drug addiction prevention essay

Drug Abuse Prevention and Control

This essay will discuss strategies for preventing and controlling drug abuse. It will cover various approaches, including education, policy changes, rehabilitation programs, and law enforcement efforts, to provide a multi-faceted view of drug abuse prevention and control. Additionally, PapersOwl presents more free essays samples linked to Crime Prevention.

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The deep, energetic and sonorous voice of Whitney Houston that graced our ears will truly be missed. She was found dead in her house as a result of cocaine overdose. She was about 48 when she died. So will young Mac Miller and Lil Peep- talented celebrities who died of accidental fentanyl overdose at a very young age. Their stories, we heard due to the status they have achieved in the society. There are millions of other young people all over the world given to illegal drugs misuse and overdose who die daily due to drugs.

Deaths caused by illegal drugs have been estimated to be about 200,000 yearly for injecting drug abusers.

Some of the dangers associated with illegal drug use include overdose, addictions, criminal behavior alongside a myriad of side effects. Illegal drug users or drug abusers pose a threat to themselves and to the environment at large. Seeing the big dangers associated with illegal drug use and the increase in number of illegal drug users, several measures have been taken by different countries to curb this menace. The United states government adopted the Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs law which provided different measures such as compulsory treatment and severe punishment for drug related offences including death penalties for some categories of Drug trafficking.

For example, Malaysian government recently declared death penalty for drug traffickers. Under the Malaysian law, if a person possesses as small as few ounces of marijuana and half an ounce of heroin, the person is declared a trafficker. Other countries such as Vietnam, Saudi Arabia etc. have zero tolerance for illegal drug users. Also, several establishments and non-governmental organizations have launched campaign against drug abuse and illegal drug use.

However, jail terms and prison sentences have proven ineffective in the control of illegal drug use. Criminalization approaches to drug use has mostly exacerbate the problem rather than solving the problem. Recidivism, which is the tendency to relapse into the previous state, has been confirmed in most illegal drug users who serve jail terms. Studies carried out in 15 states showed that one-quarter of the prison inmates released returned to the prisons for other crime related offences including testing positive for drug use. In fact, illegal drugs are sold in prisons despite the security and controlled environment prisons offer. It seems more like the very things the offenders are being punished for are what they are being exposed to in prison cells. Some other post prison trauma such as living with the stigma of being an ex-convict, difficulty in getting a paid employment, difficulty in reuniting with their family or loved ones cause some of the illegal drug users to fall into relapse.

Drug abuse and addiction is one of the key disadvantages of illegal drug use. It has been confirmed that chronic addiction associated with drug abuse is actually an illness that requires help, treatment and care. The emphasis should be placed on drug counseling/psychotherapy and education of individual drug users. The combinations of these two approaches have proven to be more effective than criminalizing illegal drug users. It should be noted that drug abuse as a result of illegal drug use is a health concern and if it is addressed as a health concern, people should not be jailed because of their sicknesses. Furthermore, keeping drug users in prison is quite expensive for the government.

The longer the sentences, the greater the bill. It was discovered that in 2008, the United States government spent 47 billion naira on corrections. These monies could be diverted into building a structure for psychotherapy/drug counseling and drug information centers. Drug users come out better and benefit more from programs like this. In addition, integrating drug education into school curriculum would go a long way in prevention or reducing the incidence of illegal drug use. Early child education and awareness is important

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How to Overcome Drug Addiction

Treatment options.

Steps to Take

Intervention

Frequently asked questions.

Drug addiction, or substance use disorder (SUD), is when someone continues using a drug despite harmful consequences to their daily functioning, relationships, or health. Using drugs can change brain structure and functioning, particularly in areas involved in reward, stress, and self-control. These changes make it harder for people to stop using even when they really want to.

Drug addiction is dangerous because it becomes all-consuming and disrupts the normal functioning of your brain and body. When a person is addicted, they prioritize using the drug or drugs over their wellbeing. This can have severe consequences, including increased tolerance to the substance, withdrawal effects (different for each drug), and social problems.

Verywell / Ellen Lindner

Recovering from SUD is possible, but it takes time, patience, and empathy. A person may need to try quitting more than once before maintaining any length of sobriety.

This article discusses how drug addiction is treated and offers suggestions for overcoming drug addiction.

How Common Is Addiction?

Over 20 million people aged 12 or older had a substance use disorder in 2018.

