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Lecture Notes on Research Methodology

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Introduction to Research Methodology

Sabine Mendes Lima Moura Issues in Research Methodology PUC – November 2014.

Today Concepts underlying inferential statistics

Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

Research Methodology Lecture 1.

Chapter 12 Inferential Statistics Gay, Mills, and Airasian

Sample Design.

Magister of Electrical Engineering Udayana University September 2011

Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics

RESEARCH A systematic quest for undiscovered truth A way of thinking

Research Methodology.

Research Seminars in IT in Education (MIT6003) Quantitative Educational Research Design 2 Dr Jacky Pow.

PROCESSING OF DATA The collected data in research is processed and analyzed to come to some conclusions or to verify the hypothesis made. Processing of.

Academic Research Academic Research Dr Kishor Bhanushali M

Question paper 1997.

Chapter 6: Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data

Module III Multivariate Analysis Techniques- Framework, Factor Analysis, Cluster Analysis and Conjoint Analysis Research Report.

Chapter 7 Measuring of data Reliability of measuring instruments The reliability* of instrument is the consistency with which it measures the target attribute.

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Home » What is a Hypothesis – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

What is a Hypothesis – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Hypothesis is an educated guess or proposed explanation for a phenomenon, based on some initial observations or data. It is a tentative statement that can be tested and potentially proven or disproven through further investigation and experimentation.

Hypothesis is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments and the collection and analysis of data. It is an essential element of the scientific method, as it allows researchers to make predictions about the outcome of their experiments and to test those predictions to determine their accuracy.

Types of Hypothesis

Types of Hypothesis are as follows:

Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a statement that predicts a relationship between variables. It is usually formulated as a specific statement that can be tested through research, and it is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments.

Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is a statement that assumes there is no significant difference or relationship between variables. It is often used as a starting point for testing the research hypothesis, and if the results of the study reject the null hypothesis, it suggests that there is a significant difference or relationship between variables.

Alternative Hypothesis

An alternative hypothesis is a statement that assumes there is a significant difference or relationship between variables. It is often used as an alternative to the null hypothesis and is tested against the null hypothesis to determine which statement is more accurate.

Directional Hypothesis

A directional hypothesis is a statement that predicts the direction of the relationship between variables. For example, a researcher might predict that increasing the amount of exercise will result in a decrease in body weight.

Non-directional Hypothesis

A non-directional hypothesis is a statement that predicts the relationship between variables but does not specify the direction. For example, a researcher might predict that there is a relationship between the amount of exercise and body weight, but they do not specify whether increasing or decreasing exercise will affect body weight.

Statistical Hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis is a statement that assumes a particular statistical model or distribution for the data. It is often used in statistical analysis to test the significance of a particular result.

Composite Hypothesis

A composite hypothesis is a statement that assumes more than one condition or outcome. It can be divided into several sub-hypotheses, each of which represents a different possible outcome.

Empirical Hypothesis

An empirical hypothesis is a statement that is based on observed phenomena or data. It is often used in scientific research to develop theories or models that explain the observed phenomena.

Simple Hypothesis

A simple hypothesis is a statement that assumes only one outcome or condition. It is often used in scientific research to test a single variable or factor.

Complex Hypothesis

A complex hypothesis is a statement that assumes multiple outcomes or conditions. It is often used in scientific research to test the effects of multiple variables or factors on a particular outcome.

Applications of Hypothesis

Hypotheses are used in various fields to guide research and make predictions about the outcomes of experiments or observations. Here are some examples of how hypotheses are applied in different fields:

Science : In scientific research, hypotheses are used to test the validity of theories and models that explain natural phenomena. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a particular variable on a natural system, such as the effects of climate change on an ecosystem.
Medicine : In medical research, hypotheses are used to test the effectiveness of treatments and therapies for specific conditions. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a new drug on a particular disease.
Psychology : In psychology, hypotheses are used to test theories and models of human behavior and cognition. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a particular stimulus on the brain or behavior.
Sociology : In sociology, hypotheses are used to test theories and models of social phenomena, such as the effects of social structures or institutions on human behavior. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of income inequality on crime rates.
Business : In business research, hypotheses are used to test the validity of theories and models that explain business phenomena, such as consumer behavior or market trends. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a new marketing campaign on consumer buying behavior.
Engineering : In engineering, hypotheses are used to test the effectiveness of new technologies or designs. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the efficiency of a new solar panel design.

How to write a Hypothesis

Here are the steps to follow when writing a hypothesis:

Identify the Research Question

The first step is to identify the research question that you want to answer through your study. This question should be clear, specific, and focused. It should be something that can be investigated empirically and that has some relevance or significance in the field.

Conduct a Literature Review

Before writing your hypothesis, it’s essential to conduct a thorough literature review to understand what is already known about the topic. This will help you to identify the research gap and formulate a hypothesis that builds on existing knowledge.

Determine the Variables

The next step is to identify the variables involved in the research question. A variable is any characteristic or factor that can vary or change. There are two types of variables: independent and dependent. The independent variable is the one that is manipulated or changed by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the one that is measured or observed as a result of the independent variable.

Formulate the Hypothesis

Based on the research question and the variables involved, you can now formulate your hypothesis. A hypothesis should be a clear and concise statement that predicts the relationship between the variables. It should be testable through empirical research and based on existing theory or evidence.

Write the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is the opposite of the alternative hypothesis, which is the hypothesis that you are testing. The null hypothesis states that there is no significant difference or relationship between the variables. It is important to write the null hypothesis because it allows you to compare your results with what would be expected by chance.

Refine the Hypothesis

After formulating the hypothesis, it’s important to refine it and make it more precise. This may involve clarifying the variables, specifying the direction of the relationship, or making the hypothesis more testable.

Examples of Hypothesis

Here are a few examples of hypotheses in different fields:

Psychology : “Increased exposure to violent video games leads to increased aggressive behavior in adolescents.”
Biology : “Higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will lead to increased plant growth.”
Sociology : “Individuals who grow up in households with higher socioeconomic status will have higher levels of education and income as adults.”
Education : “Implementing a new teaching method will result in higher student achievement scores.”
Marketing : “Customers who receive a personalized email will be more likely to make a purchase than those who receive a generic email.”
Physics : “An increase in temperature will cause an increase in the volume of a gas, assuming all other variables remain constant.”
Medicine : “Consuming a diet high in saturated fats will increase the risk of developing heart disease.”

Purpose of Hypothesis

The purpose of a hypothesis is to provide a testable explanation for an observed phenomenon or a prediction of a future outcome based on existing knowledge or theories. A hypothesis is an essential part of the scientific method and helps to guide the research process by providing a clear focus for investigation. It enables scientists to design experiments or studies to gather evidence and data that can support or refute the proposed explanation or prediction.

The formulation of a hypothesis is based on existing knowledge, observations, and theories, and it should be specific, testable, and falsifiable. A specific hypothesis helps to define the research question, which is important in the research process as it guides the selection of an appropriate research design and methodology. Testability of the hypothesis means that it can be proven or disproven through empirical data collection and analysis. Falsifiability means that the hypothesis should be formulated in such a way that it can be proven wrong if it is incorrect.

In addition to guiding the research process, the testing of hypotheses can lead to new discoveries and advancements in scientific knowledge. When a hypothesis is supported by the data, it can be used to develop new theories or models to explain the observed phenomenon. When a hypothesis is not supported by the data, it can help to refine existing theories or prompt the development of new hypotheses to explain the phenomenon.

When to use Hypothesis

Here are some common situations in which hypotheses are used:

In scientific research , hypotheses are used to guide the design of experiments and to help researchers make predictions about the outcomes of those experiments.
In social science research , hypotheses are used to test theories about human behavior, social relationships, and other phenomena.
I n business , hypotheses can be used to guide decisions about marketing, product development, and other areas. For example, a hypothesis might be that a new product will sell well in a particular market, and this hypothesis can be tested through market research.

Characteristics of Hypothesis

Here are some common characteristics of a hypothesis:

Testable : A hypothesis must be able to be tested through observation or experimentation. This means that it must be possible to collect data that will either support or refute the hypothesis.
Falsifiable : A hypothesis must be able to be proven false if it is not supported by the data. If a hypothesis cannot be falsified, then it is not a scientific hypothesis.
Clear and concise : A hypothesis should be stated in a clear and concise manner so that it can be easily understood and tested.
Based on existing knowledge : A hypothesis should be based on existing knowledge and research in the field. It should not be based on personal beliefs or opinions.
Specific : A hypothesis should be specific in terms of the variables being tested and the predicted outcome. This will help to ensure that the research is focused and well-designed.
Tentative: A hypothesis is a tentative statement or assumption that requires further testing and evidence to be confirmed or refuted. It is not a final conclusion or assertion.
Relevant : A hypothesis should be relevant to the research question or problem being studied. It should address a gap in knowledge or provide a new perspective on the issue.

