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188 Best Human Sexuality Research Topics For Your Assignment

The key to writing a great research project is coming up with a great idea that is original and interesting to both yourself and the reading audience. Professors are always looking to find projects that thoroughly answer questions with evidence-based facts and examples in support of a well-thought thesis argument.

In the field of human sexuality, it is very important to brainstorm several interesting topics for a research project at any level (i.e., high school through graduate school). Our expert writers have put together this list of human sexuality research topics that may provide you with some inspiration to build a great project for a high school, college, or graduate assignment.

What Is Human Sexuality?

The subject of human sexuality is a broad term that is best defined as the way people express themselves and experience sexuality, including biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social and spiritual behaviors and feelings.

The subject has had varied and historical contexts over time, and because there are so many directions one takes in researching and writing an assignment in this subject, you should do your due diligence in exploring several options before starting on a project.

How to Choose Research Topics on Human Sexuality?

Here are five simple steps to follow when selecting a topic in this area of study. If you get started early (within a day or two of receiving the assignment prompt) you should have no trouble narrowing your options to one or two related ideas that you can build upon:

• Brainstorm 4 – 5 Research Ideas: The easiest step in the process is brainstorming. You can write a list of ideas taken from class lectures, assigned readings, interesting articles from journals, or the internet. Your goal should be to write on something in which you learn something new by pushing the envelope.
• Select a Manageable Research Topic: Choose a broad subject and extract a few ideas and formulate a few questions you would like to explore. This will help you bring your topic down to earth so that you aren’t overwhelmed by having to write a comprehensive paper on the entire scope of human sexuality.
• Narrow the Focus of Your Topic: You need to take your broad idea and make it more specific. Even if you find yourself changing your mind, you will be getting closer to a topic that is worth the effort you will put into completing the assignment.
• Define Your Topic as a Question: Once you have focused your topic on something clear and concise, it would be helpful to define your idea into a specific research question that will put your paper into context and that will guide you when crafting your thesis statement.
• Conduct Background Research: At this point, you should a great idea of the content you will need to search for to craft your research paper. Spend a few hours searching the web for background information. Start building an outline and keep detailed lists of in-depth academic research you will need to do.

Human Sexuality Research Paper Topics For High School Students

Many high school students are just developing their researching and writing skills. Research projects at this level are usually 5 pages long and require about two weeks to complete. The following ideas are manageable and appropriate for this level:

• How do bad habits impact healthy sexuality in teenagers?
• How do sex laws in the U.S. affect how people view sexuality?
• How do biochemistry and medication affect sexual behaviors in adults?
• Should society promote greater awareness of the importance of good sexual health?
• How do teenage bisexuals internalize their feelings as it relates to sexual stigmas?
• What are some of the physical changes that contribute to reduced sexual desire in men?
• How can one better understand human sexuality through the lifecycle?
• How to safely navigate the hookup culture among millennials?
• What are the negative effects of sexting in young adults?
• What do young people know about gender identification?
• At what age should students learn about human sexuality?
• How have sexual behaviors changed in young adults in the 21st century?
• How to deal with the social stigma that comes with identifying as LGBTQ?
• How can therapy help in situations where a partner has indulged in extramarital sex?
• What are some of the physical changes that contribute to reduced sexual desire in women?
• What are some of the biggest concerns young people have about gender?
• Has the majority of society accepted same-sex marriages?
• How do young people view consensual and non-consensual sexual experiences?
• How are the sex lives negatively impacted by couples going through midlife crises?
• Why is there a stigma for being sexually inexperienced before turning 18?
• Are schools adequately providing enough education about human sexuality?
• What impact has the internet had on sexual behaviors in young adults?
• How important are sexual stimuli in creating sexual responses among married couples?
• What are the major milestones males will experience in their lifespan?
• How has human sexuality evolved over the generations?
• Are sex educators adequately prepared to instruct today’s youth?
• How does healthy and happiness affect the way teenagers feel about their sexuality?
• How prevalent is extramarital sex in couples between the ages of 30 and 40?
• What role do parents play in explaining human sexuality to their children?
• What are the major milestones females will experience in their lifespan?
• What role does religion play in the way people perceive human sexuality?
• What are the most common questions young people have about sexual orientation?

Human Sexuality Psychology Research Paper Topics For College Students

These human sexuality topics for a research paper are more difficult than the ones listed above. At the college level, most students will write 1 or 2 research papers per semester (a midterm and a final) and will require about a month to complete. Here are some great ideas to consider:

• How do psychological interpretations impact how young people view sexuality?
• What are the psychological changes towards sexuality that occur with age?
• In what ways does a person’s environment affect human sexuality?
• What are the most common psychological dimensions in sexual behavioral health?
• What are some of the biggest factors that cause reduced sexual desire in men?
• Can marriages remain healthy despite sexual inactivity for prolonged periods?
• How are sexual behavior patterns different in men and women?
• How does the desire for being a parent influence sexual behavior in adults?
• How do sexual images affect attention bias and recognition?
• How have historical investigations on sexuality influenced modern perceptions of sex?
• What are some mental health issues that influence sexual violence in adults?
• What effects do anti-depressants have on sexual behaviors?
• How do sexual practices in people affect behavioral changes?
• How does the loss of a partner influence change in sexual desire in males and females?
• What are the best or most effective treatments for sex addicts?
• How do married couples and non-married couples view sexuality differently?
• What are some of the biggest factors that cause reduced sexual desire in women?
• How does infidelity impact human sexuality in married couples?
• How has the definition of human sexuality changed over the last century?
• How has the way we define sex addiction changed in the 21st century?
• How do psychological needs influence sexual behaviors in young adults?
• How can people overcome destructive sexual behaviors?
• How are common and alternative sexual behaviors different across age groups?
• How does infertility affect sexual desire in adults?
• What impact does the media have on the way people perceive sexuality?
• How do different typologies of adherence influence sexual satisfaction?
• How do people become addicted to sex?
• What impact have psychologists had in advancing the study of human sexuality?
• Should psychological assessments be mandatory before sentencing sexual offenders?
• What are the biggest social prohibitions against human sexuality?
• What role do gender definitions have on a child’s understanding of sexuality?
• What are the psychological dimensions of human sexual health and behaviors?

Good Human Sexuality Research Topics For Graduate School Students

Graduate research projects are significantly harder and often become a starting point for future studies if students wish to pursue a degree that incorporates human sexuality. These ideas require a lot of research, so students need to get started on these projects as early as possible:

• How does school-based education on condom use influence sexual behaviors?
• What effect does alcohol and/or drug use have on human sexuality?
• What is the correlation between condom use and erection problems in young men?
• Should comprehensive sex education be mandatory in all U.S. public schools?
• What has sexual behavior increased among adolescents in the U.S.?
• How has human sexuality been depicted in major art pieces of the 20th century?
• What impact has the feminist movement had on our perceptions of human sexuality?
• Should we learn more about the rise of sexuality among children in modern society?
• What are the major characteristics of people that identify as asexual?
• What can neurobiology tell us about sexual behaviors in adults?
• Should sexual education classes encourage abstinence more than they do now?
• How did England’s Victorian society control female sexuality?
• Has modern technology caused virginity to lose its sense of virtue among young people?
• How have birth control policies changed in the U.S. over the last 50 years?
• Is abstinence-only sex education a great tactic to reduce the number of unwanted pregnancies?
• How important is sex education in public and private schools?
• How did ancient societies view human sexuality differently than we do today?
• In what ways does gender sexuality matter as it relates to human rights?
• What do people in the military forces feel about human sexuality perceptions?
• How is sexual orientation depicted in the Bible?
• How can we use sex education to help promote sexual violence?
• What are the perceived sexual and emotional satisfaction across different contexts?
• How do people of different ethnic groups perceive human sexual experiences differently?
• How do people view flirting and seduction differently in the U.S. versus the U.K.?
• What do understand about gender identification among children?
• How are sex education school policies different across the United States?
• How can parents handle child sexuality choices without discouraging personal choices?
• What role should politics play in determining sexual behavior in people?
• What are the implications for how women define their experiences with rape?
• How should high school teachers orient young people about sexual orientation?
• How can we effectively measure sexual inhibition and excitation proneness in men?
• How does cultural background affect the way people view human sexuality?

Current Human Sexuality Popular Topics Of Research For Any Level

A great way to capture your reading audience’s attention is to connect with them by writing about something current. You can turn to the web or recently published journals to find what others are currently discussing in the field of human sexuality. Choose something you find interesting from the list below or customize an idea to suit your needs more adequately:

• What can we learn from examining the validity of compulsive sexual behavior?
• Is the romantic kiss a near-human universal in expressing sexuality?
• Why has compulsive sexual behavior increased in adults in the last decade?
• Has television had too much of a negative impact on the way teenagers view human sexuality?
• How have sexual behaviors among single parents of young children changed in the U.K.?
• Would television censorship decrease sexual activity among teenagers?
• In what ways has the pandemic limited safe access to sexual health services?
• Why do young people continue to put themselves at risk of contracting an STD?
• Do young people find it important to express how they identify sexually?
• How influential are the early human sexuality studies of the 19th century to today’s research?
• How are teenagers expressing sexuality differently now than a decade ago?
• How do people perceive PDA differently today than 20 years ago?
• Does access to better health services improve sexual health among teenagers?
• What are the best techniques for teaching sexuality to teenagers?
• Why are adult men attracted to adolescent girls?
• In what ways should researchers reshape sexual studies for the 21st century?
• What are some of the biggest sexual taboos around the world?
• How can we shorten the gap in sexual understanding between parents and teens?
• How does the LGBTQ community view virginity differently than the hetero community?
• How can technology be used to better understand human sexuality?
• How is gender expression in same-sex relationships different than in other relationships?
• Are teenagers being sexualized on television and what impact does this have?
• What can we learn about sexual needs during the Covid-19 pandemic?
• What are some of the factors that affect sexuality in older women?
• What factors affect a woman’s sexual arousal in the workplace?
• What does it mean to “experiment sexually” in today’s society?
• What does it mean to be positive about one’s sexual behaviors?
• What are the major factors that affect sexuality in men over 50?
• What are today’s biggest myths about human sexuality?
• What impact has Covid-19 had on sexual health?
• How does the media influence compulsive sexual behavior among teens?
• What are the negative effects of engaging in cybersex?

Current Human Sexuality Research Topics In Psychology

There are a lot of topics in human sexuality for research you can find by watching the news, reading newspaper, journal, and magazine articles, and checking the web. The latest topics have a lot of information readily available on the web, but you must be sure the information you use in your research paper comes from reputable and trustworthy sources:

• How effective has sex therapy been in treating people who find no pleasure in intercourse?
• How has the stigma of having multiple partners led to low self-esteem in adults?
• How does an abusive childhood affect sexual health as an adult?
• In what ways have people changed their perceptions about having a healthy sex life?
• What does it mean to have a healthy sex life in the 21st century?
• How have advancements in sex therapy methods helped mental health?
• What are some stereotypes that affect the way people view their sexual orientation?
• Can pornography be used to help stimulate sexual desire in married couples?
• What do we know about the influences sex predators have that cause them to behave in certain ways?
• What influence do the fears of contracting an STD have on sexual orientation?
• What do we know about human sexuality that can be used to prevent sexual predators from acting on their desires?
• How much influence do parents have on their children’s sexual orientations?
• How is sexual attraction affected by psychological characteristics developed at an early age?
• How much influence did Sigmund Freud have on today’s study of human sexuality?
• What effects can sexual play during childhood have on mental development?
• What are some anomalies of reproductive organs that affect self-confidence?
• What significance does sexual health have in determining a person’s mental health?
• How does mental health affect the way a person approaches sexual relationships?
• What are some factors that contribute to instances of pedophilia?
• What are the biggest psychological issues related to human sexuality?
• How does race affect how people view human sexuality?
• How has the fluidity of sexual orientation changed in the last half-century?
• How do covert rendezvous help stimulate sexual experiences?
• How has collaborative pornography viewing impacted the quality of relationships?
• What are the biggest links between sexual behaviors and violent behaviors?
• Can sexual therapy have a positive effect on sexual predators?
• How is the sexual psychology of women different from that of men?
• What is the safest way to talk to our children about pornography?
• How do rape victims cope with the stigma that comes from revealing clothing?
• Is there such a thing as too much porn for our sexual health?
• What can victims of child sexual abuse suffer from mentally as adults?
• What is the psychological impact of traveling long distances for sex?

Hot Research Topics In Human Sexuality For A Large Project

Sometimes you will find hot topics being discussed everywhere you go. These can stem from a social or legal issue that you hear about in the news and that has drawn a lot of attention. Here are some ideas our experts have found that are currently being discussed:

• How do personal finances influence people’s use of internet dating sites?
• What does it mean to have sex in the 21st century?
• How common is infidelity in the United Kingdom versus the United States?
• What are the challenges in having a healthy sex life after a serious physical injury?
• What is the difference between love and sexual attraction?
• What is the best way to keep their children safe from sexual abuse?
• What are the similarities and differences in courtship practices across cultures?
• Is it ethical to prevent underage marriages in sovereign nations?
• What does it mean to be sexually “normal” in today’s society?
• What are the major stereotypes associated with aging and sexual health?
• How effective are HIV awareness campaigns that target women in the U.S.?
• How has literature changed in the way it expresses human sexual behavior?
• What challenges do women face when identifying nonconsensual sexual experiences?
• Should same-sex couples be given the same adoption rights as mixed-sex couples?
• How do people perceive sex workers in terms of sexual and mental health?
• Is there a link between pornography consumption and violence during sex?
• How has communication changed to express sexual desires more accurately?
• Do people with multiple partners have more satisfactory sexual lives?
• What are the similarities and differences between same-sex and mixed-sex couples?
• Should teenagers turn to the internet to find answers to question about sexuality?
• How can we best protect LGBTQ workers against discrimination?
• What does it mean to consent to sex legally in the U.S.?
• What do we know about the anatomies of male and female orgasms?
• Are male and female-specific gender roles nearing an end?
• What influence does pregnancy have on a woman’s sexual desires?
• What do the latest advancements in female sexuality research say?
• What factors impact the way people develop attitudes toward asexuality?
• How can we prevent unwanted teenage pregnancy in third-world countries?

For more professional assistance coming up with topics on this subject or assistance reviewing, editing, or writing a research assignment, contact our online college assignment help service for fast high-quality support. We make the process of creating exceptional assignments that earn the highest scores easy. We are not like the other cheap services you will find on the web; we guarantee our  sociology homework help and work is written from scratch by one of our certified academic writers, so you can be sure to find the academic success you deserve.