Substance use disorders are treatable. The severity of addiction and drug or drugs being used will play a role in which treatment plan is likely to work the best. Treatment that addresses the specific situation and any co-occurring medical, psychiatric, and social problems is optimal for leading to long-term recovery and preventing relapse.

Detoxification

Drug and alcohol detoxification programs prepare a person for treatment in a safe, controlled environment where withdrawal symptoms (and any physical or mental health complications) can be managed. Detox may occur in a hospital setting or as a first step to the inpatient or outpatient rehabilitation process.

Going through detox is a crucial step in recovery, and it's these first few weeks that are arguably most critical because they are when the risk of relapse is highest.

Detox Is Not Stand-Alone Treatment

Detoxification is not equivalent to treatment and should not be solely relied upon for recovery.

Counseling gets at the core of why someone began using alcohol or drugs, and what they can do to make lasting changes. This may include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), in which the patient learns to recognize problematic thinking, behaviors, and patterns and establish healthier ways of coping. CBT can help someone develop stronger self-control and more effective coping strategies.

Counseling may also involve family members to develop a deeper understanding of substance use disorder and improve overall family functioning.

Cognitive behavioral therapy has been shown effective in helping people overcome addiction. In one study, 60% of people with cocaine use dependence who underwent CBT along with prescription medication provided cocaine-free toxicology screens a year after their treatment.

Medication can be an effective part of a larger treatment plan for people who have nicotine use disorder, alcohol use disorder, or opioid use disorder. They can be used to help control drug cravings, relieve symptoms of withdrawal, and to help prevent relapses.

Current medications include:

Nicotine use disorder : A nicotine replacement product (available as patches, gum, lozenges, or nasal spray) or an oral medication, such Wellbutrin (bupropion) and Zyban (varenicline)
Alcohol use disorder : Campral (acamprosate), Antabuse (disulfiram), and ReVia and Vivitrol (naltrexone).
Opioid use disorder : Dolophine and Methados (methadone), buprenorphine, ReVia and Vivitrol (naltrexone), and Lucemyra (lofexidine).

Lofexidine was the first medication approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat opioid withdrawals. Compared to a placebo (a pill with no therapeutic value), it significantly reduces symptoms of withdrawal and may cause less of a drop in blood pressure than similar agents.

Support Groups

Support groups or self-help groups can be part of in-patient programs or available for free use in the community. Well-known support groups include narcotics anonymous (NA), alcoholics anonymous (AA), and SMART Recovery (Self-Management and Recovery Training).

Roughly half of all adults being treated for substance use disorders in the United States participated in self-help groups in 2017.

Online Support Group Options

Since the COVID-19 pandemic, these groups that were often out of reach to many are now available online around the clock through video meetings. Such groups are not considered part of a formal treatment plan, but they are considered as useful in conjunction with professional treatment.

Other Options

Due to the complex nature of any substance use disorder, other options for treatment should also include evaluation and treatment for co-occurring mental health issues such as depression and anxiety (known as dual diagnosis).

Follow-up care or continuing care is also recommended, which includes ongoing community- or family-based recovery support systems.

Substance Use Helpline

If you or a loved one are struggling with substance use or addiction, contact the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helpline at 800-662-4357 for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.

For more mental health resources, see our National Helpline Database .

Steps for Overcoming Drug Addiction

Bear in mind that stopping taking drugs is only one part of recovery from addiction. Strategies that help people stay in treatment and follow their recovery plan are essential. Along with medical and mental health treatments, the following are steps you can take to help overcome substance use disorder.

Commit to Change

Committing to change includes stages of precontemplation and contemplation where a person considers changing, cutting down, moderating, or quitting the addictive behavior. Afterward, committing to change can look like working with a professional in identifying specific goals, coming up with a specific plan to create change, following through with that plan, and revising goals as necessary.

Surround Yourself With Support

Enlisting positive support can help hold you accountable to goals. SAMHSA explains that family and friends who are supportive of recovery can help someone change because they can reinforce new behaviors and provide positive incentives to continue with treatment.

Eliminate Triggers

Triggers can be any person, place, or thing that sparks the craving for using. Common triggers include places you've done drugs, friends you've used with, and anything else that brings up memories of your drug use.

You may not be able to eliminate every trigger, but in the early stages of recovery it's best to avoid triggers to help prevent cravings and relapse .

Find Healthier Ways to Cope With Stress

Stress is a known risk factor or trigger for drug use. Managing stress in healthy ways means finding new ways of coping that don’t involve drug use.