Advantages of Hypothesis

Hypotheses have several advantages in scientific research and experimentation:

Guides research: A hypothesis provides a clear and specific direction for research. It helps to focus the research question, select appropriate methods and variables, and interpret the results.
Predictive powe r: A hypothesis makes predictions about the outcome of research, which can be tested through experimentation. This allows researchers to evaluate the validity of the hypothesis and make new discoveries.
Facilitates communication: A hypothesis provides a common language and framework for scientists to communicate with one another about their research. This helps to facilitate the exchange of ideas and promotes collaboration.
Efficient use of resources: A hypothesis helps researchers to use their time, resources, and funding efficiently by directing them towards specific research questions and methods that are most likely to yield results.
Provides a basis for further research: A hypothesis that is supported by data provides a basis for further research and exploration. It can lead to new hypotheses, theories, and discoveries.
Increases objectivity: A hypothesis can help to increase objectivity in research by providing a clear and specific framework for testing and interpreting results. This can reduce bias and increase the reliability of research findings.

Limitations of Hypothesis

Some Limitations of the Hypothesis are as follows:

Limited to observable phenomena: Hypotheses are limited to observable phenomena and cannot account for unobservable or intangible factors. This means that some research questions may not be amenable to hypothesis testing.
May be inaccurate or incomplete: Hypotheses are based on existing knowledge and research, which may be incomplete or inaccurate. This can lead to flawed hypotheses and erroneous conclusions.
May be biased: Hypotheses may be biased by the researcher’s own beliefs, values, or assumptions. This can lead to selective interpretation of data and a lack of objectivity in research.
Cannot prove causation: A hypothesis can only show a correlation between variables, but it cannot prove causation. This requires further experimentation and analysis.
Limited to specific contexts: Hypotheses are limited to specific contexts and may not be generalizable to other situations or populations. This means that results may not be applicable in other contexts or may require further testing.
May be affected by chance : Hypotheses may be affected by chance or random variation, which can obscure or distort the true relationship between variables.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY- ppt-1

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Chapter 20. Presentations

Introduction.

If a tree falls in a forest, and no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound? If a qualitative study is conducted, but it is not presented (in words or text), did it really happen? Perhaps not. Findings from qualitative research are inextricably tied up with the way those findings are presented. These presentations do not always need to be in writing, but they need to happen. Think of ethnographies, for example, and their thick descriptions of a particular culture. Witnessing a culture, taking fieldnotes, talking to people—none of those things in and of themselves convey the culture. Or think about an interview-based phenomenological study. Boxes of interview transcripts might be interesting to read through, but they are not a completed study without the intervention of hours of analysis and careful selection of exemplary quotes to illustrate key themes and final arguments and theories. And unlike much quantitative research in the social sciences, where the final write-up neatly reports the results of analyses, the way the “write-up” happens is an integral part of the analysis in qualitative research. Once again, we come back to the messiness and stubborn unlinearity of qualitative research. From the very beginning, when designing the study, imagining the form of its ultimate presentation is helpful.

Because qualitative researchers are motivated by understanding and conveying meaning, effective communication is not only an essential skill but a fundamental facet of the entire research project. Ethnographers must be able to convey a certain sense of verisimilitude, the appearance of true reality. Those employing interviews must faithfully depict the key meanings of the people they interviewed in a way that rings true to those people, even if the end result surprises them. And all researchers must strive for clarity in their publications so that various audiences can understand what was found and why it is important. This chapter will address how to organize various kinds of presentations for different audiences so that your results can be appreciated and understood.

In the world of academic science, social or otherwise, the primary audience for a study’s results is usually the academic community, and the primary venue for communicating to this audience is the academic journal. Journal articles are typically fifteen to thirty pages in length (8,000 to 12,000 words). Although qualitative researchers often write and publish journal articles—indeed, there are several journals dedicated entirely to qualitative research [1] —the best writing by qualitative researchers often shows up in books. This is because books, running from 80,000 to 150,000 words in length, allow the researcher to develop the material fully. You have probably read some of these in various courses you have taken, not realizing what they are. I have used examples of such books throughout this text, beginning with the three profiles in the introductory chapter. In some instances, the chapters in these books began as articles in academic journals (another indication that the journal article format somewhat limits what can be said about the study overall).

While the article and the book are “final” products of qualitative research, there are actually a few other presentation formats that are used along the way. At the very beginning of a research study, it is often important to have a written research proposal not just to clarify to yourself what you will be doing and when but also to justify your research to an outside agency, such as an institutional review board (IRB; see chapter 12), or to a potential funder, which might be your home institution, a government funder (such as the National Science Foundation, or NSF), or a private foundation (such as the Gates Foundation). As you get your research underway, opportunities will arise to present preliminary findings to audiences, usually through presentations at academic conferences. These presentations can provide important feedback as you complete your analyses. Finally, if you are completing a degree and looking to find an academic job, you will be asked to provide a “job talk,” usually about your research. These job talks are similar to conference presentations but can run significantly longer.

All the presentations mentioned so far are (mostly) for academic audiences. But qualitative research is also unique in that many of its practitioners don’t want to confine their presentation only to other academics. Qualitative researchers who study particular contexts or cultures might want to report back to the people and places they observed. Those working in the critical tradition might want to raise awareness of a particular issue to as large an audience as possible. Many others simply want everyday, nonacademic people to read their work, because they think it is interesting and important. To reach a wide audience, the final product can look like almost anything—it can be a poem, a blog, a podcast, even a science fiction short story. And if you are very lucky, it can even be a national or international bestseller.

In this chapter, we are going to stick with the more basic quotidian presentations—the academic paper / research proposal, the conference slideshow presentation / job talk, and the conference poster. We’ll also spend a bit of time on incorporating universal design into your presentations and how to create some especially attractive and impactful visual displays.

Researcher Note

What is the best piece of advice you’ve ever been given about conducting qualitative research?

The best advice I’ve received came from my adviser, Alford Young Jr. He told me to find the “Jessi Streib” answer to my research question, not the “Pierre Bourdieu” answer to my research question. In other words, don’t just say how a famous theorist would answer your question; say something original, something coming from you.

—Jessi Streib, author of The Power of the Past and Privilege Lost

Writing about Your Research

The journal article and the research proposal.

Although the research proposal is written before you have actually done your research and the article is written after all data collection and analysis is complete, there are actually many similarities between the two in terms of organization and purpose. The final article will (probably—depends on how much the research question and focus have shifted during the research itself) incorporate a great deal of what was included in a preliminary research proposal. The average lengths of both a proposal and an article are quite similar, with the “front sections” of the article abbreviated to make space for the findings, discussion of findings, and conclusion.

Figure 20.1 shows one model for what to include in an article or research proposal, comparing the elements of each with a default word count for each section. Please note that you will want to follow whatever specific guidelines you have been provided by the venue you are submitting the article/proposal to: the IRB, the NSF, the Journal of Qualitative Research . In fact, I encourage you to adapt the default model as needed by swapping out expected word counts for each section and adding or varying the sections to match expectations for your particular publication venue. [2]

You will notice a few things about the default model guidelines. First, while half of the proposal is spent discussing the research design, this section is shortened (but still included) for the article. There are a few elements that only show up in the proposal (e.g., the limitations section is in the introductory section here—it will be more fully developed in the conclusory section in the article). Obviously, you don’t have findings in the proposal, so this is an entirely new section for the article. Note that the article does not include a data management plan or a timeline—two aspects that most proposals require.

It might be helpful to find and maintain examples of successfully written sections that you can use as models for your own writing. I have included a few of these throughout the textbook and have included a few more at the end of this chapter.

Make an Argument

Some qualitative researchers, particularly those engaged in deep ethnographic research, focus their attention primarily if not exclusively on describing the data. They might even eschew the notion that they should make an “argument” about the data, preferring instead to use thick descriptions to convey interpretations. Bracketing the contrast between interpretation and argument for the moment, most readers will expect you to provide an argument about your data, and this argument will be in answer to whatever research question you eventually articulate (remember, research questions are allowed to shift as you get further into data collection and analysis). It can be frustrating to read a well-developed study with clear and elegant descriptions and no argument. The argument is the point of the research, and if you do not have one, 99 percent of the time, you are not finished with your analysis. Calarco ( 2020 ) suggests you imagine a pyramid, with all of your data forming the basis and all of your findings forming the middle section; the top/point of the pyramid is your argument, “what the patterns in your data tell us about how the world works or ought to work” ( 181 ).