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5 studies that offer fascinating conclusions about human sexuality

“My hope is that a more accurate updated understanding of human sexuality will lead us to have greater tolerance for ourselves, for each other, greater respect for unconventional relationship configurations like same-sex marriage or polyamorous unions, and that we’ll finally put to rest the idea that men have some innate instinctive right to monitor and control women’s sexual behavior,” Ryan says . “And we’ll see that it’s not only gay people that have to come out of the closet: we all have closets we have to come out of.”

Below, read up on some more lines of research that suggest out-of-the-box ideas about our sexuality.

• Question: Is bisexuality a sexual orientation, something that’s temporary or an outgrowth of the sexual fluidity we all exhibit? . Research: In a 2008 study , Lisa M. Diamond of the University of Utah presented the results of a decade-long assessment of nearly 70 women who identified as lesbian, bisexual, or sexually unlabelable. Five times over the course of the study, the women detailed their sexual identities, attractions, behaviors, and their social and familial relationships. . Results: Based on Diamond’s findings, bisexuality is not a “transitional stage that women adopt ‘on the way’ to lesbian identification” or an “experimental phase” for heterosexuals. Her results, instead, supported that, “Bisexuality may best be interpreted as a stable pattern of attraction to both sexes in which the specific balance of same-sex to other-sex desires necessarily varies according to interpersonal and situational factors,” she writes. .
• Question: Which comes first—desire or arousal? . Research: In a study from 2004, described in this New York Times article , Ellen Laan, Stephanie Both and Mark Spiering of the University of Amsterdam examined participants’ physical responses to sexual images. . Results: The research indicates that we respond physically to highly sexual visuals before our mind even engages with them. In other words, desire doesn’t precede arousal—it’s the other way around. And we aren’t even aware it’s happening. .
• Question: Do men and women respond differently to sexual images? . Research: The same New York Times article describes an Emory University study that tracked participants’ eye movements and brain activity while they looked at sexually explicit photos. . Results: Men and women didn’t have the same reactions, but they might not be the ones you’d expect. Men looked at the faces in the photographs much more than women did, and everyone quickly flipped past close-ups of genitalia. Brain activity was gender-dependent: in particular, men had a lot more activity in the amygdala than women did. .
• Question: Does geography influence the body types we idealize and are attracted to? . Research: There’s a lot written about the effects of culture and media on the bodily standards we uphold. But the International Body Project , a survey of 7,434 people worldwide, aimed to investigate whether there were more base-level factors motivating our ideal body types, too. . Results: The researchers found that places with low socioeconomic status tended to value heavier female body types, while places with high socioeconomic status tended to favor thinner bodies—possibly because body fat acts as an indicator of status when resources are scarce. And the effect of media shouldn’t be underestimated: “Our results show that body dissatisfaction and desire for thinness is commonplace in high-SES settings across world regions, highlighting the need for international attention to this problem,” the researchers write. .
• Question: Do men and women have different sex drives? . Research: A recent New York Times Magazine article describes a University of Wisconsin, Madison “ meta-analysis ” of more than 800 studies of our sexual habits conducted over 15 years. . Results: The researchers found that “the evidence for an inborn disparity in sexual motivation is debatable,” the Times Magazine piece reports. The study “suggests that the very statistics evolutionary psychologists use to prove innate difference — like number of sexual partners or rates of masturbation — are heavily influenced by culture. All scientists really know is that the disparity in desire exists, at least after a relationship has lasted a while.” Women’s desire does decrease, but not as a matter of course—as a result of monogamy in particular.

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EDITORIAL article

Editorial: psychological dimensions in human sexual health and behavior.

• 1 Department of Dynamic, Clinical and Health Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
• 2 Institute for Sex Research, Sexual Medicine, and Forensic Psychiatry, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
• 3 Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
• 4 CPUP: Center for Psychology of Porto University, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Porto University, Porto, Portugal

Editorial on the Research Topic Psychological Dimensions in Human Sexual Health and Behavior

Human sexuality is still an underexplored world, subjected to great taboos and controversies over the decades, representing one of the most challenging areas of research and facing countless political and social demands. In this sense, leading organizations such as the World Health Organization ( WHO, 2014 ) and the World Association for Sexual Health ( WAS, 2014 ) have established sexual health and well-being as human rights and key goals to be achieved worldwide to improve the health-related quality of life. The new message that is being carried out by these entities, is that sexual health not only concerns reproductive issues, sexual problems, sexual violence, and sexually transmitted infections, but also positive aspects related to intimate relationships, pleasure, consenting sexual relationships, gender and sexual orientation variety, and sexual functioning among other aspects.

The current special issue on “Psychological Dimensions in Human Sexual Health and Behavior” represents an important step toward a broader biopsychosocial understanding of human sexuality ( Berry and Berry, 2013 ). After a major focus on organic factors underpinning sexual difficulties and behavior, researchers have recognized the need of targeting the psychological factors, and the interplaying role between organic, psychological, and social aspects affecting sexual health and well-being ( Assalian, 2013 ; Brotto et al., 2016 ).

The psychological dimensions are being considered as central elements in the international guidelines for clinical intervention in sexual difficulties and dysfunctions, sexual health promotion programs, and sexual education ( DeRogatis, 2008 ; Althof et al., 2012 ; Bitzer et al., 2013 ; Fugl-Meyer et al., 2013 ; Laan et al., 2013 ; McMahon et al., 2013 ; Mulhall et al., 2013 ; WHO, 2018 ). These psychological dimensions have been framed within conceptualizing models of human sexual response, often including cognitions, emotions, personality traits, psychopathology, socio-cultural, and relational variables influencing sexual functioning and behavior.

In this Research Topic, readers will find interesting and innovative contributes to the understanding of the role of some psychological components in peculiar aspects of sexuality such as cognitive processing and response to sexual stimuli, sexual satisfaction, and adherence to Sexual Double Standards (SDS), coming out in LGBTQI+ population, polyamory, sexual violence, and trauma.

Understanding the processing of sexual stimuli has become prominent in human sexuality research, since it may explain the arousal process and the cognitive mechanisms underlying the sexual response ( Huberman, 2021 ). Erotic processing seems to be very relevant in our brain. Novák et al. reported the absence/inconsistency of spatial attention bias to sexual images and suggested that sexual stimuli are prioritized in memory and cognitive processes compared to other stimuli. Moreover, literature has shown that cultural factors play a primary role in sexual stimuli processing ( Rupp and Wallen, 2008 ). Recognizing the need of including cultural relevance in imaging studies, Cui et al. validated and shared a sexual stimuli database, useful for further research in eastern Asian cultural settings, showing some interesting gender differences in sexual arousal, pleasantness, and sexual attractiveness ratings.

How adherence to gender roles may affect psychology in sexuality represent one of the main challenges in sex research. Álvarez-Muelas et al. showed that relationship satisfaction may be the main predictor of sexual satisfaction and vary according to gender and SDS adherence. These results suggest the urgency to investigate how people internalize attitudes toward the SDS in future studies.

The role of attitudes is also relevant when it comes to LGBTQI+ and Polyamory. For example, Rosati et al. extended the current knowledge on the role of coming out and minority stress experiences among different generations of LGBQ+ people. On average, older adults became self-aware and disclose at a later age than younger men, they seem to be more Catholic and came out more frequently to their Catholic community, with reactions ranging from total acceptance to open rejection. Focusing on women, Baiocco et al. reported that lesbian women had their coming out to both their parents more often than bisexual ones, reporting lower levels of internalized sexual stigma and more positive attitudes toward lesbian/bisexual identity. These new studies contribute to our understanding of coming out peculiarities in varied forms of sexual and relational expressions. Moors et al. with their focus on polyamory, showed that a significant percentage of Americans desire to engage and/or has already engaged in polyamory. Few sociodemographic variables were related to this interest and given that relational intimacy is an important part of most people's lives, understanding the varied ways in which people cross in their intimacy is crucial for social, psychological, and sexological fields ( Vaughan et al., 2019 ).

A significant focus in this special issue has been given to sexual offenders and victims. This is still a relevant topic under different perspectives. International reports ( UNICEF, 2017 ; WHO, 2021 ) draw an alarming figure with respect to the rate of abuse in minors and adults, on the need to find more effective prevention strategies and programs to support victims, as well as the management and treatment of offenders. In this context, Barroso et al. focus on specific kind of abuse such as the study on sexting in adolescence in terms of emotional and behavioral problems, potential markers of psychopathy, childhood trauma and maltreatment, and different forms of aggression. The criminal responsibility of sexual offenders with paraphilic disorders is also a current challenge. Dobbrunz et al. presented an assessment following a two-stage method for the severity of a paraphilic disorder and the criteria for/against diminished capacity according to the German legal system, giving ground to an empirically based assessment of criminal responsibility.

From the victims' side, the psychological factors that may improve/worsen the outcome of traumatic conditions such as child sexual abuse are of extreme interest to offer tailored support weighting to the individual resources/weaknesses ( Daigneault et al., 2007 ). Ensink et al. stress the attention on the possible interaction between sexual abuse history and attachment security, showing that sexually abused children with insecure attachment seem to be more at risk for post-traumatic symptoms. Also, in later stages of life, sexual traumas can have profound consequences on quality of life and sexual relationships. Almås and Pirelli Benestad give specific directions for psychological treatments integrating different clinical approaches, highlighting how traumatized people need particular attention to safety, respect, and acceptance.

The journey to understand sexuality is still long and tortuous, but this special issue represents a small significant step in this direction. Enjoy the reading.

Author Contributions

FMN wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors have reviewed, discussed and accept the final version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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WAS (2014). Declaration of Sexual Rights . Available online at: https://worldsexualhealth.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Declaration-of-Sexual-Rights-2014-plain-text.pdf (accessed June 25, 2021).

WHO (2014). Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights: A Global Development, Health, and Human Rights Priority . Available online at: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/sexual-and-reproductive-health-and-rights-a-global-development-health-and-human-rights-priority (accessed June 25, 2021).

WHO (2018). International Technical Guidance on Sexuality Education. An Evidence-Informed Approach . Available online at: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/9789231002595 (accessed June 25, 2021).

WHO (2021). Violence Against Women . Available online at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women (accessed June 25, 2021).

Keywords: sexuality, psychological, psychology, sexual health, clinical psychosexology

Citation: Nimbi FM, Briken P, Abdo CHN and Carvalho J (2021) Editorial: Psychological Dimensions in Human Sexual Health and Behavior. Front. Psychol. 12:739708. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.739708

Received: 11 July 2021; Accepted: 27 July 2021; Published: 25 August 2021.

Edited and reviewed by: Emily K. Sandoz , University of Louisiana at Lafayette, United States

Copyright © 2021 Nimbi, Briken, Abdo and Carvalho. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Filippo Maria Nimbi, filipponimbi@hotmail.it

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Sexual behaviour among women using intramuscular depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, a copper intrauterine device, or a levonorgestrel implant for contraception: Data from the ECHO randomized trial

G. Justus Hofmeyr, Mandisa Singata-Madliki,  [ ... ], on behalf of Evidence for Contraceptive Options and HIV Outcomes (ECHO) Trial Consortium

Prevalence of sexually risky behaviors among Mexican medical students

Gina Stella Garcia-Romo, Glustein Pozo-Molina,  [ ... ], Alexander Pedroza-Gonzalez

Reproductive coercion and abuse in intimate relationships: Women’s perceptions of perpetrator motivations

Laura Tarzia, Mandy McKenzie

Patterns of sex behaviors and factors associated with condomless anal intercourse during the COVID-19 pandemic among men who have sex with men in Hong Kong: A cross-sectional study

Phoenix K. H. Mo, Meiqi Xin,  [ ... ], Ho Hin Lee

Influence of type of violence on women’s help-seeking behaviour: Evidence from 10 countries in sub-Saharan Africa

Castro Ayebeng, Kwamena Sekyi Dickson,  [ ... ], Sanni Yaya

Vulnerability to Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) / Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) among adolescent girls and young women in India: A rapid review

Sohini Paul, Anupam Sharma,  [ ... ], Niranjan Saggurti

Acceptability of a community-embedded intervention for improving adolescent sexual and reproductive health in south-east Nigeria: A qualitative study

Irene Ifeyinwa Eze, Chinyere Okeke,  [ ... ], Obinna Onwujekwe

A qualitative exploration of internet forum discussions surrounding female sexual function for individuals with Sjögren’s syndrome

Jemma L. McCready, Kristofor McCarty,  [ ... ], Katie L. Hackett

Exploring barriers and facilitators to women’s intention and behavior to seek treatment for distressing sexual problems

Julia Velten, Jürgen Margraf

Transactional sex among women in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Gedefaye Nibret Mihretie, Bekalu Getnet Kassa,  [ ... ], Mulugeta Dile Worke

HIV and its associated factors among people who inject drugs in Mizoram, Northeast India

Lucy Ngaihbanglovi Pachuau, Caterina Tannous, Richard Lalramhluna Chawngthu, Kingsley Emwinyore Agho

Bidirectional relationship between sexual arousal and (sex-related) disgust

Guangju Wen, Caoyuan Niu, Yikang Zhang, Pekka Santtila

eHealth Familias Unidas Mental Health : Protocol for an effectiveness-implementation hybrid Type 1 trial to scale a mental health preventive intervention for Hispanic youth in primary care settings"> eHealth Familias Unidas Mental Health : Protocol for an effectiveness-implementation hybrid Type 1 trial to scale a mental health preventive intervention for Hispanic youth in primary care settings

Yannine Estrada, Alyssa Lozano,  [ ... ], Guillermo Prado

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• 01 May 2024

Why it’s essential to study sex and gender, even as tensions rise

You have full access to this article via your institution.

In 2023, students protested against a new policy in Texas, where parents would be notified if their child asks to be identified as transgender. Credit: Brett Coomer/Houston Chronicle/Getty

This week, Nature is launching a collection of opinion articles on sex and gender in research. Further articles will be published in the coming months. The series will highlight the necessity and challenges of studying a topic that is both hugely under-researched and, increasingly, the focus of arguments worldwide — many of which are neither healthy nor constructive.

Some scientists have been warned off studying sex differences by colleagues. Others, who are already working on sex or gender-related topics, are hesitant to publish their views. Such a climate of fear and reticence serves no one. To find a way forward we need more knowledge, not less.

