe how people have organized the world and the meanings they attach to what goes on in the world. We have to ask people questions about those things” ( 341 ).

Types of Interviews

There are several distinct types of interviews. Imagine a continuum (figure 11.1). On one side are unstructured conversations—the kind you have with your friends. No one is in control of those conversations, and what you talk about is often random—whatever pops into your head. There is no secret, underlying purpose to your talking—if anything, the purpose is to talk to and engage with each other, and the words you use and the things you talk about are a little beside the point. An unstructured interview is a little like this informal conversation, except that one of the parties to the conversation (you, the researcher) does have an underlying purpose, and that is to understand the other person. You are not friends speaking for no purpose, but it might feel just as unstructured to the “interviewee” in this scenario. That is one side of the continuum. On the other side are fully structured and standardized survey-type questions asked face-to-face. Here it is very clear who is asking the questions and who is answering them. This doesn’t feel like a conversation at all! A lot of people new to interviewing have this ( erroneously !) in mind when they think about interviews as data collection. Somewhere in the middle of these two extreme cases is the “ semistructured” interview , in which the researcher uses an “interview guide” to gently move the conversation to certain topics and issues. This is the primary form of interviewing for qualitative social scientists and will be what I refer to as interviewing for the rest of this chapter, unless otherwise specified.

Types of Interviewing Questions: Unstructured conversations, Semi-structured interview, Structured interview, Survey questions

Informal (unstructured conversations). This is the most “open-ended” approach to interviewing. It is particularly useful in conjunction with observational methods (see chapters 13 and 14). There are no predetermined questions. Each interview will be different. Imagine you are researching the Oregon Country Fair, an annual event in Veneta, Oregon, that includes live music, artisan craft booths, face painting, and a lot of people walking through forest paths. It’s unlikely that you will be able to get a person to sit down with you and talk intensely about a set of questions for an hour and a half. But you might be able to sidle up to several people and engage with them about their experiences at the fair. You might have a general interest in what attracts people to these events, so you could start a conversation by asking strangers why they are here or why they come back every year. That’s it. Then you have a conversation that may lead you anywhere. Maybe one person tells a long story about how their parents brought them here when they were a kid. A second person talks about how this is better than Burning Man. A third person shares their favorite traveling band. And yet another enthuses about the public library in the woods. During your conversations, you also talk about a lot of other things—the weather, the utilikilts for sale, the fact that a favorite food booth has disappeared. It’s all good. You may not be able to record these conversations. Instead, you might jot down notes on the spot and then, when you have the time, write down as much as you can remember about the conversations in long fieldnotes. Later, you will have to sit down with these fieldnotes and try to make sense of all the information (see chapters 18 and 19).

Interview guide ( semistructured interview ). This is the primary type employed by social science qualitative researchers. The researcher creates an “interview guide” in advance, which she uses in every interview. In theory, every person interviewed is asked the same questions. In practice, every person interviewed is asked mostly the same topics but not always the same questions, as the whole point of a “guide” is that it guides the direction of the conversation but does not command it. The guide is typically between five and ten questions or question areas, sometimes with suggested follow-ups or prompts . For example, one question might be “What was it like growing up in Eastern Oregon?” with prompts such as “Did you live in a rural area? What kind of high school did you attend?” to help the conversation develop. These interviews generally take place in a quiet place (not a busy walkway during a festival) and are recorded. The recordings are transcribed, and those transcriptions then become the “data” that is analyzed (see chapters 18 and 19). The conventional length of one of these types of interviews is between one hour and two hours, optimally ninety minutes. Less than one hour doesn’t allow for much development of questions and thoughts, and two hours (or more) is a lot of time to ask someone to sit still and answer questions. If you have a lot of ground to cover, and the person is willing, I highly recommend two separate interview sessions, with the second session being slightly shorter than the first (e.g., ninety minutes the first day, sixty minutes the second). There are lots of good reasons for this, but the most compelling one is that this allows you to listen to the first day’s recording and catch anything interesting you might have missed in the moment and so develop follow-up questions that can probe further. This also allows the person being interviewed to have some time to think about the issues raised in the interview and go a little deeper with their answers.

Standardized questionnaire with open responses ( structured interview ). This is the type of interview a lot of people have in mind when they hear “interview”: a researcher comes to your door with a clipboard and proceeds to ask you a series of questions. These questions are all the same whoever answers the door; they are “standardized.” Both the wording and the exact order are important, as people’s responses may vary depending on how and when a question is asked. These are qualitative only in that the questions allow for “open-ended responses”: people can say whatever they want rather than select from a predetermined menu of responses. For example, a survey I collaborated on included this open-ended response question: “How does class affect one’s career success in sociology?” Some of the answers were simply one word long (e.g., “debt”), and others were long statements with stories and personal anecdotes. It is possible to be surprised by the responses. Although it’s a stretch to call this kind of questioning a conversation, it does allow the person answering the question some degree of freedom in how they answer.

Survey questionnaire with closed responses (not an interview!). Standardized survey questions with specific answer options (e.g., closed responses) are not really interviews at all, and they do not generate qualitative data. For example, if we included five options for the question “How does class affect one’s career success in sociology?”—(1) debt, (2) social networks, (3) alienation, (4) family doesn’t understand, (5) type of grad program—we leave no room for surprises at all. Instead, we would most likely look at patterns around these responses, thinking quantitatively rather than qualitatively (e.g., using regression analysis techniques, we might find that working-class sociologists were twice as likely to bring up alienation). It can sometimes be confusing for new students because the very same survey can include both closed-ended and open-ended questions. The key is to think about how these will be analyzed and to what level surprises are possible. If your plan is to turn all responses into a number and make predictions about correlations and relationships, you are no longer conducting qualitative research. This is true even if you are conducting this survey face-to-face with a real live human. Closed-response questions are not conversations of any kind, purposeful or not.

In summary, the semistructured interview guide approach is the predominant form of interviewing for social science qualitative researchers because it allows a high degree of freedom of responses from those interviewed (thus allowing for novel discoveries) while still maintaining some connection to a research question area or topic of interest. The rest of the chapter assumes the employment of this form.

Creating an Interview Guide

Your interview guide is the instrument used to bridge your research question(s) and what the people you are interviewing want to tell you. Unlike a standardized questionnaire, the questions actually asked do not need to be exactly what you have written down in your guide. The guide is meant to create space for those you are interviewing to talk about the phenomenon of interest, but sometimes you are not even sure what that phenomenon is until you start asking questions. A priority in creating an interview guide is to ensure it offers space. One of the worst mistakes is to create questions that are so specific that the person answering them will not stray. Relatedly, questions that sound “academic” will shut down a lot of respondents. A good interview guide invites respondents to talk about what is important to them, not feel like they are performing or being evaluated by you.

Good interview questions should not sound like your “research question” at all. For example, let’s say your research question is “How do patriarchal assumptions influence men’s understanding of climate change and responses to climate change?” It would be worse than unhelpful to ask a respondent, “How do your assumptions about the role of men affect your understanding of climate change?” You need to unpack this into manageable nuggets that pull your respondent into the area of interest without leading him anywhere. You could start by asking him what he thinks about climate change in general. Or, even better, whether he has any concerns about heatwaves or increased tornadoes or polar icecaps melting. Once he starts talking about that, you can ask follow-up questions that bring in issues around gendered roles, perhaps asking if he is married (to a woman) and whether his wife shares his thoughts and, if not, how they negotiate that difference. The fact is, you won’t really know the right questions to ask until he starts talking.

There are several distinct types of questions that can be used in your interview guide, either as main questions or as follow-up probes. If you remember that the point is to leave space for the respondent, you will craft a much more effective interview guide! You will also want to think about the place of time in both the questions themselves (past, present, future orientations) and the sequencing of the questions.

Researcher Note

Suggestion : As you read the next three sections (types of questions, temporality, question sequence), have in mind a particular research question, and try to draft questions and sequence them in a way that opens space for a discussion that helps you answer your research question.

Type of Questions

Experience and behavior questions ask about what a respondent does regularly (their behavior) or has done (their experience). These are relatively easy questions for people to answer because they appear more “factual” and less subjective. This makes them good opening questions. For the study on climate change above, you might ask, “Have you ever experienced an unusual weather event? What happened?” Or “You said you work outside? What is a typical summer workday like for you? How do you protect yourself from the heat?”

Opinion and values questions , in contrast, ask questions that get inside the minds of those you are interviewing. “Do you think climate change is real? Who or what is responsible for it?” are two such questions. Note that you don’t have to literally ask, “What is your opinion of X?” but you can find a way to ask the specific question relevant to the conversation you are having. These questions are a bit trickier to ask because the answers you get may depend in part on how your respondent perceives you and whether they want to please you or not. We’ve talked a fair amount about being reflective. Here is another place where this comes into play. You need to be aware of the effect your presence might have on the answers you are receiving and adjust accordingly. If you are a woman who is perceived as liberal asking a man who identifies as conservative about climate change, there is a lot of subtext that can be going on in the interview. There is no one right way to resolve this, but you must at least be aware of it.

Feeling questions are questions that ask respondents to draw on their emotional responses. It’s pretty common for academic researchers to forget that we have bodies and emotions, but people’s understandings of the world often operate at this affective level, sometimes unconsciously or barely consciously. It is a good idea to include questions that leave space for respondents to remember, imagine, or relive emotional responses to particular phenomena. “What was it like when you heard your cousin’s house burned down in that wildfire?” doesn’t explicitly use any emotion words, but it allows your respondent to remember what was probably a pretty emotional day. And if they respond emotionally neutral, that is pretty interesting data too. Note that asking someone “How do you feel about X” is not always going to evoke an emotional response, as they might simply turn around and respond with “I think that…” It is better to craft a question that actually pushes the respondent into the affective category. This might be a specific follow-up to an experience and behavior question —for example, “You just told me about your daily routine during the summer heat. Do you worry it is going to get worse?” or “Have you ever been afraid it will be too hot to get your work accomplished?”

Knowledge questions ask respondents what they actually know about something factual. We have to be careful when we ask these types of questions so that respondents do not feel like we are evaluating them (which would shut them down), but, for example, it is helpful to know when you are having a conversation about climate change that your respondent does in fact know that unusual weather events have increased and that these have been attributed to climate change! Asking these questions can set the stage for deeper questions and can ensure that the conversation makes the same kind of sense to both participants. For example, a conversation about political polarization can be put back on track once you realize that the respondent doesn’t really have a clear understanding that there are two parties in the US. Instead of asking a series of questions about Republicans and Democrats, you might shift your questions to talk more generally about political disagreements (e.g., “people against abortion”). And sometimes what you do want to know is the level of knowledge about a particular program or event (e.g., “Are you aware you can discharge your student loans through the Public Service Loan Forgiveness program?”).

Sensory questions call on all senses of the respondent to capture deeper responses. These are particularly helpful in sparking memory. “Think back to your childhood in Eastern Oregon. Describe the smells, the sounds…” Or you could use these questions to help a person access the full experience of a setting they customarily inhabit: “When you walk through the doors to your office building, what do you see? Hear? Smell?” As with feeling questions , these questions often supplement experience and behavior questions . They are another way of allowing your respondent to report fully and deeply rather than remain on the surface.

Creative questions employ illustrative examples, suggested scenarios, or simulations to get respondents to think more deeply about an issue, topic, or experience. There are many options here. In The Trouble with Passion , Erin Cech ( 2021 ) provides a scenario in which “Joe” is trying to decide whether to stay at his decent but boring computer job or follow his passion by opening a restaurant. She asks respondents, “What should Joe do?” Their answers illuminate the attraction of “passion” in job selection. In my own work, I have used a news story about an upwardly mobile young man who no longer has time to see his mother and sisters to probe respondents’ feelings about the costs of social mobility. Jessi Streib and Betsy Leondar-Wright have used single-page cartoon “scenes” to elicit evaluations of potential racial discrimination, sexual harassment, and classism. Barbara Sutton ( 2010 ) has employed lists of words (“strong,” “mother,” “victim”) on notecards she fans out and asks her female respondents to select and discuss.

Background/Demographic Questions

You most definitely will want to know more about the person you are interviewing in terms of conventional demographic information, such as age, race, gender identity, occupation, and educational attainment. These are not questions that normally open up inquiry. [1] For this reason, my practice has been to include a separate “demographic questionnaire” sheet that I ask each respondent to fill out at the conclusion of the interview. Only include those aspects that are relevant to your study. For example, if you are not exploring religion or religious affiliation, do not include questions about a person’s religion on the demographic sheet. See the example provided at the end of this chapter.