The academic community to which you belong will be looking for an argument that relates to or develops theory. This is the theoretical generalizability promise of qualitative research. An academic audience will want to know how your findings relate to previous findings, theories, and concepts (the literature review; see chapter 9). It is thus vitally important that you go back to your literature review (or develop a new one) and draw those connections in your discussion and/or conclusion. When writing to other audiences, you will still want an argument, although it may not be written as a theoretical one. What do I mean by that? Even if you are not referring to previous literature or developing new theories or adapting older ones, a simple description of your findings is like dumping a lot of leaves in the lap of your audience. They still deserve to know about the shape of the forest. Maybe provide them a road map through it. Do this by telling a clear and cogent story about the data. What is the primary theme, and why is it important? What is the point of your research? [3]

A beautifully written piece of research based on participant observation [and/or] interviews brings people to life, and helps the reader understand the challenges people face. You are trying to use vivid, detailed and compelling words to help the reader really understand the lives of the people you studied. And you are trying to connect the lived experiences of these people to a broader conceptual point—so that the reader can understand why it matters. ( Lareau 2021:259 )

Do not hide your argument. Make it the focal point of your introductory section, and repeat it as often as needed to ensure the reader remembers it. I am always impressed when I see researchers do this well (see, e.g., Zelizer 1996 ).

Here are a few other suggestions for writing your article: Be brief. Do not overwhelm the reader with too many words; make every word count. Academics are particularly prone to “overwriting” as a way of demonstrating proficiency. Don’t. When writing your methods section, think about it as a “recipe for your work” that allows other researchers to replicate if they so wish ( Calarco 2020:186 ). Convey all the necessary information clearly, succinctly, and accurately. No more, no less. [4] Do not try to write from “beginning to end” in that order. Certain sections, like the introductory section, may be the last ones you write. I find the methods section the easiest, so I often begin there. Calarco ( 2020 ) begins with an outline of the analysis and results section and then works backward from there to outline the contribution she is making, then the full introduction that serves as a road map for the writing of all sections. She leaves the abstract for the very end. Find what order best works for you.

Presenting at Conferences and Job Talks

Students and faculty are primarily called upon to publicly present their research in two distinct contexts—the academic conference and the “job talk.” By convention, conference presentations usually run about fifteen minutes and, at least in sociology and other social sciences, rely primarily on the use of a slideshow (PowerPoint Presentation or PPT) presentation. You are usually one of three or four presenters scheduled on the same “panel,” so it is an important point of etiquette to ensure that your presentation falls within the allotted time and does not crowd into that of the other presenters. Job talks, on the other hand, conventionally require a forty- to forty-five-minute presentation with a fifteen- to twenty-minute question and answer (Q&A) session following it. You are the only person presenting, so if you run over your allotted time, it means less time for the Q&A, which can disturb some audience members who have been waiting for a chance to ask you something. It is sometimes possible to incorporate questions during your presentation, which allows you to take the entire hour, but you might end up shorting your presentation this way if the questions are numerous. It’s best for beginners to stick to the “ask me at the end” format (unless there is a simple clarifying question that can easily be addressed and makes the presentation run more smoothly, as in the case where you simply forgot to include information on the number of interviews you conducted).

For slideshows, you should allot two or even three minutes for each slide, never less than one minute. And those slides should be clear, concise, and limited. Most of what you say should not be on those slides at all. The slides are simply the main points or a clear image of what you are speaking about. Include bulleted points (words, short phrases), not full sentences. The exception is illustrative quotations from transcripts or fieldnotes. In those cases, keep to one illustrative quote per slide, and if it is long, bold or otherwise, highlight the words or passages that are most important for the audience to notice. [5]

Figure 20.2 provides a possible model for sections to include in either a conference presentation or a job talk, with approximate times and approximate numbers of slides. Note the importance (in amount of time spent) of both the research design and the findings/results sections, both of which have been helpfully starred for you. Although you don’t want to short any of the sections, these two sections are the heart of your presentation.

Fig 20.2. Suggested Slideshow Times and Number of Slides

Should you write out your script to read along with your presentation? I have seen this work well, as it prevents presenters from straying off topic and keeps them to the time allotted. On the other hand, these presentations can seem stiff and wooden. Personally, although I have a general script in advance, I like to speak a little more informally and engagingly with each slide, sometimes making connections with previous panelists if I am at a conference. This means I have to pay attention to the time, and I sometimes end up breezing through one section more quickly than I would like. Whatever approach you take, practice in advance. Many times. With an audience. Ask for feedback, and pay attention to any presentation issues that arise (e.g., Do you speak too fast? Are you hard to hear? Do you stumble over a particular word or name?).

Even though there are rules and guidelines for what to include, you will still want to make your presentation as engaging as possible in the little amount of time you have. Calarco ( 2020:274 ) recommends trying one of three story structures to frame your presentation: (1) the uncertain explanation , where you introduce a phenomenon that has not yet been fully explained and then describe how your research is tackling this; (2) the uncertain outcome , where you introduce a phenomenon where the consequences have been unclear and then you reveal those consequences with your research; and (3) the evocative example , where you start with some interesting example from your research (a quote from the interview transcripts, for example) or the real world and then explain how that example illustrates the larger patterns you found in your research. Notice that each of these is a framing story. Framing stories are essential regardless of format!

A Word on Universal Design

Please consider accessibility issues during your presentation, and incorporate elements of universal design into your slideshow. The basic idea behind universal design in presentations is that to the greatest extent possible, all people should be able to view, hear, or otherwise take in your presentation without needing special individual adaptations. If you can make your presentation accessible to people with visual impairment or hearing loss, why not do so? For example, one in twelve men is color-blind, unable to differentiate between certain colors, red/green being the most common problem. So if you design a graphic that relies on red and green bars, some of your audience members may not be able to properly identify which bar means what. Simple contrasts of black and white are much more likely to be visible to all members of your audience. There are many other elements of good universal design, but the basic foundation of all of them is that you consider how to make your presentation as accessible as possible at the outset. For example, include captions whenever possible, both as descriptions on slides and as images on slides and for any audio or video clips you are including; keep font sizes large enough to read from the back of the room; and face the audience when you are.

Poster Design

Undergraduate students who present at conferences are often encouraged to present at “poster sessions.” This usually means setting up a poster version of your research in a large hall or convention space at a set period of time—ninety minutes is common. Your poster will be one of dozens, and conference-goers will wander through the space, stopping intermittently at posters that attract them. Those who stop by might ask you questions about your research, and you are expected to be able to talk intelligently for two or three minutes. It’s a fairly easy way to practice presenting at conferences, which is why so many organizations hold these special poster sessions.

A good poster design will be immediately attractive to passersby and clearly and succinctly describe your research methods, findings, and conclusions. Some students have simply shrunk down their research papers to manageable sizes and then pasted them on a poster, all twelve to fifteen pages of them. Don’t do that! Here are some better suggestions: State the main conclusion of your research in large bold print at the top of your poster, on brightly colored (contrasting) paper, and paste in a QR code that links to your full paper online ( Calarco 2020:280 ). Use the rest of the poster board to provide a couple of highlights and details of the study. For an interview-based study, for example, you will want to put in some details about your sample (including number of interviews) and setting and then perhaps one or two key quotes, also distinguished by contrasting color background.

Incorporating Visual Design in Your Presentations

In addition to ensuring that your presentation is accessible to as large an audience as possible, you also want to think about how to display your data in general, particularly how to use charts and graphs and figures. [6] The first piece of advice is, use them! As the saying goes, a picture is worth a thousand words. If you can cut to the chase with a visually stunning display, do so. But there are visual displays that are stunning, and then there are the tired, hard-to-see visual displays that predominate at conferences. You can do better than most presenters by simply paying attention here and committing yourself to a good design. As with model section passages, keep a file of visual displays that work as models for your own presentations. Find a good guidebook to presenting data effectively (Evergreen 2018 , 2019 ; Schwabisch 2021) , and refer to it often.

Let me make a few suggestions here to get you started. First, test every visual display on a friend or colleague to find out how quickly they can understand the point you are trying to convey. As with reading passages aloud to ensure that your writing works, showing someone your display is the quickest way to find out if it works. Second, put the point in the title of the display! When writing for an academic journal, there will be specific conventions of what to include in the title (full description including methods of analysis, sample, dates), but in a public presentation, there are no limiting rules. So you are free to write as your title “Working-Class College Students Are Three Times as Likely as Their Peers to Drop Out of College,” if that is the point of the graphic display. It certainly helps the communicative aspect. Third, use the themes available to you in Excel for creating graphic displays, but alter them to better fit your needs . Consider adding dark borders to bars and columns, for example, so that they appear crisper for your audience. Include data callouts and labels, and enlarge them so they are clearly visible. When duplicative or otherwise unnecessary, drop distracting gridlines and labels on the y-axis (the vertical one). Don’t go crazy adding different fonts, however—keep things simple and clear. Sans serif fonts (those without the little hooks on the ends of letters) read better from a distance. Try to use the same color scheme throughout, even if this means manually changing the colors of bars and columns. For example, when reporting on working-class college students, I use blue bars, while I reserve green bars for wealthy students and yellow bars for students in the middle. I repeat these colors throughout my presentations and incorporate different colors when talking about other items or factors. You can also try using simple grayscale throughout, with pops of color to indicate a bar or column or line that is of the most interest. These are just some suggestions. The point is to take presentation seriously and to pay attention to visual displays you are using to ensure they effectively communicate what you want them to communicate. I’ve included a data visualization checklist from Evergreen ( 2018 ) here.