Collection: Sex and gender in science

Nearly 20 researchers from diverse fields, including neuroscience, psychology, immunology and cancer, have contributed to the series, which provides a snapshot of where scholars studying sex and gender are aligned — and where they are not. In time, we hope this collection will help to shape research, and provide a reference point for moderating often-intemperate debates.

In practice, people use sex and gender to mean different things. But researchers studying animals typically use sex to refer to male and female individuals , as defined by various anatomical and other biological features. In studies involving humans, participants are generally asked to identify their own sex and/or gender category. Here, gender usually encompasses social and environmental factors , including gender roles, expectations and identity.

For as long as scientific inquiry has existed, people have mainly studied men or male animals. Even as recently as 2009, only 26% of studies using animals included both female and male individuals, according to a review of 10 fields in the biological sciences 1 . This bias has had serious consequences. Between 1997 and 2000, for instance, eight prescription drugs were removed from the US market, because clinical testing had not revealed women’s greater risk of developing health problems after taking the drugs.

Male–female comparisons are powerful in biomedical research — don’t abandon them

The tide, however, is turning. Many journals, including those in the Nature Portfolio , and funders, such as the US National Institutes of Health, have developed guidelines and mandates to encourage scientists to consider sex and, where appropriate, gender in their work.

These efforts are reaping benefits 2 . Studies, for example, are showing that a person’s sex and/or gender can influence their risk of disease and chances of survival when it comes to many common causes of death — including cardiovascular conditions and cancer.

Despite this, many researchers remain unconvinced that the inclusion of sex and gender information is important in their field. Others, who are already doing so, have told Nature that they’re afraid of how their work is perceived and of how it could be misunderstood, or misused.

Podcast: Sex and gender discussions don't need to be toxic

Because researchers who are exploring the effects of sex and gender come from many disciplines, there will be disagreements. An often-raised and valid concern, for example, is that when researchers compare responses between female and male animals, or between men and women, they exclude those whose sex and/or gender doesn’t fall into a binary categorization scheme. Another is that variability between individuals of the same sex could be more important than that between sexes.

Sometimes sense does seem to get lost in the debates. That the term sex refers to a lot of interacting factors, which are not fully understood, does not invalidate its usefulness as a concept 3 . That some people misinterpret and misuse findings concerning differences between sexes, particularly in relation to the human brain, should not mean denying that any differences exist.

Tempering the debate

Many of the questions being raised, however, are important to ask, especially given concerns about how best to investigate biological differences between groups of humans , and the continued — and, in some regions, worsening — marginalization of people whose sex and/or gender identity doesn’t fall into narrowly defined norms. Often, such questions and concerns can be addressed through research. For example, studies might find that variability between individuals of the same sex in diet, or body weight, say, are more important predictors of how likely they are to develop anaemia than whether they are male or female.

We need more-nuanced approaches to exploring sex and gender in research

The problem, then is not the discussions alone: science exists to examine and interrogate disagreements. Rather, the problem is that debates — and work on sex and gender, in general — are being used to polarize opinions about gender identity. As Arthur Arnold, a biologist at the University of California, Los Angeles, and his colleagues describe in their Comment article , last September, legislation banning gender-affirming medical care for people under 18 years old was introduced in Texas on the basis of claims that everyone belongs to one of two gender groups, and that this reality is settled by science. It isn’t. Scientists are reluctant to study sex and gender, not just because of concerns about the complexity and costs of the research, but also because of current tensions.

But it is crucial that scholars do not refrain from considering the effects of sex and gender if such analyses are relevant to their field. Improved knowledge will help to resolve concerns and allow a scholarly consensus to be reached, where possible. Where disagreements persist, our hope is that Nature ’s collection of opinion articles will equip researchers with the tools needed to help them persuade others that going back to assuming that male individuals represent everyone is no longer an option.

Nature 629 , 7-8 (2024)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-01207-0

Beery, A. K. & Zucker, I. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 35 , 565–572 (2011).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Tannenbaum, C., Ellis, R. P., Eyssel, F., Zou, J. & Schiebinger, L. Nature 575 , 137–146 (2019).

Velocci, B. Cell 187 , 1343–1346 (2024).

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From Vanderbilt's Collection

• Sexual behavior in the human female by Alfred C. Kinsey [and others] Call Number: Central, HQ18 .U5 I6
• Sexual behavior in the human male by Alfred C. Kinsey. Wardell B. Pomeroy [and] Clyde E. Martin Call Number: Central, HQ18 .U5 K5

Organizations

• CREGS: Center for Research and Education on Gender and Sexuality Our Mission To produce and disseminate knowledge and resources that address the impact of gender on health and well-being, promote healthy sexuality, and reduce sexual and reproductive health disparities.
• International Society for the Study of Women's Sexual Health "ISSWSH is a multidisciplinary, academic, and scientific organization whose purposes are: To provide opportunities for communication among scholars, researchers, and practitioners about women's sexual function and sexual experience; To support the highest standards of ethics and professionalism in research, education, and clinical practice of women's sexuality, and; To provide the public with accurate information about women's sexuality and sexual health"
• SSSS: Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality "SSSS is a non-profit professional membership organization. ... Membership of the Society includes anthropologists, biologists, educators, historians, nurses, physicians, psychologists, sociologists, theologians, therapists, and many other disciplines."
• SSTAR: The Society for Sex Therapy and Research "The Society for Sex Therapy and Research is composed of a broad range of professionals who have clinical or research interests in human sexual concerns. SSTAR's goals are to facilitate communications among clinicians who treat problems of sexual function, sexual identity, and reproductive life, and to provide a forum for exchange of ideas between those interested in research in human sexuality and those whose primary activities are patient care."
• The Kinsey Institute "Our mission: To foster and promote a greater understanding of human sexuality and relationships through research, outreach, education, and historical preservation Our goal: To be the premier research institute on human sexuality and relationships."

Recent Statistics

• Sexual behavior, sexual attraction, and sexual orientation among adults aged 18-44 in the United States : data from the 2011-2013 National Survey of Family Growth (PDF) Hyattsville, Md. : U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, 2016

Useful Library of Congress Subject Headings

To get a sense of what we might have on the topic of sexuality education, try a "SUBJECT begins with" search in Library Catalog using one of the sample Library of Congress Subject Headings listed below:

• Sexual behavior surveys United States
• Young adults Sexual behavior United States
• << Previous: Sexuality Education
• Next: Resources For Instructors >>
• Last Updated: Aug 3, 2023 3:11 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.library.vanderbilt.edu/sexualityresearch

Sexuality Research Guide: Primary Sources

• During Library Closure
• Primary Sources
• Encyclopedias, Dictionaries & Almanacs
• Periodical Indexes
• Biographical Sources

Collection Highlights

Human Sexuality Collection

Photo credit: Jessica Tanzer ("The Box", 1990).

Sexuality and Gender Studies

Examples of primary sources.

• ACTUP Oral History Project Collection of interviews with surviving members of the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT UP), New York. From site: "The purpose of this project is to present comprehensive, complex, human, collective, and individual pictures of the people who have made up ACT UP/New York. These men and women of all races and classes have transformed entrenched cultural ideas about homosexuality, sexuality, illness, health care, civil rights, art, media, and the rights of patients. They have achieved concrete changes in medical and scientific research, insurance, law, health care delivery, graphic design, and introduced new and effective methods for political organizing. These interviews reveal what has motivated them to action and how they have organized complex endeavors."
• Archive of Lesbian Oral Testimony Collects and makes available the oral histories of people who presently or at one time identified as lesbian. Material in the Archives includes oral history audio tapes, radio and television program tapes, as well as video and film produced by documentary filmmakers, and home video and film.
• The ArQuives Digital Exhibitions "We are Canada's LGBTQ2+ Archive. We collect and maintain collections related to LGBTQ2+ life in Canada, including books, archival papers, artifacts, photographs, and art. Founded in 1973, we have grown to become the largest independent LGBTQ2+ archive in the world."
• Digital Transgender Archive The purpose of the Digital Transgender Archive (DTA) is to increase the accessibility of transgender history by providing an online hub for digitized historical materials, born-digital materials, and information on archival holdings throughout the world. Based in Worcester, Massachusetts at the College of the Holy Cross, the DTA is an international collaboration among more than fifty colleges, universities, nonprofit organizations, public libraries, and private collections. By digitally localizing a wide range of trans-related materials, the DTA expands access to trans history for academics and independent researchers alike in order to foster education and dialog concerning trans history.
• Herstories: A Digital Archive Digitized access to select video oral histories from the Lesbian Herstory Archive in Brooklyn. Digitized by students at the Pratt School of Information and Library Sciences.
• Human Sexuality Collection The Human Sexuality Collection seeks to preserve and make accessible primary sources that document historical shifts in the social construction of sexuality, with a focus on U.S. lesbian and gay history and the politics of pornography.
• Rainbow History Project "We are dedicated to making our rich collections accessible to researchers, students and community members. Browse over 1400 items related to the history of LGBT life in the DC area."

What Are Primary Sources?

What are primary sources.

When researchers distinguish between primary and secondary sources, they're usually referring to the status of a particular piece of evidence being used to support an argument. Calling an item a "primary source" does not mean that the perspective presented by it is automatically true or accurate; rather, a "primary source" is an item that is a source of information about an event, institution, or person and that was also part of the very event, institution, or life being studied.

For instance, personal letters, office memos, minutes of a meeting, scrapbooks and photo albums, legal documents, budget and planning documents, and home movies are often reflections of actual moments in people's lives or of an organization's activities for a day. Such documents were created to serve some other purpose than communicating with a researcher. Frequently, primary sources are unpublished and from a person's own voice.

Published works can also be used as primary sources, since what counts as a primary source is also determined by what questions you're asking. If you're examining the subjective experience of AIDS, for example, the personal letters of persons with AIDS would count as primary sources. If you were examining the media coverage of AIDS, however, published news articles which discussed AIDS would count as primary sources.

As another example, if you're examining the experience of creating early gay community organizations, the personal letters of gay community organizers would be an important primary source. If you were examining how those gay organizations worked in the public arena, however, published press releases, newsletters, and legislative reports would count as primary sources.

In contrast to primary sources, secondary sources are interpretations that come out of an analysis of patterns and differences that appear in primary sources and their contexts. The author of a secondary source is usually focusing on a topic and intending to communicate with researchers. A secondary source will use primary sources as its foundation and examine those primary sources in order to find meaningful relationships among the different perspectives and understandings found in those primary documents.

In essence, primary sources are the basic materials from which history is written.

What does the Human Sexuality Collection at Cornell hold?

The Human Sexuality Collection contains items that have value as primary sources in the study of sexuality. Formats include manuscripts, rare books and periodicals, and audio-visual material. Since 1988, the HSC has been protecting and providing a better historical record of sexuality, one that includes historical changes in sexual and gender identities, the politics of pornography, and controversial and suppressed topics that have been left out of the historical record.

The goal of the Library's efforts with the Human Sexuality Collection is to encourage the study of sexuality and sexual politics by preserving primary sources that too often are lost. Our attention goes particularly to groups that are excluded from mainstream culture. Through our collecting efforts, we seek to document historical shifts in the social construction of sexuality, primarily in American history from the 19th century onward. We focus on lesbian and gay history and the politics of pornography, both at the national level. Books date mostly from the mid-1800s on; manuscripts and periodicals date mostly from the 1950s on; and audio-visual materials date mostly from the 1970s on. The core of the collection came from the Mariposa Education and Research Foundation.

We would particularly like to add more sources on lesbian, gay, and bisexual lives before the 1970s, transgendered people's lives and activism, current LGBT families, the activism of LGBT people of color, national LGBT politics and the impact of AIDS on LGBT communities, feminist views of pornography, sexuality and censorship, and changing views of weddings and marriage.

Below are links to information about and listings of segments of the HSC:

• About Gay and Lesbian Popular Fiction
• Search the Human Sexuality Collection Periodicals and Pulp Novels Database
• Finding Transgender and Intersex Resources in the Library
• Transgender Bibliography
• Art and Comic Books
• U.S. Periodicals 
• International Periodicals
• List of Manuscripts 
• Of Particular Note:
• Blank, Joani papers
• Bright, Susie papers and On Our Backs records
• Cottrell, Honey Lee papers  
• Garcia, Robert papers, 1988-1993
• Human Rights Campaign records, 1975-2015
• Mitchell, Larry Papers
• National Gay and Lesbian Task Force records, 1973-2008
• Parents, Friends, and Families of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG) Records, 1972-2009, #7616.
• Queers for Economic Justice
• Taylor, Valerie papers, 1913-1997
• Weintraub, Harry H. Collection of Gay-Related Photography and Historical Documentation  
• Williams, Dell papers, 1922-2008  
• Zwickler, Phil papers, circa 1979-1993

Finding a Specific Item

Your background research may make you aware of a specific book title, person's papers, or kind of record you hope to find in Cornell's Human Sexuality Collection. To see if we do have the sources you seek, try these suggestions:

• If you are looking for a specific book, periodical, or manuscript collection, try searching Cornell's online catalog . There you will find basic descriptions of almost everything in the Human Sexuality Collection, including links to more detailed guides for certain manuscript collections. To limit a key word search to manuscript collections, add "u.fmt." to the search. When looking at manuscript records in the Cornell online catalog, type "long" to see the most complete descriptions of the records.
• Please feel free to visit the reference desk in the Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections and talk to a reference librarian for help. You can also email .
• Some published items can be found in other units of the Cornell University Library system. Those items may circulate (you can check them out if you have a Cornell library card). 

How do I find primary resources on sexuality beyond Cornell's Human Sexuality Collection?

Items in Cornell's Human Sexuality Collection were acquired principally because of their significance to the study of sexuality, but they may also be relevant to other subjects of inquiry. Likewise, items throughout the rest of the Rare and Manuscript Collections that were collected for other reasons may have relevance to the study of sexuality. Many family and individual papers contain primary source material on heterosexuality, including dating, spouse selection, marriage, and other topics. For more about this, see "Sexuality and Gender Studies."

The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction is another extensive collection of primary sources on various aspects of sexuality.

For lesbian or gay topics, browse Lavender Legacies , to see if another archive may have primary sources relevant to your topic. Lavender Legacies is an index of U.S. and Canadian archives compiled by the Lesbian and Gay Archives Roundtable of the Society of American Archivists.