Temporality

Any type of question can have a past, present, or future orientation. For example, if you are asking a behavior question about workplace routine, you might ask the respondent to talk about past work, present work, and ideal (future) work. Similarly, if you want to understand how people cope with natural disasters, you might ask your respondent how they felt then during the wildfire and now in retrospect and whether and to what extent they have concerns for future wildfire disasters. It’s a relatively simple suggestion—don’t forget to ask about past, present, and future—but it can have a big impact on the quality of the responses you receive.

Question Sequence

Having a list of good questions or good question areas is not enough to make a good interview guide. You will want to pay attention to the order in which you ask your questions. Even though any one respondent can derail this order (perhaps by jumping to answer a question you haven’t yet asked), a good advance plan is always helpful. When thinking about sequence, remember that your goal is to get your respondent to open up to you and to say things that might surprise you. To establish rapport, it is best to start with nonthreatening questions. Asking about the present is often the safest place to begin, followed by the past (they have to know you a little bit to get there), and lastly, the future (talking about hopes and fears requires the most rapport). To allow for surprises, it is best to move from very general questions to more particular questions only later in the interview. This ensures that respondents have the freedom to bring up the topics that are relevant to them rather than feel like they are constrained to answer you narrowly. For example, refrain from asking about particular emotions until these have come up previously—don’t lead with them. Often, your more particular questions will emerge only during the course of the interview, tailored to what is emerging in conversation.

Once you have a set of questions, read through them aloud and imagine you are being asked the same questions. Does the set of questions have a natural flow? Would you be willing to answer the very first question to a total stranger? Does your sequence establish facts and experiences before moving on to opinions and values? Did you include prefatory statements, where necessary; transitions; and other announcements? These can be as simple as “Hey, we talked a lot about your experiences as a barista while in college.… Now I am turning to something completely different: how you managed friendships in college.” That is an abrupt transition, but it has been softened by your acknowledgment of that.

Probes and Flexibility

Once you have the interview guide, you will also want to leave room for probes and follow-up questions. As in the sample probe included here, you can write out the obvious probes and follow-up questions in advance. You might not need them, as your respondent might anticipate them and include full responses to the original question. Or you might need to tailor them to how your respondent answered the question. Some common probes and follow-up questions include asking for more details (When did that happen? Who else was there?), asking for elaboration (Could you say more about that?), asking for clarification (Does that mean what I think it means or something else? I understand what you mean, but someone else reading the transcript might not), and asking for contrast or comparison (How did this experience compare with last year’s event?). “Probing is a skill that comes from knowing what to look for in the interview, listening carefully to what is being said and what is not said, and being sensitive to the feedback needs of the person being interviewed” ( Patton 2002:374 ). It takes work! And energy. I and many other interviewers I know report feeling emotionally and even physically drained after conducting an interview. You are tasked with active listening and rearranging your interview guide as needed on the fly. If you only ask the questions written down in your interview guide with no deviations, you are doing it wrong. [2]

The Final Question

Every interview guide should include a very open-ended final question that allows for the respondent to say whatever it is they have been dying to tell you but you’ve forgotten to ask. About half the time they are tired too and will tell you they have nothing else to say. But incredibly, some of the most honest and complete responses take place here, at the end of a long interview. You have to realize that the person being interviewed is often discovering things about themselves as they talk to you and that this process of discovery can lead to new insights for them. Making space at the end is therefore crucial. Be sure you convey that you actually do want them to tell you more, that the offer of “anything else?” is not read as an empty convention where the polite response is no. Here is where you can pull from that active listening and tailor the final question to the particular person. For example, “I’ve asked you a lot of questions about what it was like to live through that wildfire. I’m wondering if there is anything I’ve forgotten to ask, especially because I haven’t had that experience myself” is a much more inviting final question than “Great. Anything you want to add?” It’s also helpful to convey to the person that you have the time to listen to their full answer, even if the allotted time is at the end. After all, there are no more questions to ask, so the respondent knows exactly how much time is left. Do them the courtesy of listening to them!

Conducting the Interview

Once you have your interview guide, you are on your way to conducting your first interview. I always practice my interview guide with a friend or family member. I do this even when the questions don’t make perfect sense for them, as it still helps me realize which questions make no sense, are poorly worded (too academic), or don’t follow sequentially. I also practice the routine I will use for interviewing, which goes something like this:

Introduce myself and reintroduce the study
Provide consent form and ask them to sign and retain/return copy
Ask if they have any questions about the study before we begin
Ask if I can begin recording
Ask questions (from interview guide)
Turn off the recording device
Ask if they are willing to fill out my demographic questionnaire
Collect questionnaire and, without looking at the answers, place in same folder as signed consent form
Thank them and depart

A note on remote interviewing: Interviews have traditionally been conducted face-to-face in a private or quiet public setting. You don’t want a lot of background noise, as this will make transcriptions difficult. During the recent global pandemic, many interviewers, myself included, learned the benefits of interviewing remotely. Although face-to-face is still preferable for many reasons, Zoom interviewing is not a bad alternative, and it does allow more interviews across great distances. Zoom also includes automatic transcription, which significantly cuts down on the time it normally takes to convert our conversations into “data” to be analyzed. These automatic transcriptions are not perfect, however, and you will still need to listen to the recording and clarify and clean up the transcription. Nor do automatic transcriptions include notations of body language or change of tone, which you may want to include. When interviewing remotely, you will want to collect the consent form before you meet: ask them to read, sign, and return it as an email attachment. I think it is better to ask for the demographic questionnaire after the interview, but because some respondents may never return it then, it is probably best to ask for this at the same time as the consent form, in advance of the interview.

What should you bring to the interview? I would recommend bringing two copies of the consent form (one for you and one for the respondent), a demographic questionnaire, a manila folder in which to place the signed consent form and filled-out demographic questionnaire, a printed copy of your interview guide (I print with three-inch right margins so I can jot down notes on the page next to relevant questions), a pen, a recording device, and water.

After the interview, you will want to secure the signed consent form in a locked filing cabinet (if in print) or a password-protected folder on your computer. Using Excel or a similar program that allows tables/spreadsheets, create an identifying number for your interview that links to the consent form without using the name of your respondent. For example, let’s say that I conduct interviews with US politicians, and the first person I meet with is George W. Bush. I will assign the transcription the number “INT#001” and add it to the signed consent form. [3] The signed consent form goes into a locked filing cabinet, and I never use the name “George W. Bush” again. I take the information from the demographic sheet, open my Excel spreadsheet, and add the relevant information in separate columns for the row INT#001: White, male, Republican. When I interview Bill Clinton as my second interview, I include a second row: INT#002: White, male, Democrat. And so on. The only link to the actual name of the respondent and this information is the fact that the consent form (unavailable to anyone but me) has stamped on it the interview number.

Many students get very nervous before their first interview. Actually, many of us are always nervous before the interview! But do not worry—this is normal, and it does pass. Chances are, you will be pleasantly surprised at how comfortable it begins to feel. These “purposeful conversations” are often a delight for both participants. This is not to say that sometimes things go wrong. I often have my students practice several “bad scenarios” (e.g., a respondent that you cannot get to open up; a respondent who is too talkative and dominates the conversation, steering it away from the topics you are interested in; emotions that completely take over; or shocking disclosures you are ill-prepared to handle), but most of the time, things go quite well. Be prepared for the unexpected, but know that the reason interviews are so popular as a technique of data collection is that they are usually richly rewarding for both participants.

One thing that I stress to my methods students and remind myself about is that interviews are still conversations between people. If there’s something you might feel uncomfortable asking someone about in a “normal” conversation, you will likely also feel a bit of discomfort asking it in an interview. Maybe more importantly, your respondent may feel uncomfortable. Social research—especially about inequality—can be uncomfortable. And it’s easy to slip into an abstract, intellectualized, or removed perspective as an interviewer. This is one reason trying out interview questions is important. Another is that sometimes the question sounds good in your head but doesn’t work as well out loud in practice. I learned this the hard way when a respondent asked me how I would answer the question I had just posed, and I realized that not only did I not really know how I would answer it, but I also wasn’t quite as sure I knew what I was asking as I had thought.

—Elizabeth M. Lee, Associate Professor of Sociology at Saint Joseph’s University, author of Class and Campus Life , and co-author of Geographies of Campus Inequality

How Many Interviews?

Your research design has included a targeted number of interviews and a recruitment plan (see chapter 5). Follow your plan, but remember that “ saturation ” is your goal. You interview as many people as you can until you reach a point at which you are no longer surprised by what they tell you. This means not that no one after your first twenty interviews will have surprising, interesting stories to tell you but rather that the picture you are forming about the phenomenon of interest to you from a research perspective has come into focus, and none of the interviews are substantially refocusing that picture. That is when you should stop collecting interviews. Note that to know when you have reached this, you will need to read your transcripts as you go. More about this in chapters 18 and 19.

Your Final Product: The Ideal Interview Transcript

A good interview transcript will demonstrate a subtly controlled conversation by the skillful interviewer. In general, you want to see replies that are about one paragraph long, not short sentences and not running on for several pages. Although it is sometimes necessary to follow respondents down tangents, it is also often necessary to pull them back to the questions that form the basis of your research study. This is not really a free conversation, although it may feel like that to the person you are interviewing.

Final Tips from an Interview Master

Annette Lareau is arguably one of the masters of the trade. In Listening to People , she provides several guidelines for good interviews and then offers a detailed example of an interview gone wrong and how it could be addressed (please see the “Further Readings” at the end of this chapter). Here is an abbreviated version of her set of guidelines: (1) interview respondents who are experts on the subjects of most interest to you (as a corollary, don’t ask people about things they don’t know); (2) listen carefully and talk as little as possible; (3) keep in mind what you want to know and why you want to know it; (4) be a proactive interviewer (subtly guide the conversation); (5) assure respondents that there aren’t any right or wrong answers; (6) use the respondent’s own words to probe further (this both allows you to accurately identify what you heard and pushes the respondent to explain further); (7) reuse effective probes (don’t reinvent the wheel as you go—if repeating the words back works, do it again and again); (8) focus on learning the subjective meanings that events or experiences have for a respondent; (9) don’t be afraid to ask a question that draws on your own knowledge (unlike trial lawyers who are trained never to ask a question for which they don’t already know the answer, sometimes it’s worth it to ask risky questions based on your hypotheses or just plain hunches); (10) keep thinking while you are listening (so difficult…and important); (11) return to a theme raised by a respondent if you want further information; (12) be mindful of power inequalities (and never ever coerce a respondent to continue the interview if they want out); (13) take control with overly talkative respondents; (14) expect overly succinct responses, and develop strategies for probing further; (15) balance digging deep and moving on; (16) develop a plan to deflect questions (e.g., let them know you are happy to answer any questions at the end of the interview, but you don’t want to take time away from them now); and at the end, (17) check to see whether you have asked all your questions. You don’t always have to ask everyone the same set of questions, but if there is a big area you have forgotten to cover, now is the time to recover ( Lareau 2021:93–103 ).

Sample: Demographic Questionnaire

ASA Taskforce on First-Generation and Working-Class Persons in Sociology – Class Effects on Career Success

Supplementary Demographic Questionnaire

Thank you for your participation in this interview project. We would like to collect a few pieces of key demographic information from you to supplement our analyses. Your answers to these questions will be kept confidential and stored by ID number. All of your responses here are entirely voluntary!

What best captures your race/ethnicity? (please check any/all that apply)

White (Non Hispanic/Latina/o/x)
Black or African American
Hispanic, Latino/a/x of Spanish
Asian or Asian American
American Indian or Alaska Native
Middle Eastern or North African
Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
Other : (Please write in: ________________)

What is your current position?

Grad Student
Full Professor

Please check any and all of the following that apply to you:

I identify as a working-class academic
I was the first in my family to graduate from college
I grew up poor

What best reflects your gender?

Transgender female/Transgender woman
Transgender male/Transgender man
Gender queer/ Gender nonconforming

Anything else you would like us to know about you?

Example: Interview Guide

In this example, follow-up prompts are italicized. Note the sequence of questions. That second question often elicits an entire life history , answering several later questions in advance.

Introduction Script/Question

Thank you for participating in our survey of ASA members who identify as first-generation or working-class. As you may have heard, ASA has sponsored a taskforce on first-generation and working-class persons in sociology and we are interested in hearing from those who so identify. Your participation in this interview will help advance our knowledge in this area.