Ethics of Presentation and Reliability

Until now, all the data you have collected have been yours alone. Once you present the data, however, you are sharing sometimes very intimate information about people with a broader public. You will find yourself balancing between protecting the privacy of those you’ve interviewed and observed and needing to demonstrate the reliability of the study. The more information you provide to your audience, the more they can understand and appreciate what you have found, but this also may pose risks to your participants. There is no one correct way to go about finding the right balance. As always, you have a duty to consider what you are doing and must make some hard decisions.

The most obvious place we see this paradox emerge is when you mask your data to protect the privacy of your participants. It is standard practice to provide pseudonyms, for example. It is such standard practice that you should always assume you are being given a pseudonym when reading a book or article based on qualitative research. When I was a graduate student, I tried to find information on how best to construct pseudonyms but found little guidance. There are some ethical issues here, I think. [7] Do you create a name that has the same kind of resonance as the original name? If the person goes by a nickname, should you use a nickname as a pseudonym? What about names that are ethnically marked (as in, almost all of them)? Is there something unethical about reracializing a person? (Yes!) In her study of adolescent subcultures, Wilkins ( 2008 ) noted, “Because many of the goths used creative, alternative names rather than their given names, I did my best to reproduce the spirit of their chosen names” ( 24 ).

Your reader or audience will want to know all the details about your participants so that they can gauge both your credibility and the reliability of your findings. But how many details are too many? What if you change the name but otherwise retain all the personal pieces of information about where they grew up, and how old they were when they got married, and how many children they have, and whether they made a splash in the news cycle that time they were stalked by their ex-boyfriend? At some point, those details are going to tip over into the zone of potential unmasking. When you are doing research at one particular field site that may be easily ascertained (as when you interview college students, probably at the institution at which you are a student yourself), it is even more important to be wary of providing too many details. You also need to think that your participants might read what you have written, know things about the site or the population from which you drew your interviews, and figure out whom you are talking about. This can all get very messy if you don’t do more than simply pseudonymize the people you interviewed or observed.

There are some ways to do this. One, you can design a study with all of these risks in mind. That might mean choosing to conduct interviews or observations at multiple sites so that no one person can be easily identified. Another is to alter some basic details about your participants to protect their identity or to refuse to provide all the information when selecting quotes . Let’s say you have an interviewee named “Anna” (a pseudonym), and she is a twenty-four-year-old Latina studying to be an engineer. You want to use a quote from Anna about racial discrimination in her graduate program. Instead of attributing the quote to Anna (whom your reader knows, because you’ve already told them, is a twenty-four-year-old Latina studying engineering), you might simply attribute the quote to “Latina student in STEM.” Taking this a step further, you might leave the quote unattributed, providing a list of quotes about racial discrimination by “various students.”

The problem with masking all the identifiers, of course, is that you lose some of the analytical heft of those attributes. If it mattered that Anna was twenty-four (not thirty-four) and that she was a Latina and that she was studying engineering, taking out any of those aspects of her identity might weaken your analysis. This is one of those “hard choices” you will be called on to make! A rather radical and controversial solution to this dilemma is to create composite characters , characters based on the reality of the interviews but fully masked because they are not identifiable with any one person. My students are often very queasy about this when I explain it to them. The more positivistic your approach and the more you see individuals rather than social relationships/structure as the “object” of your study, the more employing composites will seem like a really bad idea. But composites “allow researchers to present complex, situated accounts from individuals” without disclosing personal identities ( Willis 2019 ), and they can be effective ways of presenting theory narratively ( Hurst 2019 ). Ironically, composites permit you more latitude when including “dirty laundry” or stories that could harm individuals if their identities became known. Rather than squeezing out details that could identify a participant, the identities are permanently removed from the details. Great difficulty remains, however, in clearly explaining the theoretical use of composites to your audience and providing sufficient information on the reliability of the underlying data.

There are a host of other ethical issues that emerge as you write and present your data. This is where being reflective throughout the process will help. How and what you share of what you have learned will depend on the social relationships you have built, the audiences you are writing or speaking to, and the underlying animating goals of your study. Be conscious about all of your decisions, and then be able to explain them fully, both to yourself and to those who ask.

Our research is often close to us. As a Black woman who is a first-generation college student and a professional with a poverty/working-class origin, each of these pieces of my identity creates nuances in how I engage in my research, including how I share it out. Because of this, it’s important for us to have people in our lives who we trust who can help us, particularly, when we are trying to share our findings. As researchers, we have been steeped in our work, so we know all the details and nuances. Sometimes we take this for granted, and we might not have shared those nuances in conversation or writing or taken some of this information for granted. As I share my research with trusted friends and colleagues, I pay attention to the questions they ask me or the feedback they give when we talk or when they read drafts.

—Kim McAloney, PhD, College Student Services Administration Ecampus coordinator and instructor

Final Comments: Preparing for Being Challenged

Once you put your work out there, you must be ready to be challenged. Science is a collective enterprise and depends on a healthy give and take among researchers. This can be both novel and difficult as you get started, but the more you understand the importance of these challenges, the easier it will be to develop the kind of thick skin necessary for success in academia. Scientists’ authority rests on both the inherent strength of their findings and their ability to convince other scientists of the reliability and validity and value of those findings. So be prepared to be challenged, and recognize this as simply another important aspect of conducting research!

Considering what challenges might be made as you design and conduct your study will help you when you get to the writing and presentation stage. Address probable challenges in your final article, and have a planned response to probable questions in a conference presentation or job talk. The following is a list of common challenges of qualitative research and how you might best address them:

Questions about generalizability . Although qualitative research is not statistically generalizable (and be prepared to explain why), qualitative research is theoretically generalizable. Discuss why your findings here might tell us something about related phenomena or contexts.
Questions about reliability . You probably took steps to ensure the reliability of your findings. Discuss them! This includes explaining the use and value of multiple data sources and defending your sampling and case selections. It also means being transparent about your own position as researcher and explaining steps you took to ensure that what you were seeing was really there.
Questions about replicability. Although qualitative research cannot strictly be replicated because the circumstances and contexts will necessarily be different (if only because the point in time is different), you should be able to provide as much detail as possible about how the study was conducted so that another researcher could attempt to confirm or disconfirm your findings. Also, be very clear about the limitations of your study, as this allows other researchers insight into what future research might be warranted.

None of this is easy, of course. Writing beautifully and presenting clearly and cogently require skill and practice. If you take anything from this chapter, it is to remember that presentation is an important and essential part of the research process and to allocate time for this as you plan your research.

Data Visualization Checklist for Slideshow (PPT) Presentations

Adapted from Evergreen ( 2018 )

Text checklist

Short catchy, descriptive titles (e.g., “Working-class students are three times as likely to drop out of college”) summarize the point of the visual display
Subtitled and annotations provide additional information (e.g., “note: male students also more likely to drop out”)
Text size is hierarchical and readable (titles are largest; axes labels smallest, which should be at least 20points)
Text is horizontal. Audience members cannot read vertical text!
All data labeled directly and clearly: get rid of those “legends” and embed the data in your graphic display
Labels are used sparingly; avoid redundancy (e.g., do not include both a number axis and a number label)

Arrangement checklist

Proportions are accurate; bar charts should always start at zero; don’t mislead the audience!
Data are intentionally ordered (e.g., by frequency counts). Do not leave ragged alphabetized bar graphs!
Axis intervals are equidistant: spaces between axis intervals should be the same unit
Graph is two-dimensional. Three-dimensional and “bevelled” displays are confusing
There is no unwanted decoration (especially the kind that comes automatically through the PPT “theme”). This wastes your space and confuses.

Color checklist

There is an intentional color scheme (do not use default theme)
Color is used to identify key patterns (e.g., highlight one bar in red against six others in greyscale if this is the bar you want the audience to notice)
Color is still legible when printed in black and white
Color is legible for people with color blindness (do not use red/green or yellow/blue combinations)
There is sufficient contrast between text and background (black text on white background works best; be careful of white on dark!)

Lines checklist

Be wary of using gridlines; if you do, mute them (grey, not black)
Allow graph to bleed into surroundings (don’t use border lines)
Remove axis lines unless absolutely necessary (better to label directly)

Overall design checklist

The display highlights a significant finding or conclusion that your audience can ‘”see” relatively quickly
The type of graph (e.g., bar chart, pie chart, line graph) is appropriate for the data. Avoid pie charts with more than three slices!
Graph has appropriate level of precision; if you don’t need decimal places
All the chart elements work together to reinforce the main message

Universal Design Checklist for Slideshow (PPT) Presentations

Include both verbal and written descriptions (e.g., captions on slides); consider providing a hand-out to accompany the presentation
Microphone available (ask audience in back if they can clearly hear)
Face audience; allow people to read your lips
Turn on captions when presenting audio or video clips
Adjust light settings for visibility
Speak slowly and clearly; practice articulation; don’t mutter or speak under your breath (even if you have something humorous to say – say it loud!)
Use Black/White contrasts for easy visibility; or use color contrasts that are real contrasts (do not rely on people being able to differentiate red from green, for example)
Use easy to read font styles and avoid too small font sizes: think about what an audience member in the back row will be able to see and read.
Keep your slides simple: do not overclutter them; if you are including quotes from your interviews, take short evocative snippets only, and bold key words and passages. You should also read aloud each passage, preferably with feeling!