Resources about lesbian history and links to other lesbian history resources can be found at the Lesbian History Project.

In addition, reference librarians can assist you in searching for further archival and rare book repositories than may contain materials valuable to your research.

• << Previous: During Library Closure
• Next: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries & Almanacs >>
• Last Updated: Apr 10, 2024 3:53 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.cornell.edu/sexuality

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19 The Psychology of Human Sexuality

Sexuality is one of the fundamental drives behind everyone’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. It defines the means of biological reproduction, describes psychological and sociological representations of self, and orients a person’s attraction to others. Further, it shapes the brain and body to be pleasure-seeking. Yet, as important as sexuality is to being human, it is often viewed as a taboo topic for personal or scientific inquiry.

Learning Objectives

• Explain how scientists study human sexuality.
• Share a definition of human sexuality.
• Distinguish between sex, gender, and sexual orientation.
• Review common and alternative sexual behaviors.
• Appraise how pleasure, sexual behaviors, and consent are intertwined.

Introduction

Sex makes the world go around: It makes babies bond, children giggle, adolescents flirt, and adults have babies. It is addressed in the holy books of the world’s great religions, and it infiltrates every part of society. It influences the way we dress, joke, and talk. In many ways, sex defines who we are. It is so important, the eminent neuropsychologist Karl Pribram ( 1958 ) described sex as one of four basic human drive states. Drive states motivate us to accomplish goals. They are linked to our survival. According to Pribram, feeding, fighting, fleeing, and sex are the four drives behind every thought, feeling, and behavior. Since these drives are so closely associated with our psychological and physical health, you might assume people would study, understand, and discuss them openly. Your assumption would be generally correct for three of the four drives ( Malacane & Beckmeyer, 2016 ). Can you guess which drive is the least understood and openly discussed?

This module presents an opportunity for you to think openly and objectively about sex. Without shame or taboo, using science as a lens, we examine fundamental aspects of human sexuality—including gender, sexual orientation, fantasies, behaviors, paraphilias, and sexual consent.

The History of Scientific Investigations of Sex

The history of human sexuality is as long as human history itself—200,000+ years and counting ( Antón & Swisher, 2004 ). For almost as long as we have been having sex, we have been creating art, writing, and talking about it. Some of the earliest recovered artifacts from ancient cultures are thought to be fertility totems. The Hindu Kama Sutra (400 BCE to 200 CE)—an ancient text discussing love, desire, and pleasure—includes a how-to manual for having sexual intercourse. Rules, advice, and stories about sex are also contained in the Muslim Qur’an , Jewish Torah, and Christian Bible .

By contrast, people have been scientifically investigating sex for only about 125 years. The first scientific investigations of sex employed the case study method of research. Using this method, the English physician Henry Havelock Ellis (1859-1939) examined diverse topics within sexuality, including arousal and masturbation. From 1897 to 1923, his findings were published in a seven-volume set of books titled Studies in the Psychology of Sex. Among his most noteworthy findings is that transgender people are distinct from homosexual people. Ellis’s studies led him to be an advocate of equal rights for women and comprehensive human sexuality education in public schools.

Using case studies, the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is credited with being the first scientist to link sex to healthy development and to recognize humans as being sexual throughout their lifespans, including childhood ( Freud, 1905 ). Freud ( 1923 ) argued that people progress through five stages of psychosexual development : oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital. According to Freud, each of these stages could be passed through in a healthy or unhealthy manner. In unhealthy manners, people might develop psychological problems, such as frigidity, impotence, or anal-retentiveness.

The American biologist Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) is commonly referred to as the father of human sexuality research. Kinsey was a world-renowned expert on wasps but later changed his focus to the study of humans. This shift happened because he wanted to teach a course on marriage but found data on human sexual behavior lacking. He believed that sexual knowledge was the product of guesswork and had never really been studied systematically or in an unbiased way. He decided to collect information himself using the survey method , and set a goal of interviewing 100 thousand people about their sexual histories. Although he fell short of his goal, he still managed to collect 18 thousand interviews! Many “behind closed doors” behaviors investigated by contemporary scientists are based on Kinsey’s seminal work.

Today, a broad range of scientific research on sexuality continues. It’s a topic that spans various disciplines, including anthropology, biology, neurology, psychology, and sociology.

Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation: Three Different Parts of You

Applying for a credit card or filling out a job application requires your name, address, and birth-date. Additionally, applications usually ask for your sex or gender. It’s common for us to use the terms “sex” and “gender” interchangeably. However, in modern usage, these terms are distinct from one another.

Sex describes means of biological reproduction. Sex includes sexual organs, such as ovaries—defining what it is to be a female—or testes—defining what it is to be a male. Interestingly, biological sex is not as easily defined or determined as you might expect (see the section on variations in sex, below). By contrast, the term gender describes psychological ( gender identity ) and sociological ( gender role ) representations of biological sex. At an early age, we begin learning cultural norms for what is considered masculine and feminine. For example, children may associate long hair or dresses with femininity. Later in life, as adults, we often conform to these norms by behaving in gender-specific ways: as men, we build houses; as women, we bake cookies ( Marshall, 1989 ; Money et al., 1955 ; Weinraub et al., 1984 ).

Because cultures change over time, so too do ideas about gender. For example, European and American cultures today associate pink with femininity and blue with masculinity. However, less than a century ago, these same cultures were swaddling baby boys in pink, because of its masculine associations with “blood and war,” and dressing little girls in blue, because of its feminine associations with the Virgin Mary ( Kimmel, 1996 ).

Sex and gender are important aspects of a person’s identity. However, they do not tell us about a person’s sexual orientation ( Rule & Ambady, 2008 ). Sexual orientation refers to a person’s sexual attraction to others. Within the context of sexual orientation, sexual attraction refers to a person’s capacity to arouse the sexual interest of another, or, conversely, the sexual interest one person feels toward another.

While some argue that sexual attraction is primarily driven by reproduction (e.g., Geary, 1998 ), empirical studies point to pleasure as the primary force behind our sex drive. For example, in a survey of college students who were asked, “Why do people have sex?” respondents gave more than 230 unique responses, most of which were related to pleasure rather than reproduction ( Meston & Buss, 2007 ). Here’s a thought-experiment to further demonstrate how reproduction has relatively little to do with driving sexual attraction: Add the number of times you’ve had and hope to have sex during your lifetime. With this number in mind, consider how many times the goal was (or will be) for reproduction versus how many it was (or will be) for pleasure. Which number is greater?

Although a person’s intimate behavior may have sexual fluidity —changing due to circumstances ( Diamond, 2009 )—sexual orientations are relatively stable over one’s lifespan, and are genetically rooted ( Frankowski, 2004 ). One method of measuring these genetic roots is the sexual orientation concordance rate (SOCR). An SOCR is the probability that a pair of individuals has the same sexual orientation. SOCRs are calculated and compared between people who share the same genetics ( monozygotic twins , 99%); some of the same genetics ( dizygotic twins , 50%); siblings (50%); and non-related people, randomly selected from the population. Researchers find SOCRs are highest for monozygotic twins; and SOCRs for dizygotic twins, siblings, and randomly-selected pairs do not significantly differ from one another ( Bailey et al. 2016 ; Kendler et al., 2000 ). Because sexual orientation is a hotly debated issue, an appreciation of the genetic aspects of attraction can be an important piece of this dialogue.

On Being Normal: Variations in Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation

“Only the human mind invents categories and tries to force facts into separated pigeon-holes. The living world is a continuum in each and every one of its aspects. The sooner we learn this concerning human sexual behavior, the sooner we shall reach a sound understanding of the realities of sex.” ( Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948 , pp. 638–639)

We live in an era when sex, gender, and sexual orientation are controversial religious and political issues. Some nations have laws against homosexuality, while others have laws protecting same-sex marriages. At a time when there seems to be little agreement among religious and political groups, it makes sense to wonder, “What is normal?” and, “Who decides?”

The international scientific and medical communities (e.g., World Health Organization, World Medical Association, World Psychiatric Association, Association for Psychological Science) view variations of sex, gender, and sexual orientation as normal. Furthermore, variations of sex, gender, and sexual orientation occur naturally throughout the animal kingdom. More than 500 animal species have homosexual or bisexual orientations ( Lehrer, 2006 ). More than 65,000 animal species are intersex —born with either an absence or some combination of male and female reproductive organs, sex hormones, or sex chromosomes ( Jarne & Auld, 2006 ). In humans, intersex individuals make up about two percent—more than 150 million people—of the world’s population ( Blackless et al., 2000 ). There are dozens of intersex conditions, such as Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome and Turner’s Syndrome ( Lee et al., 2006 ). The term “syndrome” can be misleading; although intersex individuals may have physical limitations (e.g., about a third of Turner’s individuals have heart defects; Matura et al., 2007 ), they otherwise lead relatively normal intellectual, personal, and social lives. In any case, intersex individuals demonstrate the diverse variations of biological sex.

Just as biological sex varies more widely than is commonly thought, so too does gender. Cisgender individuals’ gender identities correspond with their birth sexes, whereas transgender individuals’ gender identities do not correspond with their birth sexes. Because gender is so deeply ingrained culturally, rates of transgender individuals vary widely around the world (see Table 19.1).

Although incidence rates of transgender individuals differ significantly between cultures, transgender females (TGFs) —whose birth sex was male—are by far the most frequent type of transgender individuals worldwide. Of the 18 countries studied by Meier and Labuski ( 2013 ), 16 of them had higher rates of TGFs than transgender males (TGMs) —whose birth sex was female— and the 18 country TGF to TGM ratio was 3 to 1. TGFs have diverse levels of androgyny —having both feminine and masculine characteristics. For example, five percent of the Samoan population are TGFs referred to as fa’afafine , who range in androgyny from mostly masculine to mostly feminine ( Tan, 2016 ); in Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, TGFs are referred to as hijras, recognized by their governments as a third gender, and range in androgyny from only having a few masculine characteristics to being entirely feminine ( Pasquesoone, 2014 ); and as many as six percent of biological males living in Oaxaca, Mexico are TGFs referred to as muxes , who range in androgyny from mostly masculine to mostly feminine ( Stephen, 2002 ).

Sexual orientation is as diverse as gender identity. Instead of thinking of sexual orientation as being two categories—homosexual and heterosexual—Kinsey argued that it’s a continuum ( Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948 ). He measured orientation on a continuum, using a 7-point Likert scale called the Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale, in which 0 is exclusively heterosexual , 3 is bisexual , and 6 is exclusively homosexual . Later researchers using this method have found 18% to 39% of Europeans and Americans identifying as somewhere between heterosexual and homosexual ( Lucas et al., 2017 ; YouGov.com, 2015 ). These percentages drop dramatically (0.5% to 1.9%) when researchers force individuals to respond using only two categories ( Copen, Chandra, & Febo-Vazquez, 2016 ; Gates, 2011 ).

What Are You Doing? A Brief Guide to Sexual Behavior

Just as we may wonder what characterizes particular gender or sexual orientations as “normal,” we might have similar questions about sexual behaviors. What is considered sexually normal depends on culture. Some cultures are sexually-restrictive—such as one extreme example off the coast of Ireland, studied in the mid-20th century, known as the island of Inis Beag . The inhabitants of Inis Beag detested nudity and viewed sex as a necessary evil for the sole purpose of reproduction. They wore clothes when they bathed and even while having sex. Further, sex education was nonexistent, as was breast feeding ( Messenger, 1989 ). By contrast, Mangaians , of the South Pacific island of A’ua’u, are an example of a highly sexually-permissive culture. Young Mangaian boys are encouraged to masturbate. By age 13, they’re instructed by older males on how to sexually perform and maximize orgasms for themselves and their partners. When the boys are a bit older, this formal instruction is replaced with hands-on coaching by older females. Young girls are also expected to explore their sexuality and develop a breadth of sexual knowledge before marriage ( Marshall & Suggs, 1971 ). These cultures make clear that what are considered sexually normal behaviors depends on time and place.

Sexual behaviors are linked to, but distinct from, fantasies. Leitenberg and Henning ( 1995 ) define sexual fantasies as “any mental imagery that is sexually arousing.” One of the more common fantasies is the replacement fantasy —fantasizing about someone other than one’s current partner ( Hicks & Leitenberg, 2001 ). In addition, more than 50% of people have forced-sex fantasies ( Critelli & Bivona, 2008 ). However, this does not mean most of us want to be cheating on our partners or be involved in sexual assault. Sexual fantasies are not equal to sexual behaviors.

Sexual fantasies are often a context for the sexual behavior of masturbation —tactile (physical) stimulation of the body for sexual pleasure. Historically, masturbation has earned a bad reputation; it’s been described as “self-abuse,” and falsely associated with causing adverse side effects, such as hairy palms, acne, blindness, insanity, and even death ( Kellogg, 1888 ). However, empirical evidence links masturbation to increased levels of sexual and marital satisfaction, and physical and psychological health ( Hurlburt & Whitaker, 1991 ; Levin, 2007 ). There is even evidence that masturbation significantly decreases the risk of developing prostate cancer among males over the age of 50 ( Dimitropoulou et al., 2009 ). Masturbation is common among males and females in the U.S. Robbins et al. ( 2011 ) found that 74% of males and 48% of females reported masturbating. However, frequency of masturbation is affected by culture. An Australian study found that only 58% of males and 42% of females reported masturbating ( Smith, Rosenthal, & Reichler, 1996 ). Further, rates of reported masturbation by males and females in India are even lower, at 46% and 13%, respectively ( Ramadugu et al., 2011 ).

Coital sex is the term for vaginal-penile intercourse, which occurs for about 3 to 13 minutes on average—though its duration and frequency decrease with age ( Corty & Guardiani, 2008 ; Smith et al., 2012 ). Traditionally, people are known as “virgins” before they engage in coital sex, and have “lost” their virginity afterwards. Durex ( 2005 ) found the average age of first coital experiences across 41 different countries to be 17 years, with a low of 16 (Iceland), and a high of 20 (India). There is tremendous variation regarding frequency of coital sex. For example, the average number of times per year a person in Greece (138) or France (120) engages in coital sex is between 1.6 and 3 times greater than in India (75) or Japan (45; Durex, 2005 ).