The first thing we would like to as you is why you have volunteered to be part of this study? What does it mean to you be first-gen or working class? Why were you willing to be interviewed?
How did you decide to become a sociologist?
Can you tell me a little bit about where you grew up? ( prompts: what did your parent(s) do for a living? What kind of high school did you attend?)
Has this identity been salient to your experience? (how? How much?)
How welcoming was your grad program? Your first academic employer?
Why did you decide to pursue sociology at the graduate level?
Did you experience culture shock in college? In graduate school?
Has your FGWC status shaped how you’ve thought about where you went to school? debt? etc?
Were you mentored? How did this work (not work)? How might it?
What did you consider when deciding where to go to grad school? Where to apply for your first position?
What, to you, is a mark of career success? Have you achieved that success? What has helped or hindered your pursuit of success?
Do you think sociology, as a field, cares about prestige?
Let’s talk a little bit about intersectionality. How does being first-gen/working class work alongside other identities that are important to you?
What do your friends and family think about your career? Have you had any difficulty relating to family members or past friends since becoming highly educated?
Do you have any debt from college/grad school? Are you concerned about this? Could you explain more about how you paid for college/grad school? (here, include assistance from family, fellowships, scholarships, etc.)
(You’ve mentioned issues or obstacles you had because of your background.) What could have helped? Or, who or what did? Can you think of fortuitous moments in your career?
Do you have any regrets about the path you took?
Is there anything else you would like to add? Anything that the Taskforce should take note of, that we did not ask you about here?

Qualitative Research 101: Interviewing

5 Common Mistakes To Avoid When Undertaking Interviews

By: David Phair (PhD) and Kerryn Warren (PhD) | March 2022

Undertaking interviews is potentially the most important step in the qualitative research process. If you don’t collect useful, useable data in your interviews, you’ll struggle through the rest of your dissertation or thesis. Having helped numerous students with their research over the years, we’ve noticed some common interviewing mistakes that first-time researchers make. In this post, we’ll discuss five costly interview-related mistakes and outline useful strategies to avoid making these.

Overview: 5 Interviewing Mistakes

Not having a clear interview strategy /plan
Not having good interview techniques /skills
Not securing a suitable location and equipment
Not having a basic risk management plan
Not keeping your “ golden thread ” front of mind

1. Not having a clear interview strategy

The first common mistake that we’ll look at is that of starting the interviewing process without having first come up with a clear interview strategy or plan of action. While it’s natural to be keen to get started engaging with your interviewees, a lack of planning can result in a mess of data and inconsistency between interviews.

There are several design choices to decide on and plan for before you start interviewing anyone. Some of the most important questions you need to ask yourself before conducting interviews include:

What are the guiding research aims and research questions of my study?
Will I use a structured, semi-structured or unstructured interview approach?
How will I record the interviews (audio or video)?
Who will be interviewed and by whom ?
What ethics and data law considerations do I need to adhere to?
How will I analyze my data?

Let’s take a quick look at some of these.

The core objective of the interviewing process is to generate useful data that will help you address your overall research aims. Therefore, your interviews need to be conducted in a way that directly links to your research aims, objectives and research questions (i.e. your “golden thread”). This means that you need to carefully consider the questions you’ll ask to ensure that they align with and feed into your golden thread. If any question doesn’t align with this, you may want to consider scrapping it.

Another important design choice is whether you’ll use an unstructured, semi-structured or structured interview approach . For semi-structured interviews, you will have a list of questions that you plan to ask and these questions will be open-ended in nature. You’ll also allow the discussion to digress from the core question set if something interesting comes up. This means that the type of information generated might differ a fair amount between interviews.

Contrasted to this, a structured approach to interviews is more rigid, where a specific set of closed questions is developed and asked for each interviewee in exactly the same order. Closed questions have a limited set of answers, that are often single-word answers. Therefore, you need to think about what you’re trying to achieve with your research project (i.e. your research aims) and decided on which approach would be best suited in your case.

It is also important to plan ahead with regards to who will be interviewed and how. You need to think about how you will approach the possible interviewees to get their cooperation, who will conduct the interviews, when to conduct the interviews and how to record the interviews. For each of these decisions, it’s also essential to make sure that all ethical considerations and data protection laws are taken into account.

Finally, you should think through how you plan to analyze the data (i.e., your qualitative analysis method) generated by the interviews. Different types of analysis rely on different types of data, so you need to ensure you’re asking the right types of questions and correctly guiding your respondents.

Simply put, you need to have a plan of action regarding the specifics of your interview approach before you start collecting data. If not, you’ll end up drifting in your approach from interview to interview, which will result in inconsistent, unusable data.

Your interview questions need to directly link to your research aims, objectives and research questions - your "golden thread”.

2. Not having good interview technique

While you’re generally not expected to become you to be an expert interviewer for a dissertation or thesis, it is important to practice good interview technique and develop basic interviewing skills .

Let’s go through some basics that will help the process along.

Firstly, before the interview , make sure you know your interview questions well and have a clear idea of what you want from the interview. Naturally, the specificity of your questions will depend on whether you’re taking a structured, semi-structured or unstructured approach, but you still need a consistent starting point . Ideally, you should develop an interview guide beforehand (more on this later) that details your core question and links these to the research aims, objectives and research questions.

Before you undertake any interviews, it’s a good idea to do a few mock interviews with friends or family members. This will help you get comfortable with the interviewer role, prepare for potentially unexpected answers and give you a good idea of how long the interview will take to conduct. In the interviewing process, you’re likely to encounter two kinds of challenging interviewees ; the two-word respondent and the respondent who meanders and babbles. Therefore, you should prepare yourself for both and come up with a plan to respond to each in a way that will allow the interview to continue productively.

To begin the formal interview , provide the person you are interviewing with an overview of your research. This will help to calm their nerves (and yours) and contextualize the interaction. Ultimately, you want the interviewee to feel comfortable and be willing to be open and honest with you, so it’s useful to start in a more casual, relaxed fashion and allow them to ask any questions they may have. From there, you can ease them into the rest of the questions.

As the interview progresses , avoid asking leading questions (i.e., questions that assume something about the interviewee or their response). Make sure that you speak clearly and slowly , using plain language and being ready to paraphrase questions if the person you are interviewing misunderstands. Be particularly careful with interviewing English second language speakers to ensure that you’re both on the same page.

Engage with the interviewee by listening to them carefully and acknowledging that you are listening to them by smiling or nodding. Show them that you’re interested in what they’re saying and thank them for their openness as appropriate. This will also encourage your interviewee to respond openly.

Need a helping hand?

3. Not securing a suitable location and quality equipment

Where you conduct your interviews and the equipment you use to record them both play an important role in how the process unfolds. Therefore, you need to think carefully about each of these variables before you start interviewing.

Poor location: A bad location can result in the quality of your interviews being compromised, interrupted, or cancelled. If you are conducting physical interviews, you’ll need a location that is quiet, safe, and welcoming . It’s very important that your location of choice is not prone to interruptions (the workplace office is generally problematic, for example) and has suitable facilities (such as water, a bathroom, and snacks).

If you are conducting online interviews , you need to consider a few other factors. Importantly, you need to make sure that both you and your respondent have access to a good, stable internet connection and electricity. Always check before the time that both of you know how to use the relevant software and it’s accessible (sometimes meeting platforms are blocked by workplace policies or firewalls). It’s also good to have alternatives in place (such as WhatsApp, Zoom, or Teams) to cater for these types of issues.

Poor equipment: Using poor-quality recording equipment or using equipment incorrectly means that you will have trouble transcribing, coding, and analyzing your interviews. This can be a major issue , as some of your interview data may go completely to waste if not recorded well. So, make sure that you use good-quality recording equipment and that you know how to use it correctly.

To avoid issues, you should always conduct test recordings before every interview to ensure that you can use the relevant equipment properly. It’s also a good idea to spot check each recording afterwards, just to make sure it was recorded as planned. If your equipment uses batteries, be sure to always carry a spare set.

Where you conduct your interviews and the equipment you use to record them play an important role in how the process unfolds.

4. Not having a basic risk management plan

Many possible issues can arise during the interview process. Not planning for these issues can mean that you are left with compromised data that might not be useful to you. Therefore, it’s important to map out some sort of risk management plan ahead of time, considering the potential risks, how you’ll minimize their probability and how you’ll manage them if they materialize.

Common potential issues related to the actual interview include cancellations (people pulling out), delays (such as getting stuck in traffic), language and accent differences (especially in the case of poor internet connections), issues with internet connections and power supply. Other issues can also occur in the interview itself. For example, the interviewee could drift off-topic, or you might encounter an interviewee who does not say much at all.

You can prepare for these potential issues by considering possible worst-case scenarios and preparing a response for each scenario. For instance, it is important to plan a backup date just in case your interviewee cannot make it to the first meeting you scheduled with them. It’s also a good idea to factor in a 30-minute gap between your interviews for the instances where someone might be late, or an interview runs overtime for other reasons. Make sure that you also plan backup questions that could be used to bring a respondent back on topic if they start rambling, or questions to encourage those who are saying too little.

In general, it’s best practice to plan to conduct more interviews than you think you need (this is called oversampling ). Doing so will allow you some room for error if there are interviews that don’t go as planned, or if some interviewees withdraw. If you need 10 interviews, it is a good idea to plan for 15. Likely, a few will cancel , delay, or not produce useful data.

You should consider all the potential risks, how you’ll reduce their probability and how you'll respond if they do indeed materialize.

5. Not keeping your golden thread front of mind

We touched on this a little earlier, but it is a key point that should be central to your entire research process. You don’t want to end up with pages and pages of data after conducting your interviews and realize that it is not useful to your research aims . Your research aims, objectives and research questions – i.e., your golden thread – should influence every design decision and should guide the interview process at all times.

A useful way to avoid this mistake is by developing an interview guide before you begin interviewing your respondents. An interview guide is a document that contains all of your questions with notes on how each of the interview questions is linked to the research question(s) of your study. You can also include your research aims and objectives here for a more comprehensive linkage.

You can easily create an interview guide by drawing up a table with one column containing your core interview questions . Then add another column with your research questions , another with expectations that you may have in light of the relevant literature and another with backup or follow-up questions . As mentioned, you can also bring in your research aims and objectives to help you connect them all together. If you’d like, you can download a copy of our free interview guide here .

Recap: Qualitative Interview Mistakes

In this post, we’ve discussed 5 common costly mistakes that are easy to make in the process of planning and conducting qualitative interviews.

To recap, these include:

If you have any questions about these interviewing mistakes, drop a comment below. Alternatively, if you’re interested in getting 1-on-1 help with your thesis or dissertation , check out our dissertation coaching service or book a free initial consultation with one of our friendly Grad Coaches.

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Interview Research

Research Methods Guide: Interview Research

Introduction
Research Design & Method
Survey Research
Data Analysis
Resources & Consultation

Tutorial Videos: Interview Method

Interview as a Method for Qualitative Research

Goals of Interview Research

Preferences
They help you explain, better understand, and explore research subjects' opinions, behavior, experiences, phenomenon, etc.
Interview questions are usually open-ended questions so that in-depth information will be collected.

Mode of Data Collection

There are several types of interviews, including:

Face-to-Face
Online (e.g. Skype, Googlehangout, etc)

FAQ: Conducting Interview Research

What are the important steps involved in interviews?

Think about who you will interview
Think about what kind of information you want to obtain from interviews
Think about why you want to pursue in-depth information around your research topic
Introduce yourself and explain the aim of the interview
Devise your questions so interviewees can help answer your research question
Have a sequence to your questions / topics by grouping them in themes
Make sure you can easily move back and forth between questions / topics
Make sure your questions are clear and easy to understand
Do not ask leading questions
Do you want to bring a second interviewer with you?
Do you want to bring a notetaker?
Do you want to record interviews? If so, do you have time to transcribe interview recordings?
Where will you interview people? Where is the setting with the least distraction?
How long will each interview take?
Do you need to address terms of confidentiality?

Do I have to choose either a survey or interviewing method?

No. In fact, many researchers use a mixed method - interviews can be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to surveys, e.g., to further investigate their responses.

Is training an interviewer important?

Yes, since the interviewer can control the quality of the result, training the interviewer becomes crucial. If more than one interviewers are involved in your study, it is important to have every interviewer understand the interviewing procedure and rehearse the interviewing process before beginning the formal study.