Supplement: Models of Written Sections for Future Reference

Data collection section example.

Interviews were semi structured, lasted between one and three hours, and took place at a location chosen by the interviewee. Discussions centered on four general topics: (1) knowledge of their parent’s immigration experiences; (2) relationship with their parents; (3) understanding of family labor, including language-brokering experiences; and (4) experiences with school and peers, including any future life plans. While conducting interviews, I paid close attention to respondents’ nonverbal cues, as well as their use of metaphors and jokes. I conducted interviews until I reached a point of saturation, as indicated by encountering repeated themes in new interviews (Glaser and Strauss 1967). Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed with each interviewee’s permission, and conducted in accordance with IRB protocols. Minors received permission from their parents before participation in the interview. ( Kwon 2022:1832 )

Justification of Case Selection / Sample Description Section Example

Looking at one profession within one organization and in one geographic area does impose limitations on the generalizability of our findings. However, it also has advantages. We eliminate the problem of interorganizational heterogeneity. If multiple organizations are studied simultaneously, it can make it difficult to discern the mechanisms that contribute to racial inequalities. Even with a single occupation there is considerable heterogeneity, which may make understanding how organizational structure impacts worker outcomes difficult. By using the case of one group of professionals in one religious denomination in one geographic region of the United States, we clarify how individuals’ perceptions and experiences of occupational inequality unfold in relation to a variety of observed and unobserved occupational and contextual factors that might be obscured in a larger-scale study. Focusing on a specific group of professionals allows us to explore and identify ways that formal organizational rules combine with informal processes to contribute to the persistence of racial inequality. ( Eagle and Mueller 2022:1510–1511 )

Ethics Section Example

I asked everyone who was willing to sit for a formal interview to speak only for themselves and offered each of them a prepaid Visa Card worth $25–40. I also offered everyone the opportunity to keep the card and erase the tape completely at any time they were dissatisfied with the interview in any way. No one asked for the tape to be erased; rather, people remarked on the interview being a really good experience because they felt heard. Each interview was professionally transcribed and for the most part the excerpts are literal transcriptions. In a few places, the excerpts have been edited to reduce colloquial features of speech (e.g., you know, like, um) and some recursive elements common to spoken language. A few excerpts were placed into standard English for clarity. I made this choice for the benefit of readers who might otherwise find the insights and ideas harder to parse in the original. However, I have to acknowledge this as an act of class-based violence. I tried to keep the original phrasing whenever possible. ( Pascale 2021:235 )

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis should be testable & should not be a moral judgment. ... for example, roy s adaptation model is used in a research study, ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

A hypothesis is a formal tentative statement of the expected relationship between two or more variables under study.
A hypothesis helps to translate the research problem objectives into a clear explanation or prediction of the expected results or outcomes of the research study.
A clearly stated hypothesis includes the variables to be manipulated or measured, identifies the population to be examined, indicates the proposed outcome for the study.
Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship between two variables. It implies that there is a systematic relationship between an independent a dependent variable.
For example, dietary compliance will be greater in diabetic patients receiving diet instruction in small groups than in diabetic patients receiving individualized diet instructions.
Good Hatt define hypothesis as a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated provisionally adopted to explain observed facts or conditions to guide in further investigation.
Hypotheses enables the researcher to objectively investigate new areas of discovery. Thus , it provides a powerful tool for the advancement of knowledge.
Hypotheses provides objectivity to the research activity.
It also provides directions to conduct research such as defining the sources relevance of data.
Hypotheses provides clear specific goals to the researchers. These clear specific goals provide the investigator with a basis for selecting sample research procedures to meet these goals.
Hypotheses provides link between theories actual practical research.
It provides a bridge between theory reality.
A hypothesis suggests which type of research is likely to be most appropriate.
As it is a tentative statement of anticipated results, it guides the researcher towards the direction in which the research should proceed.
It stimulates the thinking process of researcher as the researcher forms the hypothesis by anticipating the outcome.
It also determines the most appropriate research designs techniques of data analysis.
Hypotheses provides understanding to the researchers about what expect from the results of the research study.
It serves as framework for drawing conclusions of a research study.
Without hypotheses, research would be like aimless wandering.
Conceptual clarity
Hypothesis should consist of clearly defined understandable concepts. It should be stated in very terms, the meaning implication of which cannot be doubted. To facilitate the conceptual clarity, hypothesis can be stated in declarative statement, in present tense.
Empirical referents
Research must have an ultimate empirical referent. No usable hypothesis can embody moral judgments. A good hypothesis must have empirical basis from the area of enquiry.
Objectivity
Hypothesis must be objective, which facilitates objectivity in data collection keeps the research activity free from researcher value - judgment.
Specificity
It should be specific, not general, should explain the expected relations between variables. For example, regular yoga reduces stress.
The hypothesis should be relevant to the problem being studied as well as the objectives of the study. Hypothesis must have relevance with theory under test in a research process.
Testability
Hypothesis should be testable should not be a moral judgment. It must be directly/indirectly observable measurable. The researcher can set up a situation that permits one to assess if it is true or false. It must be verifiable. For example, a statement such as bad partners produce bad children. This sort of hypothesis cannot be tested.
Consistency
A hypothesis should be consistent with an existing body of theories, research findings, other hypotheses. It should correspond with existing knowledge.
A hypothesis should be formulated in simple understandable terms. It should require fewer conditions assumptions.
Availability of techniques
The researchers must make sure that methods are available for testing their proposed hypotheses
Purposiveness
The researcher must formulate only purposeful hypotheses, which has relevance with research problem objectives.
Verifiability
A good hypothesis can be actually verified in practical terms.
Profundity of effect
A good hypothesis should have profound effect upon a variety of research variables.
The expenditure of money the time can be controlled if the hypotheses underlying the research undertaken is good.
The most important sources of hypotheses are theoretical or conceptual frameworks developed for the study.
Through a deductive approach these hypotheses are drawn from theoretical or conceptual frameworks for testing them.
For example, Roys adaptation Model is used in a research study, where a hypothesis can be drawn from a concept of the theoretical mode that patients adaptation to a chronic illness depends on availability of social support for them.
Findings of the previous studies may be used for framing the hypotheses for another study.
For example, in a small sample descriptive study, a researcher found that a number of patients admitted with coronary artery disease had increased body mass index.
In another research study, a researcher may use this finding to formulate a hypothesis as Obese patients have increased risk for development of coronary artery disease.
Real-life experiences also contribute in the formulation of hypotheses for research studies.
For example, Newton had a life-changing experience of the falling of an apple formulated a hypothesis that earth attracts all the mass towards its centre, through several researchers were conducted before generating a law of central gravity.
Academic literature is based on formal theories, empirical evidences, experiences, observation, conceptualizations of academicians.
These literatures may serve as good sources for formulating hypotheses for research studies.
Simple hypothesis
It is a statement which reflects the relationship between two variables.
For example, the lower the level of hemoglobin, the higher is the risk of infection among postpartum women.
Complex hypothesis
It is a statement which reflects the relationship between more than two variables.
For example, satisfaction is higher among patients who are older dwelling in rural area than those who are younger dwelling in urban area.
Associative hypothesis
It reflects a relationship between variables that occurs or exists in natural settings without manipulation.
This hypothesis is used in correlational research studies
Causal hypothesis
It predicts the cause-and-effect relationship between two or more dependent independent variables in experimental or interventional setting, where independent variable is manipulated by research to examine the effect on the dependent variable.
The causal hypothesis reflects the measurement of dependent variable to examine the effect of dependent variable, which is manipulated by the researcher(s).
For examples, prevalence of pin site infection is lower in patients who receive pin site care with hydrogen proxidide as compared to patients who receive the pin site care with Betadine solution.
Directional hypothesis
It specifies not only the existence, but also the expected direction of the relationship between variables.
Directional hypothesis states the nature of the relationship between two or more variables such as positive, negative, or no relationship.
To express the direction of relationship between variables, the directional terms are used to state the hypothesis such as positive, negative, less, more, increased, decreased, greater, higher, lower, etc.
For examples, there is a positive relationship between years of nursing experience job satisfaction among nurses.
Nondirectional Hypothesis
It reflects the relationship between two or more variables, but is does not specify the anticipated direction nature of relationship such as positive or negative.
It indicates the existence of relationship between the variables.
For example, there is relationship between years of nursing experience job satisfaction among nurses.
Null hypothesis (H0)
It is also known as statistical hypothesis is used for statistical testing interpretation of statistical outcomes.
It states the existence of no relationship between the independent dependent variables.
For example, there is no relationship between smoking the incidence of coronary artery disease.
Research hypothesis (H1)
It states the existence of relationship between two or more variables.
For examples, there is relationship between smoking incidence of lung cancer.