Oral sex includes cunnilingus —oral stimulation of the female’s external sex organs, and fellatio —oral stimulation of the male’s external sex organs. The prevalence of oral sex widely differs between cultures—with Western cultures, such as the U.S., Canada, and Austria, reporting higher rates (greater than 75%); and Eastern and African cultures, such as Japan and Nigeria, reporting lower rates (less than 10%; Copen, Chandra, & Febo-Vazquez, 2016 ; Malacad & Hess, 2010 ; Wylie, 2009 ). Not only are there differences between cultures regarding how many people engage in oral sex, there are differences in its very definition. For example, most college students in the U.S. do not believe cunnilingus or fellatio are sexual behaviors—and more than a third of college students believe oral sex is a form of abstinence ( Barnett et al., 2017 ; Horan, Phillips, & Hagan, 1998 ; Sanders & Reinisch, 1999 ).

Anal sex refers to penetration of the anus by an object. Anal sex is not exclusively a “homosexual behavior.” The anus has extensive sensory-nerve innervation and is often experienced as an erogenous zone, no matter where a person is on the Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale ( Cordeau et al., 2014 ). When heterosexual people are asked about their sexual behaviors, more than a third (about 40%) of both males and females report having had anal sex at some time during their life ( Chandra, Mosher, & Copen, 2011 ; Copen, Chandra, & Febo-Vazquez, 2016 ). Comparatively, when homosexual men are asked about their most recent sexual behaviors, more than a third (37%) report having had anal sex ( Rosenberger et al., 2011 ). Like heterosexual people, homosexual people engage in a variety of sexual behaviors, the most frequent being masturbation, romantic kissing, and oral sex ( Rosenberger et al., 2011 ). The prevalence of anal sex widely differs between cultures. For example, people in Greece and Italy report high rates of anal sex (greater than 50%), whereas people in China and India report low rates of anal sex (less than 15%; Durex, 2005 ).

In contrast to “more common” sexual behaviors, there is a vast array of alternative sexual behaviors. Some of these behaviors, such as voyeurism , exhibitionism , and pedophilia are classified in the DSM as paraphilic disorders —behaviors that victimize and cause harm to others or one’s self ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ). Sadism —inflicting pain upon another person to experience pleasure for one’s self—and masochism —receiving pain from another person to experience pleasure for one’s self—are also classified in the DSM as paraphilic disorders. However, if an individual consensually engages in these behaviors, the term “disorder” is replaced with the term “interest.” Janus and Janus ( 1993 ) found that 14% of males and 11% of females have engaged in some form of sadism and/or masochism.

Sexual Consent

Clearly, people engage in a multitude of behaviors whose variety is limited only by our own imaginations. Further, our standards for what’s normal differs substantially from culture to culture. However, there is one aspect of sexual behavior that is universally acceptable—indeed, fundamental and necessary. At the heart of what qualifies as sexually “normal” is the concept of consent. Sexual consent refers to the voluntary, conscious, and empathic participation in a sexual act, which can be withdrawn at any time ( Jozkowski & Peterson, 2013 ). Sexual consent is the baseline for what are considered normal —acceptable and healthy—behaviors; whereas, nonconsensual sex—i.e., forced, pressured or unconscious participation—is unacceptable and unhealthy. When engaging in sexual behaviors with a partner, a clear and explicit understanding of your boundaries, as well as your partner’s boundaries, is essential. We recommend safer-sex practices , such as condoms, honesty, and communication, whenever you engage in a sexual act. Discussing likes, dislikes, and limits prior to sexual exploration reduces the likelihood of miscommunication and misjudging nonverbal cues. In the heat of the moment, things are not always what they seem. For example, Kristen Jozkowski and her colleagues ( 2014 ) found that females tend to use verbal strategies of consent, whereas males tend to rely on nonverbal indications of consent. Awareness of this basic mismatch between heterosexual couples’ exchanges of consent may proactively reduce miscommunication and unwanted sexual advances.

The universal principles of pleasure, sexual behaviors, and consent are intertwined. Consent is the foundation on which sexual activity needs to be built. Understanding and practicing empathic consent requires sexual literacy and an ability to effectively communicate desires and limits, as well as to respect others’ parameters.

Considering the amount of attention people give to the topic of sex, it’s surprising how little most actually know about it. Historically, people’s beliefs about sexuality have emerged as having absolute moral, physical, and psychological boundaries. The truth is, sex is less concrete than most people assume. Gender and sexual orientation, for example, are not either/or categories. Instead, they are continuums. Similarly, sexual fantasies and behaviors vary greatly by individual and culture. Ultimately, open discussions about sexual identity and sexual practices will help people better understand themselves, others, and the world around them.

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• Table 19.1 © Don Lucas and Jennifer Fox is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license
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An in-depth and objective examination of the details of a single person or entity.

Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

One method of research that uses a predetermined and methodical list of questions, systematically given to samples of individuals, to predict behaviors within the population.

The cultural, social, and psychological meanings that are associated with masculinity and femininity.

A person’s psychological sense of being male or female.

The behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that are designated as either masculine or feminine in a given culture.

Refers to the direction of emotional and erotic attraction toward members of the opposite sex, the same sex, or both sexes.

The capacity a person has to elicit or feel sexual interest.

Personal sexual attributes changing due to psychosocial circumstances.

Twins conceived from a single ovum and a single sperm, therefore genetically identical.

Twins conceived from two ova and two sperm.

Born with either an absence or some combination of male and female reproductive organs, sex hormones, or sex chromosomes.

A term used to describe individuals whose gender matches their biological sex.

A term used to describe individuals whose gender does not match their biological sex.

A transgender person whose birth sex was male.

A transgender person whose birth sex was female.

Having both feminine and masculine characteristics.

Opposite-sex attraction.

Attraction to two sexes.

Same-sex attraction.

Fantasizing about someone other than one’s current partner.

Tactile stimulation of the body for sexual pleasure.

Vaginal-penile intercourse.

Cunnilingus or fellatio.

Oral stimulation of the female’s external sex organs.

Oral stimulation of the male’s external sex organs.

Penetration of the anus by an animate or inanimate object.

Sexual behaviors that cause harm to others or one’s self.

Inflicting pain upon another person to experience pleasure for one’s self.

Receiving pain from another person to experience pleasure for one’s self.

Permission that is voluntary, conscious, and able to be withdrawn at any time.

Doing anything that may decrease the probability of sexual assault, sexually transmitted infections, or unwanted pregnancy; this may include using condoms, honesty, and communication.

The lifelong pursuit of accurate human sexuality knowledge, and recognition of its various multicultural, historical, and societal contexts; the ability to critically evaluate sources and discern empirical evidence from unreliable and inaccurate information; the acknowledgment of humans as sexual beings; and an appreciation of sexuality’s contribution to enhancing one’s well-being and pleasure in life.

An Introduction to Social Psychology Copyright © 2022 by Thomas Edison State University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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2.4: Ethical Considerations in Sexuality Research

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• Susan Rahman with Nathan Bowman, Dahmitra Jackson, Lushtak, Remi Newman, & Prateek Sunder
• California Consortium for Equitable Change in Hispanic Serving Institutions Open Educational Resources (CC ECHO)

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As discussed in the previous chapter, research done by the Father of Modern Gynecology , Dr. Marion Simms was tainted by his unethical approach to patient care, based on perceived racism and beliefs about the pain threshold of Black enslaved women. As research became something that aided in the pursuit of knowledge, many researchers who were laser focused on wanting to know chose to overlook ethical considerations, and their actions led to great harm in numerous cases. Ethics are taken very seriously in institutions of higher learning because of this shameful past, and we as present day practitioners are held to high standards when it comes to research on human subjects.

At a broader societal level, members of some groups have historically faced more than their fair share of the risks of scientific research, including people who are institutionalized, are disabled, or belong to a racial or ethnic minority or otherwise disadvantaged group. A particularly tragic example of this is the Tuskegee (Box 2.3 above)  and Guatemala Syphilis studies both led by Dr. John Cutler. In Tuskegee, the study conducted for the Public Health Service took place  from 1932 to 1972. These participants were poor African American men in the vicinity of Tuskegee, Alabama, who were told that they were being treated for bad blood . Although they were given free medical care, they were not treated for their syphilis. Instead, they were observed to see how the disease developed in untreated patients. Even after the use of penicillin became the standard treatment for syphilis in the 1940s, these men continued to be denied treatment without being given an opportunity to leave the study. The study was eventually discontinued only after details were made known to the general public by journalists and activists. It is now widely recognized that researchers need to consider issues of justice and fairness at the societal level.

Beginning in 1946, the United States government, under Dr. Cutler, immorally and unethically engaged in research experiments, in which more than 5000 uninformed and unconsenting Guatemalan people were intentionally infected with bacteria that cause sexually transmitted diseases. Many remain untreated to this day (Rodriguez, & García, 2013).

In 1997, 65 years after the Tuskegee Syphilis Study began, and 25 years after it ended, President Bill Clinton formally apologized on behalf of the government to those who were affected. The United States eventually provided treatment and compensation for victims, families, and heirs in Tuskegee, including funding to locate the victims and pay attorneys’ fees. The ethical principle of equal justice strongly suggests that similar relief should be provided for the Guatemalan victims. While the U.S. now acknowledges this was an ethical failing, efforts to remediate the damage as in the case of Tuskegee, have not been undertaken, In a 2013 article entitled, First, do no harm: the US sexually transmitted disease experiments in Guatemala , The authors write, “Although US President Barack Obama apologized in 2010, and although the US Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues found the Guatemalan experiments morally wrong, little if anything has been done to compensate the victims and their families.” (Rodriguez, & García, 2013).

Researchers have an obligation to practice their research in an ethical manner, but what does that mean exactly? They must respect their participants' dignity and their autonomy, giving them the opportunity to act without coercion. Researchers must obtain informed consent, which essentially involves the participants' agreement and documentation of their agreement to participate in a study after having been informed of everything that might reasonably be expected of them as participants. Included in this is also a right to privacy so that those being studied have their identity kept confidential as well as the right to opt out. None of this was done in Guatemala nor in Tuskegee, and had they been informed, they most likely would not have agreed to participate in the first place.

Because of these and other heinous examples of ethical violations, measures have been put in place to offset this type of exploitation. One of the earliest ethics codes was the Nuremberg Code, a set of 10 principles written in 1947, in conjunction with the trials of Nazi physicians accused of shockingly cruel research on concentration camp prisoners during World War II. It provided a standard against which to compare the behavior of the men on trial, many of whom were eventually convicted and either imprisoned or sentenced to death. The Nuremberg Code was particularly clear about the importance of carefully weighing risks against benefits and the need for informed consent. The Declaration of Helsinki is a similar ethics code that was created by the World Medical Council in 1964. Among the standards that it added to the Nuremberg Code was that research with human participants should be based on a written protocol, and it must include a detailed description of the research that is reviewed by an independent committee. The Declaration of Helsinki has been revised several times, most recently in 2004. In the U.S., concerns about the Tuskegee experiment and others led to the publication of federal guidelines known as the  Belmont Report. The Belmont Report explicitly recognized the principle of seeking justice, including the importance of conducting research in a way that distributes risks and benefits fairly across different groups at the societal level. The Belmont Report became the basis of a set of laws the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects that apply to research conducted, supported, or regulated by the federal government. An extremely important part of these regulations is that universities, hospitals, and other institutions that receive support from the federal government must establish an Institutional Review Board (IRB), a committee that is responsible for reviewing research protocols for potential ethical problems. An IRB must consist of at least five people with varying backgrounds, including members of different professions, scientists and nonscientists, men and women, and at least one person not otherwise affiliated with the institution. The IRB helps to make sure that the risks of the proposed research are minimized, the benefits outweigh the risks, the research is carried out in a fair manner, and the informed consent procedure is adequate. The federal regulations also distinguish research that poses three levels of risk. Exempt research includes research on the effectiveness of normal educational activities, the use of standard psychological measures and surveys of a nonsensitive nature that are administered in a way that maintains confidentiality, and research using existing data from public sources. It is called exempt because the regulations do not apply to it. Minimal risk research exposes participants to risks that are no greater than those encountered by healthy people in daily life or during routine physical or psychological examinations. Minimal risk research can receive an expedited review by one member of the IRB, or by a separate committee under the authority of the IRB that can only approve minimal risk research. (Many departments of psychology have such separate committees.) Finally, at-risk research poses greater than minimal risk and must be reviewed by the entire IRB.

Specific to human sexuality research, The American Psychological Association (APA) is the governing body for much of the sex research undertaken. Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (also known as the APA Ethics Code ) was first published in 1953 and has been revised several times since then, most recently in 2002. It includes about 150 specific ethical standards that psychologists and their students are expected to follow. Much of the APA Ethics Code concerns the clinical practice of psychology advertising purposes, the most relevant part, is linked here: American Psychological Association Ethics Code .

Sidebar 2.4: Sex Research and Equity

Just as the medical field grew in the West out of predominately white, heteronormative, cisgender persons, so did the study of sexuality. Much of the body of research in the field is done on white, heterosexual cisgender people. Despite the world of human sexuality, being as vast and diverse as it is, research is slow to catch up. New spaces and opportunities for different research are opening up as the field of educators become more diverse but as we will learn throughout this book, there is much still to be done. One space that facilitates engaging with sexuality beyond those borders is afrosexology.com . Their mission to educate, explore and help people  reclaim their sexual agency which then give them agency in their larger lives is one way in which current sex research is moving the needle towards equity.

Putting Ethics Into Practice

In this section, we look at some practical advice for conducting ethical research. Who knows, some of you may be undertaking sex research one day! Again, it is important to remember that ethical issues arise well before you begin to collect data and continue to arise through publication and beyond.

As the APA Ethics code notes in its introduction, “Lack of awareness or misunderstanding of an ethical standard is not itself a defense to a charge of unethical ethical responsibilities” (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, 2017).  At a minimum, this means reading and understanding the relevant standards of the APA Ethics Code, distinguishing minimal risk from at-risk research, and knowing the specific policies and procedures of your institution including how to prepare and submit a research protocol for institutional review board (IRB) review. If you are conducting research as a course requirement, there may be specific course standards, policies, and procedures. If any standard, policy, or procedure is unclear, or you are unsure what to do about an ethical issue that arises, you must seek clarification. You can do this by reviewing the relevant ethics codes, reading about how similar issues have been resolved by others, or consulting with more experienced researchers, your IRB, or your course instructor. Ultimately, you as the researcher must take responsibility for the ethics of the research you conduct.