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Last Updated: Aug 21, 2023 10:42 AM

Imperial College London Imperial College London

Best practice for interviews

At the root of interviewing is an interest in understanding the lived experiences of other people (Seidman, 2006). Interviews invite the participant to make sense of their own experiences and to share these experiences with the researcher. Interviews are therefore an appropriate method when researchers want to learn from and understand the experiences of others. Important educational issues facing Imperial College include the wellbeing of staff and students, and their experiences of new curricula and pedagogies such as active learning and technologically-enhanced learning. Interviews offer powerful insight into individual experiences of these issues, which can help Imperial improve overall. If you are new to interviewing, it might seem like an unnatural situation. However, interviews are great opportunities for collecting rich data. Participants open up their lives for us to investigate. The data that emerge from interviews is qualitative, often in the form of text from interview transcripts. This data can help us to describe people, explain phenomena, and understand experiences, among other things (Jacob & Furgerson, 2012). Even if you have experience of interviews, these tips can help you make the most out of your interview.

Best practice interviews accordion widget

Create a comfortable environment in the interview setting.

Establishing an environment and setting where the participant will be comfortable is paramount to conducting a successful interview. The location of the interview itself should be comfortable for the participant (Herzog, 2012). If possible, try to conduct the interview somewhere that the participant knows well. Choose a quiet, private place (Jacob & Furgerson, 2012). For example, it would not be appropriate to conduct an interview discussing sensitive topics like a student’s sense of belonging in a very public setting like the Junior Common Room, where there is an increased chance that your interview might be overheard, and the participant may not feel comfortable to speak freely about the topic as a result (Elwood & Martin, 2000).

Establish trust and rapport with the participants

It is important that your participants feel comfortable being honest with you in their responses to your questions. When building rapport, be especially aware of your tone when you ask questions: convey that you are interested, and ask questions in a way that invites all types of responses. To help participants feel more at ease:

Start by asking for some background information about the participant, like where they are from, what they are studying, and other background questions that are relevant to the study (Jacob & Furgerson, 2012).
Make yourself more relatable to the participant by sharing some personal information about yourself. For example, if a participant seems hesitant perhaps ask him or her about something that they've expressed interest in earlier in the interview. Then, you can redirect the conversation to the interview questions that you've already established.

Be cautious of “over rapport,” which happens if a participant tries to please the interviewer by saying what he or she thinks is expected of them (Grinyer & Thomas, 2012).

Follow an interview protocol

The interview protocol includes your interview questions, but it can also be much more than that (Jacob & Fuergerson, 2012). A good interview protocol will remind you to conduct proper procedures such as collecting informed consent (see below), checking that audio equipment is working and that the participant is happy to be recorded. Also, in addition to your main interview questions, the protocol could include some prompts for you to use if the participant struggles to understand the question or to provide answers, or if the participant’s responses stray from the topic. It may also include a script for you to read off to open and close the interview. You don’t always need to include all of the above on your interview protocol, but it is advised to at least have your list of interview questions written down.

Collect informed consent

Most often, this is done by providing the participant with a participant information sheet explaining the research and detailing the risks and benefits associated with their participation in the interview, and a consent form for the participant to sign which indicates that they have understood the participant information sheet and they agree to participant in the interview with you. Please consult the Imperial College London Education Ethics Review Process (EERP) webpage for resources on participant information sheets and informed consent forms.

Be an active listener

Remember to maintain eye contact to convey compassion and that you are listening (boyd, 2015). If a participant’s response seems unclear, do not be afraid to ask for clarification. Try to make the interview feel like a natural conversation. This means that you should refrain from taking too many notes during the interview. It is advisable to audio or video record the interview with the permission of the participant so that you can focus on the conversation. However, it is advisable to prepare note-taking equipment (Talmage, 2012), both as a back-up to recording equipment and to make certain key notes during the interview. These could be key conceptual ideas that spring to mind during the interview or simply points that you would like to ask more about later in the interview. You may also want to tick things off your interview protocol. Consider a backup recording option - for example, if you use an audio recorder as your primary device, consider preparing your phone or tablet to record the interview as a backup option.

Be mindful of power relations

Social roles shape the interview process (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006). If you are a member of staff interviewing students or colleagues, there are likely to be power relations and these may affect the interview (Wang & Yan, 2012). For example, a student you are interviewing might feel they need to give you the ‘right’ answer because you are in a position of authority in the Imperial context. Reassure participants that there are no right or wrong answers (Greene & Hogan, 2005), that their experiences are important, and that their participation is completely voluntary and that there will be absolutely no negative consequences of withdrawing from the interview. If you are interviewing students to evaluate a particular module, you may wish to emphasise that their participation in the interview will have no impact on their grades.

Consider the ethical implications of interviewing students within your class or department. It is better to have a neutral/external interviewer to interview your students instead, particularly if you are using interviews to evaluate your teaching practice or the effectiveness of your module.

Check your bias

Be careful not to let your own assumptions get in the way of their hearing perspectives or stories that you do not expect to hear (Johnson & Rowlands, 2012). Have an open mind, and pay equal attention to all of your interview participants to collect and make the most of rich data.

boyd, d. (2015). Making Sense of Teen Life: Strategies for Capturing Ethnographic Data in a Networked Era. In E. Hargittai, & C. Sandvig, Digital Research Confidential: The Secrets of Studying Behavior Online (pp. 79-102). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

DiCicco-Bloom, B., & Crabtree, B. F. (2006). The qualitative research interview. Medical Education, 40 , 314-321.

Elwood, S. A., & Martin, D. G. (2000). 'Placing' Interviews: Location and Scales of Power in Qualitative Research. Professional Geographer, 52 (4), 649-657.

Gehlbach, H. (2015). User Guide: Panorama Student Survey. Boston: Panorama Education. Retrieved from https://www.panoramaed.com/panorama-student-survey

Gehlbach, H., & Artino Jr., A. R. (2018). The survey checklist (manifesto). Academic Medicine, 93 (3), 360-366. Retrieved from https://journals.lww.com/academicmedicine/fulltext/2018/03000/The_Survey_Checklist__Manifesto_.18.aspx#pdf-link

Gehlbach, H., & Brinkworth, M. E. (2011). Measure twice, cut down error: A process for enhancing the validity of survey scales. Review of General Psychology, 15 (4), 380-387. Retrieved from https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/8138346/Gehlbach%20-%20Measure%20twice%208-31-11.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Greene, S., & Hogan, D. (2005). Exploring Meaning in Interviews with Children. In S. Greene, & D. Hogan (Eds.), Researching Children's Experience (pp. 142-158). London, UK: SAGE Publications Ltd.

Grinyer, A., & Thomas, C. (2012). The Value of Interviewing on Multiple Locations or Longitudinally. In J. F. Gubrium, J. A. Holstein, A. B. Marvasti, & K. D. McKinney (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research (2nd ed., pp. 219-230). London, U.K.: SAGE.

Herzog, H. (2012). Interview Location and Its Social Meaning. In J. F. Gubrium, J. A. Holstein, A. B. Marvasti, & K. D. McKinney (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research (2nd ed., pp. 207-217). London, U.K.: SAGE.

Jacob, S. A., & Furgerson, S. P. (2012). Writing Interview Protocols and Conducting Interviews: Tips for Students New to the Field of Qualitative Research. The Qualitative Report, 17 (2), 1-10.

Johnson, J. M., & Rowlands, T. (2012). The Interpersonal Dynamics of In-depth Interviewing. In J. F. Gubrium, J. A. Holstein, A. B. Marvasti, & K. D. McKinney (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research (2nd ed., pp. 99-113). London, U.K.: SAGE.

Krosnick, J. A., & Presser, S. (2010). Question and questionnaire design. In P. V. Marsden, & J. D. Wright (Eds.), Handbook of Survey Research. Bingley, England: Emerald Group Publishing.

Schwarz, N. (1999). Self-reports: how the questions shape the answers. American Psychology, 54 , 93-105.

Seidman, I. (2006). Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and the Social Sciences (3rd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.

Talmage, J. B. (2012). Listening to, and for, the Research Interview. In J. F. Gubrium, J. A. Holstein, A. B. Marvasti, & K. D. McKinney (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research (2nd ed., pp. 295-304). London, U.K.: SAGE.

Wang, J., & Yan, Y. (2012). The Interview Question. In J. F. Gubrium, J. A. Holstein, A. B. Marvasti, & K. D. McKinney (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research (2nd ed., pp. 231-242). London, U.K.: SAGE.

Warren, C. A. (2012). Interviewing as Social Interaction. In J. F. Gubrium, J. A. Holstein, A. B. Marvasti, & K. D. McKinney (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research (2nd ed., pp. 129-142). London, U.K.: SAGE.

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Conducting Research Interviews

The interviewer mindset, quick tips for preparing, developing questions.

Conducting the Interview
Applying & Using the Interview

While the research interview is a one-on-one interaction, it's not a normal conversation. As the interviewer, it's expected that you:

Are knowledgeable on the topic of the interview (this may require some background research)
Are able to structure and guide the interview to keep it relevant but flexible
Are able to remember and interpret the information gained in the interview
Are sensitive to the interviewee's position and their rights
Do preliminary research on the topic and the interviewee so that you enter the interview with an understanding of what will be discussed.
Reflect on your goals. What should the interview accomplish? What is important to have recorded in the interview, and why is it important? How can you make the process easy for the interviewee?
Create a list of topics and questions to explore during the interview. This should not be a strict checklist or a script; rather, it should function as a guide to ensure that you cover all of the content and that the interview stays focused.
Create an open line of dialog with your interviewee before the interview so that you are comfortable with each other. This can involve going over the process, offering to answer any of their questions, verifying your time and place for the interview, etc.
Choose and thoroughly familiarize yourself with your recording equipment to minimize any potential issues that may arise during the actual interview.
Choose an interview space that is relaxed, comfortable, and quiet. You are having a conversation with your interviewee, not an interrogation.
If you have never interviewed before, feel free to practice for the interview with friends, family, or peers. This will make sure you are prepared for the real thing.

Characteristics of good interview questions

Open-ended and elicit a long response from the interviewee (can't be answered yes/no or with one word)
Focus on the experience of the interviewee
Don't lead the interviewee toward a particular response
Address a single issue/point (i.e. don't ask multi-part questions)

Writing interview questions

Harvard's Department of Sociology provides some steps to help guide you in the process of writing interview questions (see the link to the guide below).

Write down the larger research questions of the study. Outline the broad areas of knowledge that are relevant to answering these questions.
Develop questions within each of these major areas, shaping them to fit particular kinds of respondents. The goal here is to tap into their experiences and expertise.
Adjust the language of the interview according to the respondent (child, professional, etc.).
Take care to word questions so that respondents are motivated to answer as completely and honestly as possible.
Ask “how” questions rather than “why” questions to get stories of process rather than acceptable “accounts” of behavior. “How did you come to join this group . . .?”
Develop probes that will elicit more detailed and elaborate responses to key questions. The more detail, the better!
Begin the interview with a “warm-up” question—something that the respondent can answer easily and at some length (though not too long). It doesn’t have to pertain directly to what you are trying to find out (although it might), but this initial rapport-building will put you more at ease with one another and thus will make the rest of the interview flow more smoothly.
Think about the logical flow of the interview. What topics should come first? What follows more or less “naturally”? This may take some adjustment after several interviews.
Difficult or potentially embarrassing questions should be asked toward the end of the interview, when rapport has been established.
The last question should provide some closure for the interview, and leave the respondent feeling empowered, listened to, or otherwise glad that they talked to you.
Strategies for Qualitative Interviews This handy guide from Harvard's Department of Sociology provides guidance on getting into the interviewer mindset as well as developing and writing interview questions.

Depending on the nature of your assignment or research, you may or may not need to record and transcribe the interview. Review the pros and cons to determine whether recording and transcribing will be worthwhile for you.

Helps you to recall more details of the interview
Helps you to thoroughly examine the interview
It allows other researchers to interpret and reuse the data in new ways
May be off-putting to interviewees or make them feel pressured
Transcribing is a time-consuming process; even using a transcription software requires a detailed review of the text

"Strategies for Qualitative Interviews" (n.d.) Harvard. See link above..

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v.5(3); 2021 Jul

A practical guide for conducting qualitative research in medical education: Part 1—How to interview

Jaime jordan.