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Home Blog Education How to Prepare Your Scientific Presentation

How to Prepare Your Scientific Presentation

Since the dawn of time, humans were eager to find explanations for the world around them. At first, our scientific method was very simplistic and somewhat naive. We observed and reflected. But with the progressive evolution of research methods and thinking paradigms, we arrived into the modern era of enlightenment and science. So what represents the modern scientific method and how can you accurately share and present your research findings to others? These are the two fundamental questions we attempt to answer in this post.

What is the Scientific Method?

To better understand the concept, let’s start with this scientific method definition from the International Encyclopedia of Human Geography :

The scientific method is a way of conducting research, based on theory construction, the generation of testable hypotheses, their empirical testing, and the revision of theory if the hypothesis is rejected.

Essentially, a scientific method is a cumulative term, used to describe the process any scientist uses to objectively interpret the world (and specific phenomenon) around them.

The scientific method is the opposite of beliefs and cognitive biases — mostly irrational, often unconscious, interpretations of different occurrences that we lean on as a mental shortcut.

The scientific method in research, on the contrary, forces the thinker to holistically assess and test our approaches to interpreting data. So that they could gain consistent and non-arbitrary results.

The common scientific method examples are:

Systematic observation
Experimentation
Inductive and deductive reasoning
Formation and testing of hypotheses and theories

All of the above are used by both scientists and businesses to make better sense of the data and/or phenomenon at hand.

The Evolution of the Scientific Method

According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , ancient thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle are believed to be the forefathers of the scientific method. They were among the first to try to justify and refine their thought process using the scientific method experiments and deductive reasoning.

Both developed specific systems for knowledge acquisition and processing. For example, the Platonic way of knowledge emphasized reasoning as the main method for learning but downplayed the importance of observation. The Aristotelian corpus of knowledge, on the contrary, said that we must carefully observe the natural world to discover its fundamental principles.

In medieval times, thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon, and Andreas Vesalius among many others worked on further clarifying how we can obtain proven knowledge through observation and induction.

The 16th–18th centuries are believed to have given the greatest advances in terms of scientific method application. We, humans, learned to better interpret the world around us from mechanical, biological, economic, political, and medical perspectives. Thinkers such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, and their followers also increasingly switched to a tradition of explaining everything through mathematics, geometry, and numbers.

Up till today, mathematical and mechanical explanations remain the core parts of the scientific method.

Why is the Scientific Method Important Today?

Because our ancestors didn’t have as much data as we do. We now live in the era of paramount data accessibility and connectivity, where over 2.5 quintillions of data are produced each day. This has tremendously accelerated knowledge creation.

But, at the same time, such overwhelming exposure to data made us more prone to external influences, biases, and false beliefs. These can jeopardize the objectivity of any research you are conducting.

Scientific findings need to remain objective, verifiable, accurate, and consistent. Diligent usage of scientific methods in modern business and science helps ensure proper data interpretation, results replication, and undisputable validity.

6 Steps of the Scientific Method

Over the course of history, the scientific method underwent many interactions. Yet, it still carries some of the integral steps our ancestors used to analyze the world such as observation and inductive reasoning. However, the modern scientific method steps differ a bit.

1. Make an Observation

An observation serves as a baseline for your research. There are two important characteristics for a good research observation:

It must be objective, not subjective.
It must be verifiable, meaning others can say it’s true or false with this.

For example, This apple is red (objective/verifiable observation). This apple is delicious (subjective, harder-to-verify observation).

2. Develop a Hypothesis

Observations tell us about the present or past. But the goal of science is to glean in the future. A scientific hypothesis is based on prior knowledge and produced through reasoning as an attempt to descriptive a future event.

Here are characteristics of a good scientific hypothesis:

General and tentative idea
Agrees with all available observations
Testable and potentially falsifiable

Remember: If we state our hypothesis to indicate there is no effect, our hypothesis is a cause-and-effect relationship . A hypothesis, which asserts no effect, is called a null hypothesis.

3. Make a Prediction

A hypothesis is a mental “launchpad” for predicting the existence of other phenomena or quantitative results of new observations.

Going back to an earlier example here’s how to turn it into a hypothesis and a potential prediction for proving it. For example: If this apple is red, other apples of this type should be red too.

Your goal is then to decide which variables can help you prove or disprove your hypothesis and prepare to test these.

4. Perform an Experiment

Collect all the information around variables that will help you prove or disprove your prediction. According to the scientific method, a hypothesis has to be discarded or modified if its predictions are clearly and repeatedly incompatible with experimental results.

Yes, you may come up with an elegant theory. However, if your hypothetical predictions cannot be backed by experimental results, you cannot use them as a valid explanation of the phenomenon.

5. Analyze the Results of the Experiment

To come up with proof for your hypothesis, use different statistical analysis methods to interpret the meaning behind your data.

Remember to stay objective and emotionally unattached to your results. If 95 apples turned red, but 5 were yellow, does it disprove your hypothesis? Not entirely. It may mean that you didn’t account for all variables and must adapt the parameters of your experiment.

Here are some common data analysis techniques, used as a part of a scientific method:

Statistical analysis
Cause and effect analysis (see cause and effect analysis slides )
Regression analysis
Factor analysis
Cluster analysis
Time series analysis
Diagnostic analysis
Root cause analysis (see root cause analysis slides )

6. Draw a Conclusion

Every experiment has two possible outcomes:

The results correspond to the prediction
The results disprove the prediction

If that’s the latter, as a scientist you must discard the prediction then and most likely also rework the hypothesis based on it.

How to Give a Scientific Presentation to Showcase Your Methods

Whether you are doing a poster session, conference talk, or follow-up presentation on a recently published journal article, most of your peers need to know how you’ve arrived at the presented conclusions.

In other words, they will probe your scientific method for gaps to ensure that your results are fair and possible to replicate. So that they could incorporate your theories in their research too. Thus your scientific presentation must be sharp, on-point, and focus clearly on your research approaches.

Below we propose a quick framework for creating a compelling scientific presentation in PowerPoint (+ some helpful templates!).

1. Open with a Research Question

Here’s how to start a scientific presentation with ease: share your research question. On the first slide, briefly recap how your thought process went. Briefly state what was the underlying aim of your research: Share your main hypothesis, mention if you could prove or disprove them.

It might be tempting to pack a lot of ideas into your first slide but don’t. Keep the opening of your presentation short to pique the audience’s initial interest and set the stage for the follow-up narrative.

scientific presentation opening slide example

2. Disclose Your Methods

Whether you are doing a science poster presentation or conference talk, many audience members would be curious to understand how you arrived at your results. Deliver this information at the beginning of your presentation to avoid any ambiguities.

Here’s how to organize your science methods on a presentation:

Do not use bullet points or full sentences. Use diagrams and structured images to list the methods
Use visuals and iconography to use metaphors where possible.
Organize your methods by groups e.g. quantifiable and non-quantifiable

Finally, when you work on visuals for your presentation — charts, graphs, illustrations, etc. — think from the perspective of a subject novice. Does the image really convey the key information around the subject? Does it help break down complex ideas?

slide describing a summary of scientific methods

3. Spotlight the Results

Obviously, the research results will be your biggest bragging right. However, don’t over-pack your presentation with a long-winded discussion of your findings and how revolutionary these may be for the community.

Rather than writing a wall of text, do this instead:

Use graphs with large axis values/numbers to showcase the findings in great detail
Prioritize formats that are known to everybody (e.g. odds ratios, Kaplan Meier curves, etc.)
Do not include more than 5 lines of plain text per slide

Overall, when you feel that the results slide gets too cramped, it’s best to move the data to a new one.

Also, as you work on organizing data on your scientific presentation PowerPoint template , think if there are obvious limitations and gaps. If yes, make sure you acknowledge them during your speech.

4. Mention Study Limitations

The scientific method mandates objectivity. That’s why every researcher must clearly state what was excluded from their study. Remember: no piece of scientific research is truly universal and has certain boundaries. However, when you fail to personally state those, others might struggle to draw the line themselves and replicate your results. Then, if they fail to do so, they’d question the viability of your research.

5. Conclude with a Memorable Takeaway Message

Every experienced speaker will tell you that the audience best retains the information they hear first and last. Most people will attend more than one scientific presentation during the day.

So if you want the audience to better remember your talk, brainstorm a take-home message for the last slide of your presentation. Think of your last slide texts as an elevator pitch — a short, concluding message, summarizing your research.