Tips to Cope With Stress

Coping with stress includes:

Putting more focus on taking care of yourself (eating a balanced diet, getting adequate sleep, and exercising)
Concentrating on one challenge at a time to avoid becoming overwhelmed
Stepping away from triggering scenarios
Learning to recognize and communicate emotions

Learn More: Strategies for Stress Relief

Cope With Withdrawal

Coping with withdrawal may require hospitalization or inpatient care to ensure adequate supervision and medical intervention as necessary. This isn’t always the case, though, because different drugs have different withdrawal symptoms. The severity of use also plays a role, so knowing what to expect—and when to seek emergency help—is important.

For example, a person withdrawing from alcohol can experience tremors (involuntary rhythmic shaking), dehydration, and increased heart rate and blood pressure. On the more extreme end, they can experience seizures (sudden involuntary electrical disturbance in the brain), hallucinations (seeing, hearing, smelling, or tasting things that do not actually exist outside the mind), and delirium (confusion and reduced awareness of one's environment).

Withdrawing from drugs should be done under the guidance of a medical professional to ensure safety.

Deal With Cravings

Learning to deal with cravings is a skill that takes practice. While there are several approaches to resisting cravings, the SMART recovery programs suggest the DEADS method:

D elay use because urges disappear over time.
E scape triggering situations.
A ccept that these feelings are normal and will pass.
D ispute your irrational “need” for the drug.
S ubstitute or find new ways of coping instead of using.

Avoid Relapse

The relapse rate for substance use disorders is similar to other illnesses and estimated to be between 40%–60%. The most effective way to avoid relapse and to cope with relapse is to stick with treatment for an adequate amount of time (no less than 90 days). Longer treatment is associated with more positive outcomes. Still, relapse can happen and should be addressed by revising the treatment plan as needed with medical and mental health professionals.

An intervention is an organized effort to intervene in a person's addiction by discussing how their drinking, drug use, or addiction-related behavior has affected everyone around them.

How Does an Intervention Work?

An intervention includes trained professionals like a drug and alcohol counselor, therapist, and/or interventionist who can help guide a family through the preparation and execution. It occurs in a controlled setting (not in the person’s home or family home). Intervention works by confronting the specific issues and encouraging the person to seek treatment.

Who Should Be Included at an Intervention?

Depending on the situation, interventions can include the following people:

The person with the substance use disorder
Friends and family
A therapist
A professional interventionist

The Association of Intervention Specialists (AIS) , Family First Interventions , and the Network of Independent Interventionists are three organizations of professional interventionists.

You may also want to consider if anyone in the list of friends and family should not be included. Examples are if a person is dealing with their own addiction and may not be able to maintain sobriety, is overly self-motivated or self-involved, or has a strained relationship with the person the intervention is for.

What Should Be Said During an Intervention?

While a person is free to say anything they want during an intervention, it’s best to be prepared with a plan to keep things positive and on track. Blaming, accusing, causing guilt, threatening, or arguing isn’t helpful.

Whatever is said during an intervention should be done so with the intention of helping the person accept help.

Bear in mind that setting boundaries such as “I can no longer give you money if you continue to use drugs,” is not the same as threatening a person with punishment.

Overcoming drug addiction is a process that requires time, patience, and empathy. A person will want to consider actions they can take such as committing to change, seeking support, and eliminating triggers. Depending on the addiction, medications may also be available to help.

Loved ones who are concerned about a person’s drug or alcohol use may consider an intervention . Interventions are meant to encourage treatment. Ongoing support and follow-up care are important in the recovery process to prevent relapse.

A Word From Verywell

No one grows up dreaming of becoming addicted to a substance. If someone you love is experiencing a substance use disorder, please bear in mind that they have a chronic illness and need support and help. Learning about addiction and how not to enable a person is one way you can help them. Having the ongoing support of loved ones and access to professionals can make all the difference.

Helping someone overcome drug addiction requires educating yourself on the drug and on substance use disorder, not enabling the person's use, avoiding having unrealistic expectations of their immediate recovery and change, practicing patience and empathy, and encouraging the person to seek and stick with professional treatment.

Common signs of drug addiction include:

Drug-seeking behaviors
Drug cravings
Using drugs despite the negative consequences
Being unable to cut back or stop using

Overcoming drug addiction is a complex process that can occur at different paces for different people. There are 30-, 60-, and 90-day treatment programs, but even afterwards a person can benefit from follow-up care or continued care in the form of support groups or personalized therapy. These can get at the root of what was causing the person to start using.