1 Department of Emergency Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles California, USA

2 Department of Emergency Medicine, Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles California, USA

Samuel O. Clarke

3 Department of Emergency Medicine, University of California, Davis Health System, Sacramento California, USA

Wendy C. Coates

4 Department of Emergency Medicine, Harbor–UCLA Medical Center, Torrance California, USA

INTRODUCTION

Qualitative research plays an important role in advancing practice and policy in education both inside and out of the field of medicine. 1 , 2 Qualitative methods allow for in‐depth understanding of human behavior and social context to provide clues as to “how” and “why” certain phenomena are occurring. 3 This can help inform understanding of teacher or learner behavior, the development of theoretical models to explain learning events, and creation of best practices for instruction. 4 There are many options for collecting qualitative data and the source of data will be dependent on the research question and aim of the study. Examples include, but are not limited to, interviews, focus groups, observations, or artifact/document analysis. 5

Interviews are particularly helpful in illuminating individual perspectives or experiences surrounding a specific topic or phenomenon, especially when little is known about the targeted question or when substantial depth of opinion is desired. 5 Before embarking on any study involving interviews, a resource‐intensive process, it is important to reflect on the research question and study aim(s) to ensure that they are aligned with interviewing as a method that is compatible with the conceptual framework of the study. “How” and “why” questions that require the description of individual perspectives and experiences for understanding are especially well suited to interview methodology. An example research question appropriate for interviewing is: “How does training in a county hospital influence career choice in graduates?”

It is important to be rigorous in the conduct of interviews to enhance trustworthiness of findings. The purpose of this paper is to describe a step‐by‐step process of how to conduct interviews when this method is deemed ideal for a particular research question which has been approved or exempted by one's institutional review board.

QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT

Once interviews have been selected as an appropriate data collection method for the study, researchers must develop a questionnaire or protocol. Based on the specific research question being addressed, the questionnaire may be more or less structured. An unstructured questionnaire may only include a few very broad questions or none at all, allowing the interviewer freedom to explore participants’ experiences and probe deeply into complex issues. An unstructured questionnaire can be a flexible option, especially when very little is known about the topic. In contrast, a structured questionnaire is more rigid and dictates that the same set of predetermined questions be asked of all participants. This type of questionnaire allows for easier replication and analysis, but may miss important spontaneously proffered information if not included in the questionnaire. Often, in medical education, researchers utilize semistructured questionnaires that provide a framework for the interview but also allow the interviewer to probe more deeply into responses of the participants. The types of questions asked should be based on the study aim but may include questions about experience, emotions, or behavior; questions about participant opinions and values; knowledge questions; and background or demographic questions. It is important that questions are stated objectively and are not leading. It is also essential that the researcher reflect on their own personal views and biases to mitigate the transference of these into the questionnaire. Asking an experienced qualitative researcher to review the questionnaire prior to interviews can also help to identify and address potentially biased questions. The interview questions should flow smoothly, like a natural conversation that can be accomplished by organizing the questionnaire into subtopics. Attention to the complexity of the questions as well as the sensitivity of the topic is highly valuable. Generally, it is preferred to move from simple to complex questions and to save questions on sensitive topics for later in the interview to allow for rapport to be established between the interviewer and the interviewee. The nature of the subjects and the complexity of the research question need to be considered when deciding on the length of the questionnaire, but it is important to be mindful of participants’ time and attention span.

VALIDITY EVIDENCE

During the development process, it is important that researchers gather validity evidence to support the use of the questionnaire. 6 While a comprehensive discussion on validity is beyond the scope of this paper, there are many ways to categorize validity evidence. Generally speaking, the more evidence gathered in support of questionnaire development or choice, the more trustworthy the findings that follow from the use of that questionnaire will be. One example framework that is widely used in education is Messick's validity framework, which describes five types of validity evidence: content, response process, internal structure, relationship to other variables, and consequential. 7 , 8 For interview questionnaire development it is often most feasible and relevant to focus on content and response process validity evidence. Researchers can gather content validity evidence by reviewing the literature, seeking input from experts in the field, or building consensus (e.g., Delphi process) and using this information to inform interview questions. 9 Response process validity evidence can be obtained by reading the questionnaire items aloud among study group members or piloting and soliciting feedback on the questionnaire through cognitive interviewing with a small representative sample (who will not be included in the study). It is prudent to ask the pilot test subjects at the conclusion of the process if they have any input about their experience as an interviewee and to point out awkward parts of the interview or make suggestions for editing or important missing content. The questionnaire can then be modified and refined based on feedback from piloting. This may include a reordering of questions to ensure better flow, addition of typical clarifying questions, consolidation of redundant questions, deletion of controversial or otherwise unhelpful questions, and inclusion of additional important content. Piloting can be particularly helpful to provide the interviewer with additional practice and may provide insight into the type of information that may be found during the actual study and insight into any emotional responses to anticipate.

SELECTION OF SUBJECTS

Once the questionnaire has been finalized, the next step is to select subjects to interview. This is based on a number of factors, most importantly the research question, but also availability of contacts. Qualitative researchers typically employ one or more purposeful or purposive sampling strategies (as opposed to random samples often used in quantitative research) to deliberately gather data from subjects who are most likely to be able to address their research questions. Examples of purposeful sampling strategies include: homogenous sampling—where participants share a common characteristic, snowball sampling—where the researcher begins with a small number of interviewees and queries them for suggestions as to relevant contacts, and stratified sampling—where key characteristics (strata) are identified and participants are invited from each of these strata. 10

INVITATION TO INTERVIEW

No matter what sampling method(s) is chosen, a standard invitation must be created (e.g., email, letter, or script for verbal invitations). This should include a personalized introduction of the researcher, the purpose of the study, a description of what participation entails (including a realistic expectation of time commitment and what portions of the interview will be recorded), and any compensation for participation. This invitation should adhere to the standards set forth by the researcher's institutional review board (IRB). In the invitation, it is helpful to include potential dates/times for scheduling the interview and/or to allow the participant to offer others. Additionally, an offer can also be made to conduct scheduling through the participant's administrative assistant. The more streamlined the process for the subject, the more successful the researcher will be in gaining participation. If the researcher is interviewing people with whom they are well acquainted, it may be helpful to include a personal note at the beginning of the correspondence about the plans and direct them to read the included formal invitation.

INTERVIEW CONDUCTION

The quality of data obtained during an interview is highly dependent on the interviewer. For novice interviewers, it is beneficial to conduct a few rehearsal interviews in advance of formal data collection. Reviewing the recordings (audio or visual) of these practice interviews and seeking feedback from mock interviewees, can hone interview skills. Consulting or observing experienced interviewers can provide valuable insights and tips for success. For unstructured or semistructured interviews, we recommend that one researcher familiar with the research question and content area conduct all of the interviews. This ensures that the interviewer has an understanding of the overall picture and will be well equipped to guide questions. This is less important when using a structured questionnaire as multiple interviewers could be trained to read a standard script.

The interviewer should ensure that their environment is quiet and free from distractions and that the participant feels comfortable and knows what to expect from the interview process. From an ethical perspective, the researcher must also consider any implicit or explicit power differentials or cultural differences between the researcher and the interviewee. While most IRBs consider the relationship between supervisors and trainees in their review, it may be wise for the researcher to carefully consider whether they should interview colleagues or anyone with a perceived conflict of interest. It is also important to reflect on any cultural differences and anticipate barriers these may raise during the interview. Asking participants how they view the interview process and for any preferred norms of conduction prior to starting the interview can help navigate these differences. Taking time to explain the structure of the interview, explicitly communicating what information will be recorded (i.e., audio, video, both) and what will happen after the interview concludes is vital. Next, the researcher should invite the interviewee to ask any questions and obtain their consent to proceed with the interview. There are many recording options available ranging from simple handheld voice recorders to video conferencing platforms that allow both audio and video recording. Recording equipment should be checked to ensure that it is properly functioning prior to the start of the interview and researchers must comply with any laws about recording voice or video.

An interviewer's goal is to maximize depth of response from the participant. Demonstrating active listening and maintaining eye contact throughout the interview can help engage many participants. The interviewer should be aware of cultural norms and conduct the interview with sensitivity. For example, in some instances, establishing eye contact may entice the interviewee to share their opinions, while in other settings, it may be viewed as an intrusion to their privacy. During the interview the researcher should be listening much more than talking. Interviewers can probe for deeper responses with follow‐up questions that relate to the participants’ responses and are also relevant to the research question. It is helpful for the interviewer to encourage the participant to elaborate or define key concepts they describe; simple probes such as “Tell me more” can be surprisingly effective. Whenever possible, the interviewer should try to use the participant's own language to ask questions. This has the benefit of demonstrating their engagement in the conversation, ensuring understanding by the participant, and optimizing the flow of the conversation. Note taking, if done unobtrusively, may help in identifying both follow‐up questions and topics to ask during the interview and informing the analysis process. Keep in mind that the focus should always be on the interviewee. At the conclusion of the interview, the interviewee can be invited to share any additional thoughts.

The researcher may consider sharing their understanding of the comments and any key concepts or themes noted during the interview and checking for confirmation from the participant. This is a form of real‐time member checking (confirming that your interpretation of an interviewee's statement aligns with their intended meaning) and can help increase the trustworthiness of the findings. This can take place in real time as the questions are being answered or at the conclusion of the interview or each section. A verbal expression of appreciation for their time and insight at the conclusion of the interview along with a statement of how they might be apprised of the eventual results is indicated.

Immediately after the interview, it is often helpful for the interviewer to jot down notes about the experience. These may include personal perceptions about the reactions of the subject, in‐depth clarifications about the context of an answer that may be known to the interviewer, or other key facts that may stimulate recall when it is time for data interpretation. A written or electronic thank you note expressing their important role in elucidating the study question with a promise to share the results when available closes the loop as an appreciation of time spent.

PREPARATION OF DATA FOR ANALYSIS

Once the interview is completed, the recording must be transcribed for analysis. 11 This can be done by the researcher or an independent transcriptionist. One advantage of having the researcher transcribe the interviews is an additional opportunity to review the data. Additionally, the researcher is likely to have in‐depth knowledge of the vernacular used and so the transcript may have less errors. It should be noted that transcription is a time‐intensive process that researchers may not be able to accommodate themselves. Enlisting the assistance of a transcriptionist will save time but may require compensation. Alternatively, there are commercially available transcription software programs for this purpose. 12 If enlisting the assistance of others in transcription, it is essential to adhere to confidentiality and data security processes. Regardless of how the initial transcription is created, it is important that the interviewer review the transcript (preferably proximate to the time of the interview) to check for errors and make any necessary corrections prior to analysis. Often, these include the interviewee's reference to individuals or institutions or may include jargon not familiar to the transcriptionist. In preparation for formal analysis, it may be helpful to write short notes or memos while reviewing transcripts regarding any key concepts that stand out or questions that arise. Most word processing programs have a comment feature to assist in this step. All transcripts should be anonymized prior to formal analysis. Labeling the data with line and page numbers can also assist in easy referencing during the analytic phase.

We provide an overview of the key steps to conduct interviews for medical education research in Table 1 . A detailed description of how to conduct the analysis is provided in Part 2 of this series, and an introduction to using software assisted analysis is presented in Part 3. 11 , 12

Step‐by‐step approach to the qualitative interview

A step‐by‐step approach to the qualitative interview from choosing this method to the point of analysis.

Interviews provide a rich and dynamic method of collecting data in qualitative research that can provide thoughtful insight into the study question. We have described a step‐by‐step process for conducting interviews that may be useful for those who are conducting qualitative medical education research. By incorporating these steps into the planned study, researchers can increase the clarity and depth of the data as well as the validity of the findings.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

The authors have no potential conflicts to disclose.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Jaime Jordan, Samuel O. Clarke, and Wendy C. Coates conceived and designed the manuscript. Jaime Jordan drafted the manuscript and Samuel O. Clarke and Wendy C. Coates contributed substantially to its revision.

Jordan J, Clarke SO, Coates WC. A practical guide for conducting qualitative research in medical education: Part 1—How to interview . AEM Educ Train . 2021; 5 :e10646. 10.1002/aet2.10646 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Supervising Editor: Esther H. Chen, MD.

Best Practices for Conducting Qualitative Interviews for Market Research

Definitive data is an important aspect of researching market demand, customer attitudes and product usage, but data only tells part of the story. Qualitative Market Research can yield deeper insights.

Definitive data is an important aspect of researching market demand, customer attitudes and product usage, but data only tells part of the story. Behind those numbers lurk motivations, personal opinions and behaviors that also must be analyzed.

Qualitative market research can yield deeper insights, giving you the ability to assess a customer’s thought process throughout their purchase process or product usage, allowing you deeper insights as to why customers behave in certain ways. Qualitative research often provides researchers with new questions to ask, new ideas, or information that allows companies to question previously held assumptions.

What is Qualitative Market Research?

While quantitative research deals with facts and figures—or essentially quantifying hard data—qualitative research seeks to understand the “why” and “how.” It is more subjective, but it fills in the hard lines to give you additional insights and information on customer usage and attitude.