To Conclude

Today we have no shortage of research and scientific methods for testing and proving our hypothesis. However, unlike our ancestors, most scientists experience deeper scrutiny when it comes to presenting and explaining their findings to others. That’s why it’s important to ensure that your scientific presentation clearly relays the aim, vector, and thought process behind your research.

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[Updated 2023] Top 20 PowerPoint Templates to Devise a Systematic Research Methodology

Kritika Saini

Developing a systematic research methodology is essential for conducting effective investigations. It ensures clarity, rigor, validity, replicability, ethical integrity, and efficiency in the research process. It serves as a roadmap that guides researchers through the study, enabling them to generate reliable findings and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields.

Research Methodology Templates to Conduct Rigorous and Reliable Research

By following a well-structured approach, you can enhance the efficiency of your research and produce meaningful results. Therefore, SlideTeam brings you a collection of content-ready and custom-made PPT templates to help you save time by providing pre-designed structures and frameworks for research methodologies. You can customize these templates to fit your specific projects, eliminating the need to create a methodology from scratch.

This time-saving aspect allows you to focus more on the actual research process. Secondly, these ready-made templates provide you with consistency and standardization in methodologies. They ensure that essential elements are included and organized in a logical manner, making it easier for readers and reviewers to understand and evaluate the research. They also serve as a helpful guide, ensuring that researchers cover all necessary components and follow best practices. They provide a clear and structured format for learning about research methodologies and help researchers develop a systematic approach to their work. Overall, research methodology templates streamline the process, enhance consistency, and serve as educational resources for researchers at various levels of expertise.

Browse the collection below and ensure that your methodology is comprehensive and well-written.

Let's begin!

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Template 1: Research method PPT Template

Save time and ensure consistency with our research methodology template. Designed to streamline your research process, our content-ready template provides a pre-designed structure and framework for developing your methodology section. Use this actionable PPT to focus more on conducting your research while ensuring that all essential elements are covered and organized in a logical manner. Enhance your efficiency and maintain consistency with our research methodology template.

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Template 2: Research Methodology Process Analysis Template

This is a content-ready PowerPoint template to maximize the effectiveness of your research. This professional and appealing template guides you step-by-step through the research process, from defining your research question to analyzing and interpreting data. With a structured framework in place, you can ensure that your methodology is comprehensive, rigorous, and adheres to best practices. Save time and maintain consistency by using our research methodology process template, empowering you to conduct high-quality research and generate meaningful insights.

Template 3: Business Research Design and Methodology Template

Accelerate your business research endeavors with our business research methodology proposal template. This comprehensive e template provides a solid framework for crafting a well-structured and persuasive research proposal. Streamline the proposal development process by leveraging our template's pre-designed sections, including problem statement, research objectives, methodology, timeline, and budget. Present your proposal with confidence, knowing that you have followed a proven format and incorporated essential elements. Take your business research to the next level with our business research methodology proposal template.

Business Research Design and Methodology Proposal

Template 4: Market Share Research Methodology Template

Wish to uncover valuable market insights? Deploy this ready-made PowerPoint template that simplifies the process of analyzing market share data, allowing you to assess your company's performance in relation to competitors. With pre-designed sections for data collection, analysis, and visualization, easily track market trends, identify growth opportunities, and make data-driven decisions. Save time and enhance your market research efforts with our market share research template, empowering you to stay ahead in a competitive business landscape.

Market Share Research Methodology with Six Pentagonal Steps

Template 5: PESTEL Analysis Research Methodology PPT Template

Gain a comprehensive understanding of your business environment with our pre-designed PESTEL analysis research methodology template. This versatile template provides a structured framework for conducting a thorough analysis of the political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal factors impacting your industry or market. Easily identify key trends, opportunities, and risks by utilizing our pre-designed sections and guidance. Streamline your research process and make informed strategic decisions using our PESTEL Analysis research methodology template, ensuring your business stays ahead of the curve.

Pestel Analysis Research Methodology Chart Sample File

Template 6: Research Methodology with 3 Step Process Map PPT Template

Looking for ways to create a research methodology process? Achieve research success with our content-ready PPT template which simplifies the research journey into three steps. Collect data, conduct research, and evaluate your findings to draw meaningful conclusions. With our template, you'll stay organized and ensure consistency throughout your research process. Maximize your research potential and achieve impactful results using our premium PPT slide.

Template 7: Rational Sections Research Methodology Template

This is a well-structured PowerPoint template that features distinct sections that guide you through every aspect of your research. From clearly defining research objectives to selecting appropriate data collection methods, analyzing data, and interpreting results, this PPT slide ensures you cover all essential components. With pre-designed sections for literature review, research design, data analysis, and more, you can streamline your research process and maintain consistency. Harness the potential of each section in our research methodology template to conduct rigorous and impactful studies.

Rational Sections Research Methodology Supplementary Program

Template 8: Research Methodology with Analysis PPT Template

Unleash the power of data-driven insights with our ready-made PPT template. This all-inclusive template integrates research methodology and data analysis, providing a comprehensive framework for conducting robust studies. From defining research objectives to data collection, cleaning, and analysis, our template guides you through each step of the research process. With pre-designed sections for statistical analysis, visualizations, and interpretation, uncover meaningful patterns and trends in your data. Elevate your research endeavors with this actionable template and unlock valuable insights for informed decision-making.

Research Methodology with Analysis and Online Survey

Template 9: Research Methodology Workflow PPT Template

Wish to optimize your research workflow? Use this content-ready PPT template that simplifies the process of planning, executing, and documenting your research methodology. With pre-designed sections for each stage, including research question formulation, data collection, analysis, and reporting, this pre-designed template ensures a structured and organized approach. Streamline your workflow, enhance collaboration, and maintain consistency throughout your research project with our professional and appealing PPT slide.

Research Methodology Showing Identify Aims Test Workflow

Template 10: Research Methodology with Literature Review PPT Template

Deploy this content-ready PowerPoint template to elevate your research that showcases crucial elements of literature review, providing a seamless framework for conducting rigorous investigations. With this pre-designed PPT template exhibiting research objectives, appropriate methods, a thorough literature review, and findings with existing knowledge, you can save time, maintain consistency, and produce impactful research. Leverage our PPT template to uncover valuable insights and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in your field.

Research Methodology with Literature Review and Report Findings

Template 11: Framework of Exploratory Research Methodology PPT Template

Embark on a journey of discovery and provide a structured framework for conducting exploratory research using our content-ready template. Delve into uncharted territories and uncover new insights by incorporating this premium template. Use this PPT slide to identify problem, data collection methods, analysis techniques, and interpretation. This PowerPoint template guides you through the exploratory research process. Unlock novel perspectives, generate hypotheses, and fuel innovation using our ready-made slide.

Template 12: 5 Steps Indicating Research Methodology Process PPT Template

Looking for ways to streamline your research journey? Deploy this content-ready PowerPoint template to simplify the research process into five clear and manageable steps: Define, Design, Collect, Analyze, and Report. Each step is accompanied by pre-designed sections, ensuring a systematic approach to your research project. From formulating research questions to presenting your findings, this premium template provides a structured framework for success. Save time, stay organized, and achieve research excellence with this ready-made template.

Template 13: Graph of Primary Research Methodology PPT Template

Experience the power of data-driven insights with this professional and appealing PPT template. Designed for primary research, this template offers a comprehensive framework that includes field trials, observations, interviews, focus groups, and surveys. Easily visualize and navigate through each stage of your research process, from data collection to analysis. Organize and document your findings to maximize the effectiveness of your primary research and make informed decisions using our ready to use PowerPoint template.

Template 14: Research Methodology Framework of Market Analysis PPT Template

Use this content-ready PPT template tailored specifically for market analysis to guide your research process. From defining research objectives to selecting appropriate data collection methods, analyzing market trends, and drawing meaningful conclusions, our template covers all essential aspects. Streamline your market analysis, maintain consistency, and make data-driven decisions with ease using our Research Methodology Framework for Market Analysis template. Stay ahead of the competition and capitalize on market opportunities.

Template 15: Four Steps Process of Research Methodology PPT Template

This is a ready to use PPT template that provides you a structured and organized approach for your research methodology It includes a four-step process: Project Design, Data Acquisition, Data Analysis, and Strategy Recommendation to plan your research project, gather relevant data, analyze it using appropriate techniques, and derive actionable strategy recommendations. Save time and enhance the effectiveness of your research with our premium template, empowering you to make informed decisions and achieve impactful results.

Template 16: Market Research Methodology and Techniques PPT Template

This comprehensive template equips you with a range of methodologies and techniques to effectively study and understand your target market. From surveys and interviews to focus groups and data analysis, this premium template covers a wide array of research methods. It provides pre-designed sections for each technique, guiding you through the research process and ensuring consistency.

Template 17: Quantitative Market Research Methodology Framework PPT Template

This template serves as a guide to direct your market research endeavors. Showcasing each stage of the research process, including research design, data collection methods, analysis techniques, and reporting, this template ensures a systematic approach to quantitative market research. Create professional and engaging presentations, highlighting your research methodology with ease.