As you design your study, you must identify and minimize risks to participants via the informed consent procedure, which in parts states:

A researcher must inform participants about (1) the purpose of the research, expected duration, and procedures; (2) their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once participation has begun; (3) the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing; (4) reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects; (5) any prospective research benefits; (6) limits of confidentiality; (7) incentives for participation; and (8) whom to contact for questions about the research and research participants' rights. They provide opportunity for the prospective participants to ask questions and receive answers. (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, 2017).

Start by listing all the risks, including risks of physical and psychological harm and violations of confidentiality. Remember that some risks might apply only to some participants. For example, while many people would have no problem completing a survey about their fear of various sex crimes, this may be triggering for those who have been a victim of one of those crimes. This is why you should seek input from a variety of people, including your research collaborators, more experienced researchers, and even from nonresearchers who might be better able to take the perspective of a participant.

Once you have identified the risks, you can often reduce or eliminate many of them. One way is to modify the research design. For example, you might be able to shorten or simplify the procedure to prevent boredom and frustration. You might be able to replace upsetting or offensive stimulus materials (e.g., graphic photos) with less upsetting or offensive ones (e.g., milder photos of the sort people are likely to see in the newspaper). 

A second way to minimize risks is to use a pre-screening procedure to identify and eliminate participants who are at high risk. You can do this in part through the informed consent process. For example, you can warn participants that a survey includes questions about their fear of sex crimes, and remind them that they are free to withdraw if they think this might upset them. Prescreening can also involve collecting data to identify and eliminate participants.

A third way to minimize risks is to take active steps to maintain confidentiality. You should keep signed consent forms separate from any data that you collect, and in such a way that no individual's name can be linked to their data. You should only collect information that you actually need to answer your research question. If a person’s sexual orientation or ethnicity is not clearly relevant to your research question, for example, then do not ask them about it. Be aware also that certain data collection procedures can lead to unintentional violations of confidentiality. When participants respond to an oral survey in a shopping mall or complete a questionnaire in a classroom setting, it is possible that their responses will be overheard or seen by others. If the responses are personal, it is better to administer the survey or questionnaire individually in private or to use other techniques to prevent the unintentional sharing of personal information.

Be sure to identify and minimize deception. The APA code of ethics standard 8.07 states that a researcher may:

(a) not conduct a study involving deception unless they have determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study's significant prospective scientific, educational, or applied value and that effective non deceptive alternative procedures are not feasible.

(b) not deceive prospective participants about research that is reasonably expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress.

(c) must explain any deception that is an integral feature of the design and conduct of an experiment to participants as early as is feasible, preferably at the conclusion of their participation, but no later than at the conclusion of the data collection, and permit participants to withdraw their data. (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, 2017).

Remember that deception can take a variety of forms, not all of which involve actively misleading participants. It is also deceptive to allow participants to make incorrect assumptions or simply withhold information about the full design or purpose of the study. It is best to identify and minimize all forms of deception.

Remember that according to the APA Ethics Code, deception is ethically acceptable only if there is no way to answer your research question without it. Therefore, if your research design includes any form of active deception, you should consider whether it is truly necessary.

In general, it is considered acceptable to wait until debriefing before you reveal your research question as long as you describe the procedure, risk and benefits during the informed consent process.

Once the risks of the research have been identified and minimized, you need to weigh them against the benefits. This requires identifying all the benefits. Remember to consider benefits to the research participants, to science, and to society. If you are a student researcher, remember that one of the benefits is the knowledge you will gain about how to conduct scientific research, knowledge you can then use to complete your studies and succeed in graduate school or in your career.

If the research poses minimal risk, no more than in people’s daily lives or in routine physical or psychological examinations, then even a small benefit to participants, science, or society is generally considered enough to justify it. If it poses more than minimal risk, then there should be more benefits. If the research has the potential to upset some participants, for example, then it becomes more important that the study be well designed and answer a scientifically interesting research question or have clear practical implications. It would be unethical to subject people to pain, fear, or embarrassment for minimal scientific gain. Research that has the potential to cause harm that is more than minor, or lasts for more than a short time, is rarely considered justified by its benefits.

Once you have settled on a research design, you need to create your informed consent and debriefing procedures. Start by deciding whether informed consent is necessary according to APA Standard 8.05 . If informed consent is necessary, there are several things you should do. First, when you recruit participants whether it is through word of mouth, posted advertisements, or a participant pool, provide them with as much information about the study as you can. This will allow those who might find the study objectionable to avoid it. Second, prepare a script or talking points to help you explain the study to your participants in simple everyday language. This should include a description of the procedure, the risks and benefits, and their right to withdraw at any time. Third, create an informed consent form that covers all the points in APA Standard 8.02a that participants can read and sign after you have described the study to them. Your university, department, or course instructor may have a sample consent form that you can adapt for your own study. If not, an Internet Search will turn up several samples. Remember that if appropriate, both the oral and written parts of the informed consent process should include the fact that you are keeping some information about the design or purpose of the study from them but that you will reveal it during debriefing.

Debriefing is similar to informed consent in that you cannot necessarily expect participants to read and understand written debriefing forms. So again, it is best to write a script or set of talking points, with the goal of being able to explain the study in simple everyday language. During debriefing, you should reveal the research question and full design of the study. For example, if participants are tested under only one condition, then you should explain what happened in the other conditions. If you deceived your participants, you should reveal this as soon as possible, apologize for the deception, explain why it was necessary, and correct any misconceptions that participants might have as a result. Debriefing is also a good time to provide additional benefits to research participants, by giving them relevant practical information or referrals to other sources of help. For example, in a study of attitudes toward domestic abuse, you could provide pamphlets about domestic abuse and referral information to the university counseling center for those who might want it.

Remember to schedule plenty of time for the informed consent and debriefing processes. They cannot be effective if you have to rush through them. The next step is to get institutional approval for your research, based on the specific policies and  procedures at your institution or for your course. This will generally require writing a protocol that describes the purpose of the study, the research design and procedure, the risks and benefits, the steps taken to minimize risks, and the informed consent and debriefing procedures. Do not think of the institutional approval process as merely an obstacle to overcome but as an opportunity to think through the ethics of your research and to consult with others who are likely to have more experience or different perspectives than you. If the IRB has questions or concerns about your research, address them promptly and in good faith. This might even mean making further modifications to your research design and procedure before resubmitting your protocol.

Your concern with ethics should not end when your study receives institutional approval. It now becomes important to stick to the protocol you submitted, or to seek additional approval for anything other than a minor change. During the research, you should monitor your participants for unanticipated reactions, and seek feedback from them during debriefing. Be alert also for potential violations of confidentiality. Keep the consent forms and the data safe and separate from each other and make sure that no one, intentionally or unintentionally, has access to participants personal information.

Finally, you must maintain your integrity through the publication process and beyond. Address publication credit; who will be authors on the research and the order of authors with your collaborators early and avoid plagiarism in your writing. Remember that our scientific goal is to learn about the way the world actually is and that your scientific duty is to report on your results honestly and accurately. So do not be tempted to fabricate data or alter your results in any way. Besides, unexpected results are often as interesting or more so than expected ones.

Sidebar 2.5: Hypocrisy is the Greatest Luxury

While these standards of ethics put forth by the APA are seen as a definitive guide in the pursuit of ethical research, even the organization itself, the APA has failed to abide by them in large scale research that has been widely published, cited and used as justification for policy and funding decisions nationwide. Many historically relevant psychological studies are clear violations of the current standards set by the American Psychological Association (APA) and were founded on the basis of systemic racism. Experiments like the aforementioned Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Jane Elliot’s Blue/Brown Eyes Exercise examined in the film, A Class Divided (full film) | FRONTLINE , and The Doll Test Landmark Cases: Brown v Board Doll Test (C-SPAN) hold a variety of unethical practices in the way they were produced, but are still considered to be groundbreaking contributions to the current psychological landscape.

Additionally, many early thinkers including Ronald Fisher, a key player in the development of statistical science, also supported racism and eugenics. There is a laundry list of connections between systemic racism and psychology, which is why the APA’s decision to apologize for its role in incorporating racism within the discipline of psychology is critical to the development of psychological practices to come, but not the only solution.

The APA cannot completely correct the wrongs of the racist practices put forth in the past, however, the Association has a responsibility to put forth more ethical practices that do not further marginalize and misdiagnose people of color. To this day, there is an overrepresentation of Black Americans who are admitted into psychiatric hospitals , suicide rates for Black Youth continue to rise , and Black Americans are more likely to be diagnosed with disorders like schizophrenia as compared to White Americans .

As American culture strives to become more centered around the emotional wellness of all people and seeks to condemn dehumanization, institutions must develop better practices for building spaces of healing.

256 LGBTQ+ Research Topics & Paper Ideas

• 18 January 2024
• 11 min read

LGBTQ+ research paper topics span numerous disciplines, touching on societal, psychological, legal, and health-related aspects. Some themes include the exploration of historical changes in societal attitudes toward lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and more (LGBTQ+) rights, an analysis of mental health issues prevalent in the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community, or the legal evolution and impacts of same-sex marriage. There also can be the roles that media and culture play in shaping perceptions of various identities or investigating the challenges faced in healthcare settings. Other topics may cover intersectionality within the LGBT community, dissecting influences of race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Hence, LGBTQ+ research paper topics can contribute to a better understanding of the complexities, triumphs, and challenges inherent in the LGBT experience.

Best LGBTQ+ Research Paper Topics

• Examination of Mental Health Disparities Within the LGBTQ+ Community
• Transgender Identity Development: An Exploratory Study
• Media Representation of LGBTQ+ Characters: Impacts on Identity Formation
• Influence of Religion on Attitudes Toward the LGBT Community
• Employment Discrimination Experienced by Transgender Individuals
• Changing Landscapes: Same-Sex Marriage and Societal Shifts
• Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youth: Navigating Coming Out in a Digital Age
• Queer Theory: Origins, Evolution, and Applications
• Psychological Impact of Gender Dysphoria Among Adolescents
• Bisexuality: Erasure and Misunderstandings in Society
• Intersectionality in LGBT Rights: Analyzing the Influence of Race and Class
• Transformative Legal Milestones in the LGBTQ+ Civil Rights Movement
• Gender Affirmation Surgery: A Study of Medical, Psychological, and Societal Aspects
• Homonationalism: Its Role in LGBTQ+ Politics
• Inclusion of LGBT Topics in School Curriculum: Effects and Controversies
• Assimilation Versus Separation: Diverse Strategies in the Gay Rights Movement
• Parental Acceptance: Its Effect on LGBT Youth Mental Health
• Senior LGBTQ+ Individuals: Challenges and Needs
• Safe Spaces: The Necessity and Creation in the LGBT Community
• LGBTQ+ Individuals in Professional Sports: Representation and Reception
• Impacts of Health Care Policies on Transgender Individuals

Easy LGBTQ+ Research Paper Topics

• Body Image Concerns Among Gay Men: A Comprehensive Analysis
• Influence of LGBT Representation in Children’s Media
• Queer Immigrants: Unique Struggles and Contributions
• Discrimination Faced by LGBT People in the Housing Market
• Heteronormativity: Its Effects on LGBTQ+ Identity and Society
• Same-Sex Parenting: A Study on Children’s Development and Well-being
• Transgender Individuals in the Military: Policies and Experiences
• Transphobia in Feminist Movements: Causes and Consequences
• Cultural Differences in Acceptance of LGBTQ+ Individuals
• Substance Use Disorders in the LGBT Community: Prevalence and Factors
• Artistic Expression in the LGBTQ+ Community: Influence and Impact
• Global Perspectives on Transgender Rights and Protections
• Resilience Factors among LGBT Youth: An In-Depth Study
• Decriminalizing Homosexuality: The Global Landscape
• Queer Coding in Hollywood Cinema: History and Implications
• Exploring Gender Fluidity: Personal Narratives and Social Perceptions
• Roles of LGBT Activism in the HIV/AIDS Epidemic
• Exploring Identity: The Interplay of Ethnicity and Sexuality
• Mental Health Supports for LGBT College Students
• Queer Spaces in Urban Landscapes: Significance and Transformation

Interesting LGBTQ+ Research Paper Topics

• History of the Pink Triangle: From Persecution to Empowerment
• Two-Spirit People: Indigenous Perspectives on Gender and Sexuality
• The Stonewall Riots: Legacy and Impact on the LGBTQ+ Movement
• Social Support Systems and Their Role in LGBT Mental Health
• The Intersection of LGBT Rights and Religious Freedom: A Critical Analysis
• Medical Professionals’ Knowledge and Attitudes Toward Transgender Health Care
• Influence of the Internet on LGBTQ+ Youth: Risks and Opportunities
• The Evolution of LGBT Terminology: Reflecting Social Change
• Homophobia in Sports: Causes, Consequences, and Mitigation Strategies
• Transgender Representation in Literature: A Historical Overview
• Coming Out at Work: Experiences and Implications for Career Progression
• Studying Sexual Orientation: The Evolution of Scientific Understanding
• Visibility and Representation of Intersex Individuals in Society
• The Psychology of Bisexual Erasure: Causes and Consequences
• LGBTQ+ Activists and Their Role in Shaping Modern Civil Rights
• Legal Challenges and Advances in Transgender Rights Globally
• The Role of Community Centers in LGBTQ+ Well-Being
• Bullying Experiences of LGBT Students: Impacts on Academic Achievement
• Intersection of Disability and LGBTQ+ Identity: Unique Challenges and Experiences
• Homosexuality in Animals: What Can It Tell Us About Human Sexuality?
• Understanding the Needs of Transgender Elders
• The Role of Pride Parades in Shaping LGBT Identity and Community

LGBTQ+ Research Paper Topics for High School

• Comparing Societal Acceptance of the LGBT Community Across Different Cultures
• Influence of Social Media on LGBT Youth: A Closer Examination
• Understanding Bisexuality: Prevalence, Perceptions, and Challenges
• Representation of LGBT Characters in Modern Literature: Progress or Stereotypes?
• Legal Struggles: The Evolution of LGBT Rights Over the Years
• Roles of Education in Developing an LGBT-Inclusive Curriculum
• Adoption Rights for LGBT Couples: A Comparative Study
• Transgender People in Sports: Equity, Participation, and Policy
• Intersectionality: Exploring the Overlap of Race and LGBT Identity
• The Influence of Religion on LGBT Acceptance and Rejection
• Mental Health Concerns within the LGBT Community: Causes and Solutions
• Homophobia and Transphobia in Schools: Measures to Counteract
• LGBT Seniors: Unique Challenges and Needs
• Impact of Public Figures Coming Out on LGBT Visibility and Acceptance
• Exploring Gay and Lesbian Language: A Study on Linguistic Identity
• The Role of Art and Culture in LGBT Activism
• Medical Perspectives: Healthcare Needs and Challenges of the LGBT Community
• History of the Gay Rights Movement: Key Events and Turning Points
• Exploring the Heterogeneity Within the LGBT Community: Differences and Similarities
• Bisexual Erasure in the LGBT Community: Causes and Impacts