The most popular forms of market research are focus groups and one-on-one interviews with your key customers at various stages in the channel distribution model, whether that be contractors and developers, the sales reps for local showrooms and big box stores, or the end consumer. In each scenario, you present participants with open-ended questions in a conversational manner. You record the answers and compile them from various sources.

You can use qualitative research for product development and to better understand customer usage and attitudes (U&A) . Understanding why customers do what they do when making purchase decisions is at the heart of conducting qualitative research.

The whole idea is to delve deeper into “what” your customers think and feel about a certain product or topic and “why.” These opinions can then be factored into your company’s decision-making process to ensure you’re tailoring your home improvement products, your go to market strategies and your partner enablement budgets according to your particular audience and their preferences.

This qualitative interview guide will give an overview of best practices and sample questions to help you develop your research strategy.

How to Conduct a Qualitative Research Interview

Individual interviews can be conducted in various formats: in-person, online or over the phone. You should approach each interview as a conversation, filled with direct yet open-ended questions that give your interviewee space to speak freely. Here are a few tips for conducting qualitative research interviews:

1. Get the Right Sample Size

Unlike quantitative research, you need only a small group per segment to provide you the directional results that qualitative should deliver.. In general, a group of 5-10 participants per segment is the minimum sample size necessary to reach saturation and get enough data from in-depth interviews to provide conclusions. Your total sample size will depend on a number of factors, including your research objective, the variety of segments you want represented, your market and your budget.

2. Go into Your Study with a Specific Goal

Because of the nature of open-ended, in-depth interviews with individuals, you’re going to gather a lot of information from each person. Some of it will be relevant, some of it will not. You can help by going into the research with a defined objective or desired outcome that isn’t too broad or vague. This enables you to focus your time and energy in a specific direction for your study. What is a key question you need answered, and how can your qualitative research interview questions align or support the main topic?

3. Prepare a Few Standard Questions

The goal behind your interview questions is to probe deeper into the deciding factors that influence your customers’ behaviors and opinions . Preparing a set of questions before the interview allows you to keep it on track and ensure you’re getting the same general data from each participant. This is a discussion guide. Some examples of questions to ask during a qualitative research interview include:

How familiar are you with, or what comes to mind when you think of, [YOUR BRAND]?
Why have you bought [YOUR PRODUCT/COMPETITOR PRODUCT] before?
If so, what motivated your purchase?
If not, why did you purchase a similar product from a different brand?
What appealed to you about the other product?
Why did you shop at that store?
Why would you shop somewhere else?
What information do you seek about home improvement products?
Where do you get your information and why those sources?

While you should tailor these pre-set questions to your research objective, make sure they are open-ended and don’t compel a particular answer. Avoid asking leading questions that would make your research findings inaccurate. You want to find out how your customers think and feel, and there is no right or wrong answer.

4. Don’t Lead with Your Questions

A good strategy when conducting one-on-one interviews is to allow a couple of minutes upfront to make small-talk with your interviewee and let them get comfortable. Many of your interviewees may be unaccustomed to being in this position, or they may feel like they’re being put on the spot. If you jump in with your questioning, it can make matters worse or cause them to clam up. Instead, ask your customer about their life, their work, their hobbies, and build a rapport. This will help them be more forthcoming and open later in the interview, when the depth of their answers are of utmost importance.

5. Ask Follow-up Questions and Be Flexible

Having pre-set questions will help ensure consistency among your data and keep your interview on track. However, it’s also important to be flexible and prepared to ask follow-up questions for clarification or explanation. Different interviewees will have different communication styles. Some might be comfortable speaking abundantly on a topic. Others might need a little encouragement or prodding. You will get the best data by going into each interview expecting it to be as unique as the individual with whom you’re conversing.

Gathering Qualitative Market Research for Your Company

For most types of market research, you’ll want a balance of both qualitative and quantitative data to get a holistic view of the topic at hand. The Farnsworth Group can provide you with expertise and research solutions that are designed with the lawn & ranch and home improvement industries in mind. You’ll collect valuable insights that go beyond simple facts and figures to guide key decision-making for your company.

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25 May 2023

6 Best Practices for Creating an Inclusive and Equitable Interview Process

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Are your organization’s interview processes inclusive and equitable? Or, are there more opportunities to counter bias in your interviews and welcome candidates with a variety of backgrounds and experiences?

The following recommendations for creating an inclusive interview process are based on research from Harvard Business School faculty and Harvard Business Review contributors. They are designed to help organizations think through the details of their interview process to achieve their recruiting goals and create more diverse, welcoming, and successful organizations.

Start with Job Descriptions

To create a welcoming and inclusive environment in the early stages of your hiring process, it is critical to use inclusive language that invites candidates in. Educate team members who are writing job descriptions about removing gendered language , jargon, and idioms that can make potential candidates feel excluded. Job postings are an important marketing tool and should convey an inclusive message if you hope to build a more diverse team.

We also recommend explicitly stating your organization's commitment to diversity and inclusion within job descriptions. Link to Employee Resource Groups, codes of conduct, and other company-wide initiatives to help candidates understand how your organization supports its employees. Also include a reasonable accommodations statement that ensures candidates with mobility, vision, or hearing needs can participate.

Counter the “Just Like Me” Bias

As HBS Professor Youngme Moon noted in an  HBS After Hours Podcast , “There are so many industries that have a history of relying on the soft stuff, and the soft stuff has worked in the favor of a particular kind of individual. The truth is the soft stuff is often a euphemism in many cases for bias. For people being able to use their discretion to hire people who are just like them, that they are comfortable with, that look like them, that act like them, that talk like them.”

One way to counter the interviewer’s reliance on the “soft stuff” is to build awareness of why workplace diversity (including, but not limited to, race, socioeconomic status, gender, and sexual orientation) benefits an organization . In addition, if the “likeability factor” does matter to you as an organization and it impacts how employees succeed in the role, Iris Bohnet, director of the Women and Public Policy Program at the Harvard Kennedy School, recommends that organizations give it a direct score as part of the interview process so that it can be rated alongside other skills

Furthermore, be proactive in attracting a diverse applicant pool. Use filters within the  HBS resume database  to identify students involved in various  student clubs  including the African American Student Union, Armed Forces Alumni Association, Asian Affinity Business Association, Black Investment Club, Latino Student Organization, PRIDE, Women in Investing Club, and the Women’s Student Association to invite students to apply.

Create Inclusive Video Interviews

When having an in-person interview, the backdrop is generally at your office or on campus. However, with virtual recruiting, interviews will often occur using video calls where the background may be the candidate’s home.

If you plan to use video interviews, set all your candidates up for success by providing video interview best practices in advance, including recommendations for lighting and audio. Some candidates may be coming from professional backgrounds where video calls are not the norm, so guidance can level the playing field.

Also, when conducting video interviews, it’s important to note that candidates may not have access to the latest technology at home or could be sharing living spaces with limited private or quiet areas. These factors do not impact how well a candidate could do the job. Being aware of how background visuals and noise impact your perspective of a candidate's professionalism or fit is critical and can help to address unconscious bias head-on by naming it.

Another option – offer candidates the choice of a phone or online call with the video off in early interactions if that is most comfortable.

Standardize the Interview

In non-standardized interviews, there may be a set of questions guiding the conversation but there is little consistency across the experience for candidates. Often this is where unconscious bias can manifest itself and candidates don’t have the same opportunity to effectively tell their story and showcase their fit for a role.

In a standardized interview, each candidate is asked the same questions in the same order. HBS  Professor Francesca Gino  notes that this type of interview process helps to reduce bias by “focusing on the factors that have a direct impact on performance.”

Craft a list of questions that are aligned directly with what will define success in this role and remove any that are superfluous or could exacerbate bias. Also, ensure that multiple people within your company either sit in on the interview or conduct their own standard individual interviews so that candidate success is evaluated from different perspectives.

Select Your Questions Purposefully

Along with asking a set of standardized questions, take a critical look at the types of questions your interviewers are asking and what the answers will reveal. Putting the focus on capabilities instead of direct experience allows your organization to be inclusive of varying backgrounds and perspectives in your interview process.

For example, in her article for HBR , Nilofer Merchant  recommends, “Instead of asking, ‘Have you done x or y or z?’ you want to ask, ‘How  would you approach  doing x or y or z?’ This shift in question lets you learn someone’s capacity to think  with  you.”

Utilize Work Samples

Another way to create an inclusive interview process is to include  work sample tests .

This concept is like a case-based interview in which candidates are asked to solve a problem similar to one the company may face. Through this process, employers can assess candidates' skills objectively instead of relying on the candidate’s assessment of their abilities. Furthermore, if two candidates are both given a work sample test, they can be evaluated side by side based on their work, not the employer’s unconscious bias that may influence their judgement.

Key Takeaways

Adjusting your interview process to ensure equity and inclusion makes hiring, and your organization as a whole, more effective. Take the time up-front to utilize these best practices and they will soon become the new normal and serve as an important signal to future employees about what they can expect from a career with your organization.

Craft inclusive job descriptions that welcome candidates
Educate interviewers on the benefits of diverse teams to counter “just like me” bias
Level the playing field during video interviews
Use the same set of questions for all candidates
Select questions that focus on capabilities
Use work samples to assess skills equitably

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Making Exit Interviews Count

Everett Spain
Boris Groysberg

In the knowledge economy, skilled employees are the assets that drive organizational success. Thus companies must learn from them—why they stay, why they leave, and how the organization needs to change. A thoughtful exit interview—whether it be a face-to-face conversation, a questionnaire, a survey, or a combination—can catalyze leaders’ listening skills, reveal what does or doesn’t work inside the organization, highlight hidden challenges and opportunities, and generate essential competitive intelligence. It can promote engagement and enhance retention by signaling to employees that their views matter. And it can turn departing employees into corporate ambassadors for years to come.

Unfortunately, too few leaders pay attention to this tool; their programs fail to either improve retention or produce useful information. The authors believe this is owing to poor data quality and a lack of consensus on best practices. They suggest six overall goals for a strategic exit interview process and describe tactics and techniques to make it successful. Among their recommendations: Have interviews conducted by second- or third-line managers. Make exit interviews mandatory for at least some employees. And because standard interviews enable you to spot trends, but unstructured ones elicit unexpected insights, consider combining the two approaches in semistructured interviews.

This underused practice can be a powerful tool for retention.

Idea in Brief

In today’s knowledge economy, skilled employees are any company’s most valuable asset. Thus it’s important to understand why they stay, why they leave, and how the organization may need to change.

The Opportunity

Exit interviews, when conducted with care, can provide a flow of thoughtful feedback and insight on all three fronts. They can increase employee engagement and retention by revealing what works or doesn’t work inside the organization.

The Challenge

Too often, exit interview programs fail to achieve their potential for two reasons: First, the data they produce can be spotty and untrustworthy. And second, little consensus on best practices exists. This article attempts to address both concerns.

An international financial services company hired a midlevel manager to oversee a department of 17 employees. A year later only eight remained: Four had resigned and five had transferred. To understand what led to the exodus, an executive looked at the exit interviews of the four employees who had resigned and discovered that they had all told the same story: The manager lacked critical leadership skills, such as showing appreciation, engendering commitment, and communicating vision and strategy. More important, the interviews suggested a deeper, systemic problem: The organization was promoting managers on the basis of technical rather than managerial skill. The executive committee adjusted the company’s promotion process accordingly.

Everett Spain is an active-duty colonel and the head of the department of behavioral sciences and leadership at West Point.
BG Boris Groysberg is a professor of business administration in the Organizational Behavior unit at Harvard Business School and a faculty affiliate at the school’s Race, Gender & Equity Initiative. He is the coauthor, with Colleen Ammerman, of Glass Half-Broken: Shattering the Barriers That Still Hold Women Back at Work (Harvard Business Review Press, 2021). bgroysberg

Partner Center

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 14.5.2024 in Vol 13 (2024)

Best Practices and Recommendations for Research Using Virtual Real-Time Data Collection: Protocol for Virtual Data Collection Studies

Authors of this article:

Jasmin Sanchez 1 , BS ;
Amanda Trofholz 1 , RD, MPH ;
Jerica M Berge 2 , MPH, PhD, LMFT, CFLE

1 Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States

2 Department of Family Medicine and Adult and Child Center for Outcomes Research and Delivery Science, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States

Corresponding Author:

Jasmin Sanchez, BS

Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, University of Minnesota

717 Delaware St SE Suite 454

Minneapolis, MN, 55414

United States

Phone: 1 2245879545

Email: [email protected]

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent need for social distancing required the immediate pivoting of research modalities. Research that had previously been conducted in person had to pivot to remote data collection. Researchers had to develop data collection protocols that could be conducted remotely with limited or no evidence to guide the process. Therefore, the use of web-based platforms to conduct real-time research visits surged despite the lack of evidence backing these novel approaches.