Template 18: Process Tree for Research Methodology PPT Template

Use this content-ready PPT template that outlines the sequential steps involved in conducting a research study. It serves as a roadmap, depicting the flow of activities from research question formulation to data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Like the branches of a tree, each step branches out into sub-steps and tasks, highlighting the interconnectedness and dependencies. Grab this ready-made PowerPoint template that provides you with a clear and engaging overview, ensuring researchers stay organized and follow a systematic approach throughout their research journey.

Template 19: Flowchart for Research Methodology PPT Template

Deploy this pre-designed PPT that illustrates the logical flow of steps and decisions involved in conducting a research study. Similar to a roadmap, it presents a series of interconnected boxes or shapes connected by arrows, representing the sequential progression of activities. Each box represents a specific task or process, and the arrows indicate the direction of the flow. Incorporate this PPT slide to help your audience understand the research process at a glance, making it engaging and crisp to follow the logical progression of their study.

Flowchart for Research Methodology with Design and Development

Template 20: Eleven Stage Process for Research Methodology PPT Template

Unleash the power of simplicity in research methodology using our PPT template that eliminates complexity and guides you through each step effortlessly. From defining objectives to data analysis, we've got you covered. Simplify your research journey and unlock meaningful insights with ease.

Our content-ready and custom-made templates empower researchers to streamline their work, save time, and maintain consistency. With its comprehensive structure and pre-designed sections, it simplifies the research process, ensuring all essential components are covered. Maximize your research potential and achieve impactful results with our user-friendly template.

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FAQs on Research Methodology

What are the four types of research methodology.

The four types of research methodology commonly used in academic and scientific studies are:

Descriptive Research: This type aims to describe and document the characteristics, behavior, and phenomena of a particular subject or population. It focuses on gathering information and providing an accurate portrayal of the research topic.

Experimental Research: This approach involves the manipulation and control of variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships. It often includes the use of control groups and random assignment to test hypotheses and draw conclusions.

Correlational Research: This methodology examines the statistical relationship between two or more variables without direct manipulation. It aims to identify patterns and associations between variables to understand their degree of relationship.

Qualitative Research: This approach focuses on exploring and understanding the subjective experiences, perspectives, and meanings attributed by individuals or groups. It involves methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of textual or visual data to uncover insights and interpretations.

What are the 3 main methodological types of research?

The three main methodological types of research are:

Quantitative Research: This approach involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to uncover patterns, relationships, and statistical trends. It focuses on objective measurements, often utilizing surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis to quantify and generalize findings.

Qualitative Research: This methodology aims to understand the subjective experiences, meanings, and social contexts associated with a research topic. It relies on non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, and textual analysis, to explore in-depth perspectives, motivations, and behavior.

Mixed-Methods Research: This type of research integrates both quantitative and qualitative approaches, combining the strengths of both methodologies. It involves collecting and analyzing both numerical and non-numerical data to gain a comprehensive understanding of the research problem. Mixed-methods research can provide a more nuanced picture by capturing both statistical trends and rich contextual information.

What are the 7 basic research methods?

There are several research methods commonly used in academic and scientific studies. While the specific categorization may vary, here are seven basic research methods:

Experimental Research: Involves controlled manipulation of variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Survey Research: Utilizes questionnaires or interviews to collect data from a sample population to gather insights and opinions.

Observational Research: Involves systematic observation of subjects in their natural environment to gather qualitative or quantitative data.

Case Study Research: In-depth analysis of a particular individual, group, or phenomenon to gain insights and generate detailed descriptions.

Correlational Research: Examines the statistical relationship between variables to identify patterns and associations.

Qualitative Research: Focuses on understanding subjective experiences, meanings, and social contexts through interviews, observations, and textual analysis.

Action Research: Involves collaboration between researchers and participants to address real-world problems and generate practical solutions.

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COMMENTS

Hypothesis and its types
CHARACTERISTICS A Hypothesis must be Capable of Verification. A Hypothesis must be Related to the Existing Body of Knowledge. A Hypothesis Needs to be Precise, Simple and Specific 19. REFERENCES • John w for research methodology • Reseach methodology methods and techniques -Dr kapoor ,ms pooja saigal
Research hypothesis....ppt
Following are the steps that are involved in the scientific method: • Formation of question • Doing background research • Creation of hypothesis • Designing an experiment • CDIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS 1.A research question and a hypothesis are both key of the research process, but they serve different ...
Research Hypothesis: Definition, Types, Examples and Quick Tips
Simple hypothesis. A simple hypothesis is a statement made to reflect the relation between exactly two variables. One independent and one dependent. Consider the example, "Smoking is a prominent cause of lung cancer." The dependent variable, lung cancer, is dependent on the independent variable, smoking. 4.
Lecture Notes on Research Methodology
New York: Prentice-Hall, 1960. Download ppt "Lecture Notes on Research Methodology". 1 Research Methodology: An Introduction: MEANING OF RESEARCH: Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a scientific & systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
(PDF) hypothesis power point presentation
Abstract. Hypothesis means less than or less certain than a thesis. Presumptive statement of a proposition or a tentative guess based upon available evidence. It is a tentative or working ...
Introduction To Research Methodology
The document provides an introduction to research methodology. It begins with definitions of research and discusses the objectives, characteristics, criteria and qualities of good research. It also covers different types of research such as descriptive vs analytical and quantitative vs qualitative. The document outlines various sections that will be covered in more depth including research ...
PDF DEVELOPING HYPOTHESIS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
"A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables". (Kerlinger, 1956) "Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an independent and dependent variable."(Creswell, 1994) "A research question is essentially a hypothesis asked in the form of a question."
PDF Research Methods Lecture 1: Scientific Method and Critical Thinking
Hypothesis . 1. State a hypothesis; that is, a falsifiable statement about the world. 2. Design an experimental procedure to test the hypothesis, and construct any necessary apparatus or human organization. 3. Perform the experiments. 4. Analyze the data from the experiment to determine whether the hypothesis can be confirmed or disproved. 5.
What is a Hypothesis
Definition: Hypothesis is an educated guess or proposed explanation for a phenomenon, based on some initial observations or data. It is a tentative statement that can be tested and potentially proven or disproven through further investigation and experimentation. Hypothesis is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments ...
PDF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY HYPOTHESIS
Importance of Hypothesis: Hypothesis though an important part of research may not be required in all types of research. The research which are based on fact finding (historical or descriptive research) do not need hypothesis. Hillway also says that "When fact-finding alone is the aim of the study, a hypothesis is not required.5"
PDF Research Methodology
RESEARCH DESIGN The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. Types of Research Design 1.
Hypothesis Testing
Step 5: Present your findings. The results of hypothesis testing will be presented in the results and discussion sections of your research paper, dissertation or thesis.. In the results section you should give a brief summary of the data and a summary of the results of your statistical test (for example, the estimated difference between group means and associated p-value).
PPT RESEARCH METHODS
Research. a. the systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc, in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. b. an endeavour to discover new or collate old facts etc by the scientific study of a subject or by a course of critical investigation. [Oxford Concise Dictionary] * What is Research?
(PPT) RESEARCH METHODOLOGY- ppt-1
Research can be defined as the search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, with an open mind, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method. Egesa Romans. According to Mugenda & Mugenda (2010), research is process of carrying out a diligent ...
Types of Hypothesis-Advance Research Methodology
The Difference between Hypothesis & Problem. 7. Step 1: State the hypotheses. (Formulation of hypothesis) Step 2: Set the criteria for a decision. (Set the level of significance) Step 3: Compute the test statistic. (Data analysis ) Step 4: Make a decision (on basis of P . Value) 4 Steps to Hypothesis Testing.
Chapter 20. Presentations
Findings from qualitative research are inextricably tied up with the way those findings are presented. These presentations do not always need to be in writing, but they need to happen. Think of ethnographies, for example, and their thick descriptions of a particular culture. Witnessing a culture, taking fieldnotes, talking to people—none of ...
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
It provides a bridge between theory reality. A hypothesis suggests which type of research is. likely to be most appropriate. As it is a tentative statement of anticipated. results, it guides the researcher towards the. direction in which the research should proceed. It stimulates the thinking process of researcher.
How to Prepare Your Scientific Presentation
Below we propose a quick framework for creating a compelling scientific presentation in PowerPoint (+ some helpful templates!). 1. Open with a Research Question. Here's how to start a scientific presentation with ease: share your research question. On the first slide, briefly recap how your thought process went.
[Updated 2023] Top 20 PowerPoint Templates for a Systematic Research
Template 2: Research Methodology Process Analysis Template. This is a content-ready PowerPoint template to maximize the effectiveness of your research. This professional and appealing template guides you step-by-step through the research process, from defining your research question to analyzing and interpreting data.