LGBTQ+ Research Paper Topics for College Students

• Examining the Depiction of LGBTQ+ Characters in Modern Literature
• Impacts of Laws on Transgender Individuals in Sports
• Effects of LGBTQ+ Representation in Hollywood
• The Psychological Impact of Coming Out: A Comprehensive Study
• Health Care Inequalities Experienced by the LGBTQ+ Community
• Attitudes Toward Homosexuality in Different Cultures
• Examination of Gender Identity in Adolescence
• Unveiling the History of the LGBTQ+ Rights Movement
• Legal Challenges Faced by Transgender People
• Analysis of Queer Themes in the Music Industry
• Intersectionality of Race and Sexual Orientation in Discrimination
• Same-Sex Marriage Laws and their Societal Impact
• Parenting Styles in LGBTQ+ Families: A Comparative Study
• Roles of Schools in Facilitating LGBTQ+ Inclusion
• Religion’s Influence on Attitudes Toward Homosexuality
• Transgender Youth and Mental Health: An In-Depth Study
• Representation of Queer Characters in Video Games
• Evaluating the Impact of Non-Binary Gender Recognition
• Social Perceptions of Homosexuality in Sports
• Effects of Workplace Discrimination on LGBTQ+ Employees
• The Influence of Popular Culture on the Gay Rights Movement

LGBTQ+ Research Paper Topics for University

• Implications of HIV/AIDS Stigma on the LGBTQ+ Community
• Disparity in Substance Abuse Treatment for LGBTQ+ Individuals
• Heteronormativity and Its Influence on LGBTQ+ Self-Perception
• Aging in the LGBTQ+ Community: A Sociopsychological Study
• Impacts of Gender-Affirming Healthcare on Transgender Individuals
• Roles of Art and Theatre in LGBTQ+ Activism
• Homophobia in the Military: Causes and Consequences
• Public Opinion and Policy Making for LGBTQ+ Rights
• Decriminalization of Homosexuality: Global Progress and Challenges
• Understanding Asexuality: Overcoming Ignorance and Prejudice
• Evolution of Queer Representation in Animated Series
• LGBTQ+ Refugees: Issues of Acceptance and Integration
• Same-Sex Parenting: Impacts on Child Development
• Conversion Therapy and its Psychological Ramifications
• Queer Coding in Cinema: Subtle Messages and Impacts
• Transgender Individuals in Prison: Rights and Realities
• Experiences of LGBTQ+ Individuals in Faith-Based Communities
• Importance of Comprehensive Sex Education for LGBTQ+ Youth
• Queer Theory: A Comprehensive Overview and Discussion
• Adoption Rights for LGBTQ+ Couples: A Global Perspective
• Understanding Bisexuality: Erasing Stereotypes and Misconceptions
• Decoding the Transgender Narrative in Fashion Industry

LGBTQ+ Research Paper Topics on Transgender

• Historical Evolution of Transgender Rights Movements
• Social and Psychological Impacts of Transitioning for Transgender Individuals
• Legal Frameworks for Transgender Rights: A Comparative Analysis
• Intersectionality: Exploring Experiences of Transgender People of Color
• Healthcare Disparities for Transgender Individuals: Challenges and Solutions
• Understanding the Challenges and Supportive Approaches for Transgender Youth
• Media and Pop Culture Representation of Transgender People: Progress and Pitfalls
• Non-Binary Gender Spectrum: Exploring Transgender Identities
• Navigating Parenthood and Family Dynamics: Transgender Parenting
• Addressing Stigma and Promoting Well-Being: Transgender Mental Health
• Employment Discrimination Against Transgender Individuals: Legal Perspectives
• Unique Experiences and Care Needs: Transgender Aging
• Challenges and Human Rights Issues for Transgender Refugees
• Empowerment and Expression: Transgender Narratives in Literature and Art
• Exploring Faith and Acceptance: Transgender Identity and Religion
• Policies and Implications: Transgender Military Service
• Equality, Fairness, and Inclusion: Transgender Sports Participation
• Strategies and Successes: Transgender Rights Advocacy
• Support Networks and Activism: Transgender Community Building
• Inclusive Curriculum and Safe Learning Environments: Transgender Education

LGBTQ+ Research Topics About Gay Rights

• The Impact of Same-Sex Marriage on Societal Attitudes and Norms
• Examining the Role of Media Representation in Shaping LGBTQ+ Perceptions
• Analyzing the Economic Benefits of LGBTQ+ Workplace Inclusivity
• Exploring the Challenges Faced by LGBTQ+ Youth in Educational Institutions
• Investigating the Psychological Effects of Conversion Therapy on LGBTQ+ Individuals
• Understanding the Intersectionality of Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation
• Assessing the Legal Protections for Transgender Individuals in Employment
• Examining the Relationship Between Religion and LGBTQ+ Acceptance
• Investigating the Health Disparities Faced by LGBTQ+ Communities
• Analyzing the Historical Evolution of LGBTQ+ Rights Movements
• Exploring the Experiences of LGBTQ+ Individuals in Foster Care Systems
• Assessing the Impact of Anti-Discrimination Laws on LGBTQ+ Mental Health
• Understanding the Challenges Faced by LGBTQ+ Immigrants and Refugees
• Investigating the Role of LGBTQ+ Supportive Families in Promoting Well-Being
• Analyzing the Impact of LGBTQ+-Inclusive Sex Education on Teenage Pregnancy Rates
• Exploring the Relationship Between LGBTQ+ Activism and Social Change
• Understanding the Psychological Well-Being of LGBTQ+ Elderly Individuals
• Investigating the Challenges Faced by LGBTQ+ Individuals in Sports
• Analyzing the Role of LGBTQ+ Community Centers in Providing Support Services
• Exploring the Intersection of LGBTQ+ Rights and Reproductive Rights
• Assessing the Impact of LGBTQ+ Visibility in Popular Culture on Acceptance
• Understanding the Experiences of LGBTQ+ Individuals in the Criminal Justice System
• Investigating the Intersection of LGBTQ+ Rights and Disability Rights
• Analyzing the Influence of LGBTQ+ Representation in Literature on Identity Formation

LGBTQ+ Research Topics About Human Sexuality

• Exploring the Impact of LGBTQ+ Representation in Mainstream Media
• Analyzing the Effects of Conversion Therapy on LGBTQ+ Individuals
• Investigating the Role of Sexual Orientation in Mental Health Disorders
• Examining the Intersectionality of Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation
• Uncovering the Historical Evolution of LGBTQ+ Rights Movements
• Understanding the Relationship Between Religion and LGBTQ+ Acceptance
• Assessing the Psychological Well-Being of Transgender Youth
• Evaluating the Influence of Parental Support on the Coming Out Process
• Investigating the Experiences of LGBTQ+ Individuals in the Workplace
• Analyzing the Impact of Homophobia on Health Outcomes in LGBTQ+ Communities
• Exploring the Relationship Between Sexual Orientation and Substance Abuse
• Examining the Role of LGBTQ+ Supportive Policies in Educational Institutions
• Investigating the Factors Influencing LGBTQ+ Individuals’ Decision to Disclose Their Sexual Orientation
• Analyzing the Mental Health Challenges Faced by Bisexual Individuals
• Understanding the Experiences of LGBTQ+ Elders and Ageing Issues
• Evaluating the Impact of LGBTQ+ Inclusive Sex Education on Teenagers
• Investigating the Psychological Effects of Bullying on LGBTQ+ Youth
• Exploring the Relationship Between Gender Identity and Body Image Satisfaction
• Analyzing the Health Disparities Experienced by LGBTQ+ People of Color
• Investigating the Stigma and Discrimination Faced by LGBTQ+ Immigrants
• Examining the Impact of Transgender Healthcare Access on Overall Well-Being
• Evaluating the Intersection of LGBTQ+ Identities and Disability

Discussion LGBTQ+ Research Topics

• Impacts of Same-Sex Marriage on Society: A Comparative Analysis
• Unveiling the Challenges Faced by Transgender Individuals in Healthcare Systems
• Roles of Media Representation in Shaping Perceptions of LGBTQ+ Identities
• Intersectionality of Race and Sexual Orientation in Contemporary Society
• Psychological Effects of Conversion Therapy on LGBTQ+ Individuals
• The Impact of LGBTQ+-Inclusive Sex Education Programs on Teenagers’ Well-Being
• Economic Disparities Faced by LGBTQ+ Communities: An Intersectional Approach
• Relationship Between Religious Beliefs and Acceptance of LGBTQ+ Individuals
• Challenges Faced by LGBTQ+ Elders in Long-Term Care Facilities
• The Impact of LGBTQ+ Representation in Children’s Literature on Social Attitudes
• Understanding the Health Disparities Among LGBTQ+ Individuals: A Comprehensive Review
• The Role of LGBTQ+ Supportive Organizations in Promoting Social Change
• Stigmatization of Bisexuality in Heteronormative Society
• The Impact of LGBTQ+ Rights Policies on the Global Tourism and Travel Industry
• Experiences of LGBTQ+ Parents in Raising Children in Contemporary Society
• The Role of Queer Spaces in Fostering LGBTQ+ Community Building and Resilience
• Influence of Social Media on LGBTQ+ Identity Formation
• Challenges Faced by LGBTQ+ Individuals in the Workplace: A Comparative Study
• Health Disparities Among LGBTQ+ People of Color
• The Impact of LGBTQ+-Inclusive Policies in Educational Institutions on Student Well-Being
• Relationship Between LGBTQ+ Representation in the Entertainment Industry and Social Attitudes
• Intersectionality of Gender Identity and Disability in LGBTQ+ Individuals

Argumentative LGBTQ+ Research Topics

• LGBTQ+ Adoption Rights: Ensuring Equality and Family Stability
• Transgender Rights in the Workplace: Challenging Discrimination and Promoting Inclusion
• Homophobia in Sports: Breaking Barriers and Fostering Inclusivity
• The Role of Education in Promoting Acceptance and Understanding of LGBTQ+ Individuals
• Conversion Therapy: Debunking the Controversy and Advocating for a Ban
• LGBTQ+ Representation in Media: Examining Progress and the Need for Authenticity
• The Psychological Well-Being of LGBTQ+ Youth: Addressing Mental Health Disparities
• Religion and Homosexuality: Finding Common Ground for Respectful Coexistence
• LGBTQ+ Health Disparities: Bridging the Gap in Access to Care
• LGBTQ+ Rights in Developing Countries: Challenges and Strategies for Progress
• LGBTQ+ Aging and Elderly Care: Ensuring Support and Dignity for Older Adults
• The Intersectionality of Race and LGBTQ+ Identity: Understanding and Combating Multiple Forms of Discrimination
• Hate Crimes Against LGBTQ+ Individuals: Enhancing Legal Protection and Promoting Safety
• LGBTQ+ Representation in Politics: Encouraging Diversity and Inclusion in Leadership
• Gender Identity and Public Restrooms: Balancing Safety and Inclusivity
• LGBTQ+ Rights and Global Human Rights: Assessing Progress and Identifying Challenges
• The Economics of LGBTQ+ Equality: Exploring the Benefits of Inclusive Policies
• LGBTQ+ Rights in Religious Institutions: Navigating Tradition and Modern Values
• Bullying and Harassment in Schools: Creating Safe Spaces for LGBTQ+ Students
• Transgender Healthcare: Addressing Access, Affordability, and Quality of Care

Pros and Cons LGBTQ+ Research Topics

• Social Acceptance of LGBT Individuals: Advantages and Disadvantages
• Employment Discrimination against LGBT Individuals: Pros and Cons
• Same-Sex Marriage: Benefits and Drawbacks
• LGBT Parenting: Positive and Negative Aspects
• Transgender Rights: Pros and Cons
• Conversion Therapy for LGBT Individuals: Benefits and Limitations
• LGBT Representation in Media: Advantages and Disadvantages
• Health Disparities in the LGBT Community: Pros and Cons of Research
• LGBT Rights in Education: Benefits and Challenges
• LGBT Youth Homelessness: Advantages and Disadvantages of Research
• Intersectionality and LGBT Activism: Pros and Cons
• Mental Health and LGBT Individuals: Advantages and Disadvantages of Research
• Bullying and Harassment of LGBT Individuals: Pros and Cons
• LGBT Aging and Elderly Care: Benefits and Challenges
• LGBT Rights in the Workplace: Advantages and Drawbacks
• Religious Perspectives on LGBT Rights: Pros and Cons
• LGBT Health Services and Access: Advantages and Limitations
• Legal Protections for LGBT Individuals: Pros and Cons
• Gender Identity in Sports: Benefits and Concerns
• LGBT Health Disparities in Minority Communities: Pros and Cons of Research
• LGBT Rights in the Military: Advantages and Disadvantages
• Transgender Healthcare: Benefits and Challenges

To Learn More, Read Relevant Articles

275 Good Literature Research Paper Topics & Ideas

• 31 May 2023

451 Sociology Research Topics & Ideas

• 30 May 2023

Human Sexuality: Personal Reflection Research Paper

Introduction, personal reflection, critical thinking and value systems in sexual decisions, effect of environment and historical perspective on my sexuality, gender identity, attraction and love, reference list.

Even though it might not be explicitly expressed, sexuality is very important to every person. Whether a person is old or young, man or woman or from any background, sexuality affects every aspects of their lives. The field of sexuality has always attracted many scholars who try to explain issues that surround human sexuality; however, this topic is not openly discussed leading many people to be ignorant of sexuality issues. It is commonly agreed that sexual drive is one on of the major drives that influence our decisions. In fact, sexual drives come next to basic drives such as eating and sleep. Due to this, knowledge on human sexuality is very important. It allows one to understand experiences and objective decisions on sexual life. To me, the course on human sexuality was eye-opening; allowing me to understand some of the things that I assumed to be obvious.