Objective: This paper aims to review the remote or virtual research protocols that have been used in the past 10 years, gather existing best practices, and propose recommendations for continuing to use virtual real-time methods when appropriate.

Methods: Articles (n=22) published from 2013 to June 2023 were reviewed and analyzed to understand how researchers conducted virtual research that implemented real-time protocols. “Real-time” was defined as data collection with a participant through a live medium where a participant and research staff could talk to each other back and forth in the moment. We excluded studies for the following reasons: (1) studies that collected participant or patient measures for the sole purpose of engaging in a clinical encounter; (2) studies that solely conducted qualitative interview data collection; (3) studies that conducted virtual data collection such as surveys or self-report measures that had no interaction with research staff; (4) studies that described research interventions but did not involve the collection of data through a web-based platform; (5) studies that were reviews or not original research; (6) studies that described research protocols and did not include actual data collection; and (7) studies that did not collect data in real time, focused on telehealth or telemedicine, and were exclusively intended for medical and not research purposes.

Results: Findings from studies conducted both before and during the COVID-19 pandemic suggest that many types of data can be collected virtually in real time. Results and best practice recommendations from the current protocol review will be used in the design and implementation of a substudy to provide more evidence for virtual real-time data collection over the next year.

Conclusions: Our findings suggest that virtual real-time visits are doable across a range of participant populations and can answer a range of research questions. Recommended best practices for virtual real-time data collection include (1) providing adequate equipment for real-time data collection, (2) creating protocols and materials for research staff to facilitate or guide participants through data collection, (3) piloting data collection, (4) iteratively accepting feedback, and (5) providing instructions in multiple forms. The implementation of these best practices and recommendations for future research are further discussed in the paper.

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/53790

Introduction

Research visits with participants are a fundamental tool for data collection across multiple disciplines. Research visits can include a wide array of activities, including the assessment of eligibility, consenting, intervention administration, and baseline and follow-up data collection. Participation in in-person research visits can often be challenging for individuals limited by distance, disability, and access to transportation. Historically, most research visits have been conducted in person, face-to-face, between study participants and study staff. However, in response to the immediate need to halt in-person visits due to the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers adapted their research protocols to include remote data collection, allowing them to continue research projects without interruption [ 1 ]. The goal of this paper is to review the virtual real-time data collection research protocols used in the past 10 years to identify and propose best practices for continuing to use virtual real-time methods when appropriate for data collection going forward.

Research Conducted Before and During COVID-19

The body of research using remote data collection methods conducted before the COVID-19 pandemic indicates that many types of data collection were conducted remotely but not necessarily in real time. Common remote data collection methods included: online survey data collection [ 2 ], online focus groups [ 3 ], video-recorded instructions for data collection [ 4 ], self-collection of biometric data (eg, taking weight at home) [ 5 , 6 ], and remote qualitative interviews [ 7 , 8 ]. The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic in March of 2020 resulted in the sudden need for research teams to stop in-person research and move to virtual or remote data collection options that they may have never done before. Thus, many researchers shifted their data collection protocols to use remote research protocols that could be done in real time with a participant and study team member. For many study teams, these changes to revise their data collection approach to be remote and real time came quickly with limited guidance.

Findings from studies conducted both before and during the COVID-19 pandemic suggest that many types of data can be collected virtually or remotely, and, in many cases, the same type of data can be collected in several different ways. For example, multiple research teams collected anthropometric data (eg, height, weight, and waist circumference) remotely through real-time videos [ 5 , 6 , 9 - 28 ], while others collected anthropometric data by using recorded videos, telephone instructions, and multiple modes of instruction to assure data quality. Clinical research studies researching long-term illnesses and diagnoses (ie, Parkinson disease, Huntington disease, autism spectrum disorder, HIV, etc) used telehealth and videoconferencing during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 11 - 13 , 20 , 24 , 25 , 29 ]. Additionally, studies collected biospecimen samples or anthropometric data, whereas other studies administered fitness tests or surveys. These previous studies show remote data collection was occurring before COVID-19 to a limited degree, but it is still important to learn more about how research was adapted virtually during COVID-19 because of the numerous studies that shifted remotely and engaged in virtual remote data collection.

The Value of Using Virtual Research Moving Forward

While remote data collection may no longer be a necessity dictated by the COVID-19 pandemic, there are multiple reasons to support the continuation of virtual real-time data collection. For example, remote data collection may be more accessible to some rural and limited mobility populations with a stable internet connection [ 30 , 31 ]. Having to attend research visits in person poses several accessibility issues, such as transportation issues, mobility problems, and the lack of childcare. Allowing participants to engage in data collection remotely removes these barriers to participation. Additionally, remote data collection is more affordable in some circumstances, as there is no need to reimburse participants for mileage. Many remote visits are shorter in duration as compared to in-person visits, thus requiring study staff to work fewer hours and therefore lowering the cost of the study. Finally, the need for specialized equipment and on-campus office space can be reduced when research is conducted remotely, as a larger study space is not needed for in-person gatherings and participants can often use their own materials from home [ 8 ]. In many cases, remote research improves opportunities to recruit a more representative study population as accessibility (ie, location) study costs and time barriers can be reduced. Reducing study costs in terms of office space, research staff costs, and mileage reimbursement allows for the funds to be used toward higher compensation for participants or to cover more study objectives and research questions. Moving forward, identifying ways to continue high-quality virtual real-time data collection visits would be a beneficial asset to many research studies.

As suggested above, some researchers have been conducting virtual data collection for several years before the pandemic; however, most research using remote data collection methods were conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic. This sudden shift in the research approach meant that much of this data collection was done with little empirical guidance. Reflecting now on the various virtual real-time data collection practices’ researchers have used enables an analysis of the benefits and drawbacks of various practices used. We can evaluate how we can use learnings from protocols and approaches that were developed before the COVID-19 pandemic and those developed in response to the pandemic to facilitate decisions we make about best practices for future remote data collection. This paper aims to (1) summarize the literature over the last decade on virtual research visit protocols involving real-time data collection; (2) evaluate current practices and methods used for virtual, real-time research visits; (3) identify gaps in the current methods used for virtual, real-time research visits; and (4) provide insight on the best practice protocols for carrying out virtual, real-time research visits. The findings from this paper will offer insights on how to best carry out remote real-time data collection and improve the access and quality of research for underserved populations, which will enable study teams to pivot to various forms of data collection as needed for various circumstances that arise in the future. Remote and virtual data collection are used interchangeably throughout this paper.

A 10-year literature review was conducted to identify past and present studies engaging in remote real-time data collection to identify strengths and weaknesses of these approaches and inform best practices for virtual real-time data collection in the future.

Identifying Relevant Studies: Inclusion or Exclusion

A search of the published literature was carried out to identify original research articles that collected data for research purposes in remote real-time settings. The inclusion and exclusion criteria used to determine which articles could be included in this paper are described in Textbox 1 .

Every article conducting real-time virtual data collection was reviewed for inclusion and exclusion criteria. The first author (JS) systematically conducted a decade-long review by searching PubMed and Google Scholar for articles published between January 1, 2013, and June 23, 2023. The 10-year span was chosen to ensure results included articles that were from before and after the pandemic. The search was conducted from April 2023 through July 2023.

The databases were searched using Boolean operators of terms derived from three concepts: (1) remote data collection, (2) virtual real-time data collection, and (3) assessment or measurement. The following search terms were used in various combinations to identify articles: “anthropometry,” “anthropometrics,” “methods,” “telemedicine,” “telehealth,” “remote consultation,” “remote visit,” “remote research,” “live,” “real-time,” and “virtual research.” The search was limited to only articles published between 2013 and 2023.

Inclusion criteria

Original research was conducted in “real time” when research staff actively engaged in data collection with a participant through a live medium such as videoconferencing (eg, Zoom or Google Chat) or telephone, where a participant and research staff could talk to each other back and forth.

Exclusion criteria

Research that is not original
Research that does not collect data in real time
Research intended exclusively for medical purposes (eg, telehealth or telemedicine or describing a clinical encounter)
Articles that solely described research protocols and did not include actual data collection and results
Articles collecting participant or patient measures for the sole purpose of engaging in a clinical encounter as part of a health care visit or assessment
Research visits that were only engaging in qualitative interview data collection
Data collection that relied solely on self-report measures (ie, without virtual or remote guidance from the study team)
Articles that described research interventions but did not involve the collection of data via a web-based platform.

Study Selection

The selected studies underwent 3 levels of review. First, the lead author (JS) independently reviewed each article for inclusion. Articles were labeled for potential relevance as “yes,” “maybe,” or “no” based on eligibility criteria. Then, an independent reviewer also reviewed the articles and worked with the lead author to make final decisions on which articles should be included based on the previously described eligibility criteria. Third, the additional 2 coauthors (AT and JB) reviewed the studies selected after the initial reduction of studies. At each level of review, the authors reviewed article inclusion and exclusion criteria before excluding an article. A total of 22 unique articles met the eligibility criteria for inclusion in the current review (see Multimedia Appendix 1 [ 5 , 6 , 9 - 28 ]). Some articles (n=7) focused on collecting anthropometric data. This review included articles with study populations of different genders, different dyad types (ie, parent-child, participant-partner, and 2 adults), different racial or ethnic identities (ie, White, Black, Hispanic or Latinx, etc), and different medical conditions and abilities (ie, cancer, Huntington disease, autism spectrum disorder, HIV, and Parkinson disease). The articles involved data collection on child participants (n=9), individuals with Parkinson disease (n=4), and Huntington disease (n=1), cancer survivors (n=3), individuals with autism spectrum disorder (n=1), and adults with HIV (n=1). A total of 11 articles reported collecting data on samples that were predominantly college-educated. A total of 19 articles were composed of majority White samples, with 12 articles on White women and 7 articles on White men. One article collected anthropometric data and corrected this data in an effort to make it more accurate, using an equation that was developed using previous data [ 16 ].

Data Collection

The data were independently extracted by the first author (JS) and reviewed by an independent reviewer. The following information was extracted from eligible studies: participant demographic data, study variables, study methods (ie, remote measurement variables), study findings, recommendations, study mode, the level of instructions provided (ie, real-time, recorded, written, etc), the level of interaction between study staff and participants, technology used to guide data collection, equipment used, accessibility features enabled, and the reason for virtual data collection. The extracted data were organized and reviewed to identify best practices. Multimedia Appendix 1 shows a detailed description of all the collected articles.

Results from the protocol review will be summarized under the themes of: (1) “modality of data collection,” (2) “equipment for data collection,” (3) “guided visit instruction or materials,” (4) “participant-staff interaction,” and (5) “reliability and validity of measures” (see Multimedia Appendix 2 [ 8 - 10 , 17 , 21 - 24 , 27 - 29 , 32 ]). Results and best practice recommendations from the current protocol review will be used in the design and implementation of a substudy to provide more evidence for virtual real-time data collection. We will examine the concordance between virtual real-time collection of height, weight, and neck circumference collected by participants while guided by research team members and in-person collection of height, weight, and neck circumference collected by a research team member on a sample of over 600 families. These results will add more concrete evidence to virtual real-time data collection methods that were assessed in this protocol review. We expect to carry out this substudy over the next year.

This study aimed to review the different protocols and approaches used to conduct virtual real-time data collection visits over the past 10 years and during COVID-19 to identify best practices in virtual real-time data collection. Our review identified four areas in which there were both similarities and differences across studies using remote real-time data collection: (1) mode, (2) equipment, (3) guided visit instruction or materials, and (4) participant-staff interaction. We found that remote data collection approaches were used successfully across a range of different populations. A variety of approaches were used to collect data and maintain participant engagement, depending on populations and the type of data collection.