Before this course, issues on sexuality did seem important. I took the issues as only worth of being experienced but not to be discussed. I took sexual identity and feeling as given but not based on rational decision s. My sexual decisions were not well evaluated; I relied on impulsive emotions to make such decisions. I did not have a plane of reference to gauge my sexual decisions. Today, as I reflect on my earlier experience I see the course as liberating for giving me knowledge to base my sexual decisions on. Gender and sexuality seemed synonymous and seemed to have just been acquired and which a person had no influence. Today I can reflect on influence of these forces to my identity and all other aspects of my life. Love and attraction were just clichés whose meaning seemed to be obvious. Issues relationship and romance seemed to be obvious and negative experiences from relationships seemed to be just an element of bad lack (Nevid, J.S. et al., 2005, 67). Today, due to the principle acquired in the course, I have understanding of these issues and also on their influence on my relationship. Today I understand how love intimacy start, develop and how they can be maintained. Today the forces of sexuality do not just influence me without knowledge but I understand every element of sexual experience and mould them to the right direction.

I have always appreciated the use of value system making ethical decisions. However, I could not have imagined how critical thinking could be applied in making sexual decisions. I considered decisions made on sexuality to be based on emotions and feelings that could not be based to reason. I also saw value systems and sexuality to be incompatible and in competition. The course has brought light to this issue. I have come to realize that value systems and critical thinking are compatible with sexual decisions and in fact, should always be used in such decisions. Indeed, sex is a need; however expressing one’s sexuality is based on personal choice (Diamond, J., 1997, p87). The decisions are not just based by the biological nature of human but rational decisions should be used. Before, I did not apply a lot of thoughts to my decisions but left them to instinct of conscience. I did not closely relate ethics with sexuality only basing May decisions on my conscience.

My value system is very important in my decisions on sexuality. They give me a base in which to arrive at my decisions and to evaluate sexual drives. I strongly believe in ethical action. It evaluates the ethical consequence of any actions and believes that any actions should be based on rational decisions. In sexuality, ethics are also important. Critical thinking acquired in the course has allowed me to evaluate the ethical consequences of my sexual drive (Craig, A. H., 2008, p99).

Every individual has value systems that influence their decisions. From the course, I have been able to appreciate value systems of other people. Knowledge of their value system helps me to understand the rationale through which they make sexual decisions. This however does not make me to be swayed but have helped me to respect my value systems. Also this knowledge has allowed me to be tolerant of other people’s sexual decisions. Although I may strongly believe in sex as reserved for marriage, I have no problem with other people who hold contrary opinions. I am now able to respect their decisions but at the same time respect my decision ns even more. In making sexual decisions, I now have very strong tools: value systems and critical thinking.

Romantic novels, magazines and movies were the main base of my knowledge on sexuality. Critical thinking has given me a tool to critically analyze the ideas presented before taking applying them. Critical thinking has given me the skills to ask questions that would lead to a better conclusion.

Environment and history has great influence on the perspective that we have on sexuality. Each person live in a certain environment interacting with other people in the environment, thus one have to be influenced by the perspectives held by other people. The value systems, culture and other aspects of life are acquired from the environment. Historical perspective e in very important in analyzing the perspective on sexuality held today (Nevid, J.S. et al., 2005, p78). To me, evaluating historical perspective helps to analyze whether the perspective on sexuality that I hold today is really mine or acquired other perspectives. Review of historical perspective help to appreciate the influence of culture and religion to attitude on sexuality and sexual behavior (Sharon, M. V. & Simon, L., 2006, p123). As the course progressed, influence of various cultures to my sexuality was evaluated. This enabled me to identify the cultures that have influenced my perspective on sexuality in a bigger way.

As I evaluate the influence of historical perspective and environment on my sexuality, I have realized that Christianity has great influence on me. My Christian parent made it clear that sex is sacred and reserved for marriage. My parents discouraged premarital sex mostly due to their Christian background. The perspective on sexuality has passed down though sermon, scripture and other Christian teachings. For example Paul advised those who could to life as celibate, Augustine also taught that indulgence in carnal pleasure was a great hindrance to spirituality (Nevid, J.S. et al., 2005, p56). Other sexual practice such as anal, oral and masturbation is viewed as sinful. Today I can appreciate the influence of environment and historical perspective but I am able to make my own stand on my sexuality.

Discussion on historical perspective and environment has made me to appreciate my sexual identity. Gender identity is very important and it entails the recognition f a person as either a male or a female. As I reflect on my life, I realize that I developed my gender identity depending on how I was treated (Craig, A. H., 2008, p33). The type of cloth worn to me by my parents had great influence to my gender. The type of games that I was encouraged to participate and the toys bought to me said very much on my gender. The kind of chore given to me during my earlier life suggested strongly on my gender. Remark made by my parent on me suggested the kind of life that I was supposed to live and also to my gender. As I now realize, the gender identity from my parent and environment is through the learning theory (Abramson, P. R., & Pinkerton, S. D., 1995, p113). This theory suggest that children acquire their gender identity by observing their parent, siblings, duties assigned, and perspective created in the media to gain their gender identity.

For a long time now, I have been in relationships. If I compare the relationships to a game, then love and attraction were the moist important element in the game. I have fallen in love in various time; engaging in intimacy and various decisions on relationship. From the course, I can now appreciate the opposite attraction as postulated by science. Indeed I am attracted to individuals of opposite sex who share so me qualities with me and that we have common interest.

Sexuality is a very important element in human lives. Sexuality dictates our relationships, career and other decision in our lives. It is mostly assumed that our sexuality has nothing to do with science but the course suggested otherwise. The skill of critical thinking acquired in the course in very important in making decision on sexuality. Knowledge on attraction and love, influence of environment and historical perspectives on our sexuality is important in appreciating our sexuality and making decisions on the same.

Abramson, P. R., & Pinkerton, S. D. (1995). With Pleasure: Thoughts on the Nature of Human Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.

Craig, A. H. (2008). Human sexuality: personality and social psychological perspectives . Philadelphia: Sage Publication.

Diamond, J. (1997). Why is Sex Fun? The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New York: BasicBooks.

Nevid, J.S. et al. (2005). Human Sexuality in a world of diversity. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.

Sharon, M. V. & Simon, L. (2006). Human sexuality . New York: Sinauer Associates.

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IvyPanda. (2021, November 29). Human Sexuality: Personal Reflection. https://ivypanda.com/essays/human-sexuality-personal-reflection/

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1. IvyPanda . "Human Sexuality: Personal Reflection." November 29, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/human-sexuality-personal-reflection/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Human Sexuality: Personal Reflection." November 29, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/human-sexuality-personal-reflection/.

• Gender and Sexuality in Asia
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• Human Sexuality: the Sex of a Child
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• Relevance of Gender to Global Justice: Gender, Sexuality, Nationality and Cultural Variations in Concepts of Justice
• Gender Identity: Definitions, Factors, Comparison
• Homosexuality - Nature or Nurture?
• How Views of Homosexuality Have Changed

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Human Sexuality and Adolescence

Joav merrick.

1 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Jerusalem, Israel

2 Health Services, Division for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, Ministry of Social Affairs and Social Services, Jerusalem, Israel

3 Division of Pediatrics, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel

4 Division of Adolescent Medicine, Kentucky Children’s Hospital, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA

Ariel Tenenbaum

Hatim a. omar, introduction.

Human sexuality involve sexual attraction to another person, which for the most part is to the opposite sex (heterosexuality), some to the same sex (homosexuality), or some having both (bisexuality) or not being attracted to anyone in a sexual manner (asexuality).

Human sexuality is determined by many factors, like cultural, political, legal, and philosophical aspects of life, but also morality, ethics, theology, spirituality, and religion. Sexuality is as old as mankind and interest in sexual activity is very much related to the onset of puberty and the period of schooling.

Primary care physicians see children and adolescents with a wide variety of gynecologic and sexual needs, though they often have limited training and limited available educational materials to help them. We therefore published a small handbook on pediatric and adolescent gynecology with information for the primary care clinician ( 1 ), but in this book we have gathered papers from around the world in order to discuss issues of sexuality from an international perspective.

Children and adolescents must successfully traverse various stages of pubertal and sexual development in order to become well-adjusted adults with established sexual identity, functioning, and ability. Concerns with breast development and menstrual function are common issues with adolescent females. The clinician may be presented with children who have pediatric gynecologic complaints (i.e., vulvar bleeding, itching, or a mass) or an adolescent who needs contraception or pregnancy counseling.

Youth Risk Behavior Survey

The United States 2005 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) ( 2 ) noted that 46.8% of all high school students have had sexual (coital) experience, with a range of 43.0% for Whites, 51.0% for Hispanics, and 67.6% for African-American youth. These millions of sexually active youth produce about 900,000 pregnancies and over six million sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) each year, 1 in 10 of adolescent females becomes pregnant each year, 90% of which were unintended. In adolescents, 14% of the pregnancies end in miscarriages, 35% in abortions, and 51% in live births. Pregnancy rates and STD numbers are also significant around the world, including European countries.

Studies note ( 3 ) that youth (age 15–19 years) have the highest rates of chlamydia, gonorrhea cervicitis (endocervicitis), syphilis, and hospitalizations due to pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Worldwide, those individuals 15–29 years of age have the highest STD risk. Increased risk of youth for STDs is due to high sexual activity rates, multiple sex partners, use of sex and drugs concomitantly, immature cervix (sensitive transition zone cells exposed to the vaginal environment), “adolescence myth” thinking (i.e., no harm will ever come to one, despite high risk behavior), and difficulty in dealing with the medical system for prevention, screening, diagnosis, and treatment. The cost in terms of preventable health care spending is staggering and the complications of STDs are severe, especially for females; these include PID, chronic pelvic pain, ectopic (tubal) pregnancy, and poor pregnancy outcomes, HPV-induced cervical cancer, and others.

In the United States, in 2005 ( 2 ), there were 1,225 newly diagnosed cases of HIV/AIDS among adolescents 15–19 years old, and 3,904 among young adults aged 20–24 years (out of 200,000 cases in the United States). There is an estimated one million Americans ( 4 ), who are infected with HIV; it is unknown how many are teenagers who will eventually die from HIV in their third or fourth decade of life. Approximately 20% of adults with HIV infection were infected as teenagers and one in four individuals newly diagnosed with HIV infection is under age 22 years. African-Americans are 14% of the American population, yet they bear 28% of the AIDS cases in America. It is estimated that nearly 100,000 women in the United Kingdom develop PID each year. After one episode of STI/STD, 12.8% of young women will suffer from tubal infertility; after three episodes, this figure rises to 75%. However, because most primary care providers do not deal with the complex treatment of AIDS, we will not include a chapter on the subject in this book.

There are approximately three million reported annual cases of abuse in America in those under 18 years of age ( 5 ); in 2004 reported cases of maltreatment were subdivided into neglect in 62.4%, physical abuse in 17.5%, sexual abuse in 9.7%, emotional or psychological abuse in 7%, and medical neglect in 2.1% of total cases ( 1 ). The epidemiology of rape suggests that, while fewer than one-third of rapes get reported, in three-quarters of cases the perpetrator is known to the woman/victim. The child or adolescent who is subjected to violence and abuse may become an adult with serious sequelae, including diverse mental health disorders. Many cases of physical abuse of children start out as an attempted sexual abuse and the physical injuries happen as the perpetrator is suppressing the victim’s struggle and resistance.

The shortage of child and adolescent gynecologists in the world has placed considerable strain on primary care clinicians in helping these children and adolescents, who have a wide variety of sexual and gynecologic needs. The inadequate training primary care clinicians often receive in this area is also worsened by the limited number of available books written for them, which was the reason why we did the pediatric and adolescent gynecology book ( 1 ).

Delving into Human Behavior: the Art of Naturalistic Observation

This essay about the method of naturalistic observation in psychology, highlighting its unique ability to capture authentic human behavior in real-life settings. It discusses the importance of observing behavior in natural environments, where individuals interact spontaneously, offering insights into social dynamics and generating new research avenues. Despite challenges like observer bias and resource constraints, naturalistic observation remains a valuable tool for understanding the intricacies of human behavior and social interaction.

How it works

In the vast landscape of psychological research, one methodology stands out for its ability to capture the essence of human behavior in its most authentic form: naturalistic observation. Far from the sterile confines of a laboratory, naturalistic observation ventures into the heart of everyday life, unveiling the intricacies of human interaction and behavior within their natural habitat. It is a journey into the realm of genuine experience, where the complexities of social dynamics and individual quirks are laid bare for scrutiny and understanding.

At its core, naturalistic observation offers a unique perspective on human behavior by immersing researchers in the environments where it naturally unfolds. Whether it’s a bustling city street, a tranquil park, or a lively classroom, these natural settings serve as the stage for the drama of everyday life. Here, researchers become silent observers, blending into the background as they witness the ebb and flow of human interaction with an unobtrusive gaze. It is through this lens that the true essence of behavior is revealed, unencumbered by the constraints of artificial experimental setups.

One of the most compelling aspects of naturalistic observation is its ability to capture the nuances of social interaction in real-time. In these natural settings, individuals behave in ways that are spontaneous and unscripted, offering researchers a glimpse into the intricacies of human relationships and social dynamics. Whether it’s the subtle cues of nonverbal communication or the complex interplay of group dynamics, naturalistic observation allows researchers to peel back the layers of social behavior and uncover its underlying mechanisms.

Moreover, naturalistic observation holds immense potential for uncovering unexpected insights and generating new avenues of research. As researchers immerse themselves in the rich tapestry of everyday life, they may stumble upon intriguing patterns or phenomena that spark their curiosity. Perhaps it’s the way pedestrians navigate a crowded street or the dynamics of conversation in a bustling café. These seemingly mundane observations can serve as the seeds for further exploration, leading researchers down unexpected paths of inquiry and discovery.

However, naturalistic observation is not without its challenges and limitations. One of the most significant hurdles is the potential for observer bias, wherein the presence of the researcher may subtly influence the behavior of those being observed. To mitigate this risk, researchers employ a variety of strategies, such as blending into the environment or employing covert observation techniques. Additionally, naturalistic observation can be resource-intensive, requiring researchers to invest significant time and effort in data collection and analysis.

Despite these challenges, the benefits of naturalistic observation are undeniable. By providing a window into the complexities of human behavior in its natural habitat, this approach offers unparalleled insights into the intricacies of social interaction and individual behavior. It is a journey into the heart of what it means to be human, where the mundane becomes extraordinary and the ordinary becomes extraordinary. In the hands of skilled researchers, naturalistic observation is not just a tool for understanding behavior; it is a gateway to a deeper understanding of the human experience itself.

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