Several studies reported that providing as much equipment as possible within budget constraints resulted in successful data collection and a more representative study population. For example, multiple studies explained that providing hotspots was particularly effective in reducing barriers to participation, especially for racially or ethnically diverse and low-income populations [ 5 , 6 , 14 , 26 ]. Other studies that did not provide hotspots cited a lack of internet as an exclusion factor as well as a study limitation [ 11 , 15 , 21 , 23 , 24 , 28 ]. Studies that excluded participants without access to the internet limited the generalizability of their study population. Providing hotspots also allowed for the inclusion of rural [ 9 ] and low-income populations, for whom reliable internet may not be as readily accessible. The mode of instruction and level of interaction between staff, researchers, and participants were also emphasized as important considerations across studies. Several studies suggested that providing real-time instructions through videoconferencing was particularly helpful for specific types of data collection; in particular, real-time instructions were helpful for obtaining height and weight data as researchers could see the way participants were measuring themselves and provide real-time corrections to participants approaches to self-measurement with the goal of improving the reliability and validity of these measures.

Recommendations

Based on findings from this review, we propose some best practice protocol recommendations to move the field forward regarding virtual real-time data collection (see Multimedia Appendix 1 ).

Create Protocols and Materials for Research Staff to Facilitate or Guide Participants Through Data Collection

Protocols and materials should be created for research staff to facilitate and guide participants as much as possible through data collection. Protocols should be as detailed as possible to ensure research staff are able to provide the same detailed instructions to all participants. While remote research removes some barriers to data collection, it also makes data collection more difficult for certain measures (ie, height); therefore, research staff should go through a thorough training process and certification so they are able to provide the same level of instruction to all participants. All materials (scales, electrocardiogram equipment, spirometers, etc) necessary to adhere to the research protocols should also be provided to reduce bias among participant results and to improve participation across diverse populations for increased generalizability of study findings. Troubleshooting guides should be provided for research staff so they are able to help participants through any issues (ie, videoconferencing not working) that may arise.

Provide all Necessary Equipment to Participants

Researchers should aim to provide as much necessary equipment (eg, web cameras and tablets) as possible to participants to ensure all participants have access to the same research equipment. For example, hotspots should be provided to those without access to a stable internet connection (low-income participants, rural participants, etc) so that all interested participants can fully engage in data collection. Providing scales and tape measures to participants is also beneficial, as previous studies have found results differ when using home equipment [ 33 ]. More complex studies, such as those involving electrocardiogram equipment, should provide the equipment, as this is not easily accessible to participants. It may be best to include the various types of equipment in a “toolkit” so that participants have all their needed equipment, including directions, in the same packages. Given that providing the equipment necessary to participants at their home address is costly, researchers should budget for these materials and shipping expenses when requesting funding packages.

One other key consideration that researchers need to address when conducting remote real-time data collection is exclusion criteria based on equipment requirements. For example, our review of the literature revealed that some studies chose to exclude participants that did not have reliable internet access or access to a device that could connect to the internet [ 5 , 21 ]. This was done because having internet services and access to internet-capable devices was deemed necessary to conduct research at a distance. However, requiring participants to have access to reliable internet and internet-capable devices can impact how representative the study population is of the population of interest.

Pilot Data Collection

Collecting pilot data from actual participants before starting official data collection should be strongly considered. Having a shorter pilot previsit before the official data collection visit allows participants to become familiar with the protocols and videoconferencing software, troubleshoot any technological issues, and build rapport with the research staff before data collection. This can also be an opportunity to ask for feedback from participants.

Iteratively Accept Feedback

Researchers should accept feedback from participants in an iterative manner that allows for adaptations of study protocols as the study advances. Accepting feedback results in meeting the needs of participants better and increases the likelihood of adherence to the research protocols.

Provide Instructions for Participants in Multiple Formats

Instructions for participants should be provided in multiple forms (ie, oral, written, and video instructions) to assure that all different styles of learning are accounted for and that participants understand the protocol and can look back at the directions if any questions arise. Additionally, across studies, the more that staff interacted with participants, the better the data collection visit went regarding flow and quality of data collected. This is particularly true for certain types of data collection, such as height and weight, where research staff can offer real-time corrections and guidance as the data are being collected. Textbox 2 shows best practices for virtual data collection.

Proposed best practice protocol recommendations for virtual real-time data collection

As many details as possible should be provided through protocols, infographics, and simplified figures or visuals to ensure research staff can provide detailed instructions to participants for successful data collection.
Research staff should undergo thorough training and a certification process.
Provide troubleshooting guides for research staff.
Technology necessary for research should be provided (ie, hotspots, tablets or internet-capable devices, and web cameras).
Complex equipment that is not easily found at home should be provided (ie, electrocardiogram equipment).
Have a short pilot visit before data collection to troubleshoot and familiarize participants with protocols.
Ask for participants’ feedback during pilot visits.
Accept feedback iteratively and adapt study protocols as the study advances.
Provide instructions in multiple forms (ie, oral, written, and video instructions) to meet differing learning styles.
The more interactive the research staff can be, the easier it is for participants to follow directions successfully.

Strengths and Limitations

This review had both strengths and limitations. This is the first review that we are aware of that synthesizes studies using remote or virtual real-time data collection to inform best practices for future virtual data collection. There are also limitations to consider. One limitation was that studies conducting virtual or remote visits were not representative of the general population. The studies reviewed were composed of a majority of White, highly educated individuals with above-median incomes. Many studies reported using strict inclusion and exclusion criteria (ie, access to internet capable devices, access to high-speed internet, ability to use technology, and ability to download apps), which prevented individuals without access to these requirements from participating. Considering that the strict requirements to participate in research involved materials that were costly, we can assume that participants with lower incomes were not always included in these studies. Thus, we know that the recommendations listed work well for White, highly educated, and economically stable populations, but we cannot say for certain that they work for the general population. These recommendations can be used as starting points when developing accessible research, but future research should aim to include a more representative sample of the US population. Recommendations need to be created using a population that is representative of the general population to expand accessibility. Additionally, not all the methods used were validated against gold standard approaches (see Multimedia Appendix 1 ). Therefore, it is uncertain whether these research methods are valid and reliable. Researchers need to compare virtual methodology and measurements to gold-standard approaches to confirm that virtual research is valid and reliable.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that virtual real-time data collection visits are doable across a range of participant populations and to answer a range of research questions. Top considerations that emerged while reviewing the literature were that researchers should keep in mind how staff will engage with participants throughout virtual visits, the importance of creating materials and protocols that will facilitate measurement collection, piloting protocols ahead of time, encouraging feedback from participants throughout data collection, and that inclusion or exclusion criteria needed to be balanced to ensure a representative population of participants can fully engage in remote data collection protocols. Recommended best practice protocols were developed based on these identified considerations: (1) creating protocols and materials for research staff to facilitate or guide participants through data, (2) providing adequate equipment, (3) piloting data collection, (4) iteratively accepting feedback, and (5) providing instructions in multiple forms.

Acknowledgments

Research is supported by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (principal investigator: Berge) and R01 AT012164 from the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (coprincipal investigator’s: Berge and Kunin-Batson; R01HL156994, R01HL160587, and R61/33 HL151978). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, or the National Institutes of Health.

Data Availability

The data sets generated during and analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

Description of articles reviewed by population, measurement type and approach, and feasibility.

Themes on the logistics of collecting data from participants remotely.

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Edited by A Mavragani; The proposal for this study was peer reviewed by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.submitted 18.10.23; accepted 20.02.24; published 14.05.24.

©Jasmin Sanchez, Amanda Trofholz, Jerica M Berge. Originally published in JMIR Research Protocols (https://www.researchprotocols.org), 14.05.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in JMIR Research Protocols, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.researchprotocols.org, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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Best Practice Guidance 10_Version 1.0 Title: Conducting research interviews Page 1 of 6 ... Ethics approval is needed, in advance, for research interviews if the information gained from the interview will be used as research data to evidence research findings. If the information provided during the course of the interview is not the
Best practice for interviews
Best practice for interviews. At the root of interviewing is an interest in understanding the lived experiences of other people (Seidman, 2006). Interviews invite the participant to make sense of their own experiences and to share these experiences with the researcher. Interviews are therefore an appropriate method when researchers want to ...
PDF TIPSHEET QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWING
result, the structure of interviews can range from loose conversations to structured exchanges in which all interviewees are asked the exact same set of questions. Your choice of interview structure should reflect the goals and stage of your research. Less structured interviews are most appropriate for early stages of research because they
LibGuides: Conducting Research Interviews: Preparation
Developing Questions. Characteristics of good interview questions. Open-ended and elicit a long response from the interviewee (can't be answered yes/no or with one word) Focus on the experience of the interviewee. Don't lead the interviewee toward a particular response. Address a single issue/point (i.e. don't ask multi-part questions) Writing ...
A practical guide for conducting qualitative research in medical
INTRODUCTION. Qualitative research plays an important role in advancing practice and policy in education both inside and out of the field of medicine. 1, 2 Qualitative methods allow for in‐depth understanding of human behavior and social context to provide clues as to "how" and "why" certain phenomena are occurring. 3 This can help inform understanding of teacher or learner behavior ...
Probing in qualitative research interviews: Theory and practice
Introduction. The science and practice of conducting research interviews in the social sciences has been evolving for over four decades (Brinkmann and Kvale Citation 2018; Gorden Citation 1975; Mishler Citation 1986; Roulston Citation 2010; Wengraf Citation 2001).Probing has been / recognised in this literature as a central element of the research interview process, due to the fact that it ...
Qualitative Interview Questions: Guidance for Novice Researchers
The Qualitative Report 2020 Volume 25, Number 9, How To Article 1, 3185-3203. Qualitative Interview Questions: Guidance for Novice Researchers. Rosanne E. Roberts. Capella University, Minneapolis ...
PDF Best Practices in Research Evaluation
Best Practices in Research Evaluation ETR What Is an Interview? An interview is an oral one-on-one survey or a method of collecting information . from an individual through questioning. Interviews are designed to collect information in a somewhat structured manner so that the results can be combined and summarized.
Best Practices for Conducting Qualitative Interviews for Market Research
Here are a few tips for conducting qualitative research interviews: 1. Get the Right Sample Size. Unlike quantitative research, you need only a small group per segment to provide you the directional results that qualitative should deliver.. In general, a group of 5-10 participants per segment is the minimum sample size necessary to reach ...
6 Best Practices for Creating an Inclusive and Equitable Interview
The following recommendations for creating an inclusive interview process are based on research from Harvard Business School faculty and Harvard Business Review contributors. ... Take the time up-front to utilize these best practices and they will soon become the new normal and serve as an important signal to future employees about what they ...
The Best Interviewing Techniques and Practices Explained
This early experience spurred me to transform my entire approach, design a better system, and start a years-long journey going through hundreds of hours of interview research, creating a ...
Making Exit Interviews Count
Making Exit Interviews Count. This underused practice can be a powerful tool for retention. Summary. In the knowledge economy, skilled employees are the assets that drive organizational success ...
Ethics and international business research: Considerations and best
Best ethical practices. 4.3.1. Research design. Research ethics starts with a sound research design. Knight, Chidlow and Minbaeva assert that the research design "sets out the research plan for empirically addressing a research question (s) that aims to develop theory in a feasible way" (2022: 45).
21 Behavioral Interview Questions and How to Respond
It's a formula worth memorizing because it can help you structure your responses to behavioral interview questions. Situation: Start by establishing the situation and sharing any important details. Task: Recount your specific task or responsibility. Action: Describe, step-by-step, what you did to address the task or responsibility.
JMIR Research Protocols
Conclusions: Our findings suggest that virtual real-time visits are doable across a range of participant populations and can answer a range of research questions. Recommended best practices for virtual real-time data collection include (1) providing adequate equipment for real-time data collection, (2) creating protocols and materials for ...
Welcome to the Purdue Online Writing Lab
Mission. The Purdue On-Campus Writing Lab and Purdue Online Writing Lab assist clients in their development as writers—no matter what their skill level—with on-campus consultations, online participation, and community engagement. The Purdue Writing Lab serves the Purdue, West Lafayette, campus and coordinates with local literacy initiatives.
Best practices in college student interview preparation
Career centers and other higher education professionals can level up students' professional interview preparation with one of these ideas. To prepare students for professional interviews, many colleges and universities host mock interview experiences, where a learner can practice interviewing and receive feedback on their performance. The experience can build students' confidence while ...
Current Best Practices For Executive Job Searches and the Interview
It calls for proper research, investing in education, and presenting yourself well. You also need to stand out during interviews by impressing recruiters. If you want to scale your career, you must be strategic about your search. Here are the best practices for acing executive job searches and interviews. 🔹 Understanding the Executive Job Market
Private Capital Insights
The best of our recent research and ideas for investors. ... An interview with Claudy Jules. Unprecedented private equity deal flow means more leaders than ever are stepping into the portfolio-company CEO role. Here's guidance from the experts on the role's unique challenges and demands. ... Connect with our Private Capital Practice.