American Psychological Association. What is addiction? .

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health .

Manning V, Garfield JBB, Staiger PK, et al. Effect of cognitive bias modification on early relapse among adults undergoing inpatient alcohol withdrawal treatment: a randomized clinical trial . JAMA Psychiatry . 2020 ;78(2):133-140. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.3446

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Principles of drug addiction treatment: A research-based guide; Cognitive behavioral therapy .

McHugh RK, Hearon BA, Otto MW. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for substance use disorders . Psychiatr Clin North Am . 2010;33(3):511-525. doi:10.1016%2Fj.psc.2010.04.012

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Principles of effective treatment.

Fishman M, Tirado C, Alam D, Gullo K, Clinch T, Gorodetzky CW. Safety and efficacy of lofexidine for medically managed opioid withdrawal: a randomized controlled clinical trial . Journal of Addiction Medicine . 2019;13(3):169-176. doi:10.1097/ADM.0000000000000474

Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Results from the 2017 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: detailed tables . Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA).

Wen H, Druss BG, Saloner B. Self-help groups and medication use in opioid addiction treatment: A national analysis . Health Aff (Millwood) . May;39(5):740-746. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2019.01021

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Treatment approaches for addiction .

Lassiter PS, Culbreth JR. Theory and Practice of Addiction Counseling . SAGE Publications; 2017.

SAMHSA. Enhancing motivation for change in substance use disorder treatment .

Mental Health America. How can I stop using drugs? .

NIDA and Scholastic. Stress and drug abuse .

Clinical Guidelines for Withdrawal Management and Treatment of Drug Dependence in Closed Settings . 4, Withdrawal Management. Geneva:World Health Organization; 2009.

SMART Recovery. 5 ways to deal with urges and cravings .

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Treatment and recovery .

National Institute on Drug Abuse. How long does drug addiction treatment usually last? .

Association of Intervention Specialists. Intervention-A starting point for change .

Cornerstone of Recovery. Things not to do during an intervention for a drug addict or an alcoholic.

By Michelle Pugle Pulge is a freelance health writer focused on mental health content. She is certified in mental health first aid.

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Tween and teen health

Teen drug abuse: Help your teen avoid drugs

Teen drug abuse can have a major impact on your child's life. Find out how to help your teen make healthy choices and avoid using drugs.

The teen brain is in the process of maturing. In general, it's more focused on rewards and taking risks than the adult brain. At the same time, teenagers push parents for greater freedom as teens begin to explore their personality.

That can be a challenging tightrope for parents.

Teens who experiment with drugs and other substances put their health and safety at risk. The teen brain is particularly vulnerable to being rewired by substances that overload the reward circuits in the brain.

Help prevent teen drug abuse by talking to your teen about the consequences of using drugs and the importance of making healthy choices.

Why teens use or misuse drugs

Many factors can feed into teen drug use and misuse. Your teen's personality, your family's interactions and your teen's comfort with peers are some factors linked to teen drug use.

Common risk factors for teen drug abuse include:

A family history of substance abuse.
A mental or behavioral health condition, such as depression, anxiety or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Impulsive or risk-taking behavior.
A history of traumatic events, such as seeing or being in a car accident or experiencing abuse.
Low self-esteem or feelings of social rejection.

Teens may be more likely to try substances for the first time when hanging out in a social setting.

Alcohol and nicotine or tobacco may be some of the first, easier-to-get substances for teens. Because alcohol and nicotine or tobacco are legal for adults, these can seem safer to try even though they aren't safe for teens.

Teens generally want to fit in with peers. So if their friends use substances, your teen might feel like they need to as well. Teens also may also use substances to feel more confident with peers.

If those friends are older, teens can find themselves in situations that are riskier than they're used to. For example, they may not have adults present or younger teens may be relying on peers for transportation.

And if they are lonely or dealing with stress, teens may use substances to distract from these feelings.

Also, teens may try substances because they are curious. They may try a substance as a way to rebel or challenge family rules.

Some teens may feel like nothing bad could happen to them, and may not be able to understand the consequences of their actions.

Consequences of teen drug abuse

Negative consequences of teen drug abuse might include:

Drug dependence. Some teens who misuse drugs are at increased risk of substance use disorder.
Poor judgment. Teenage drug use is associated with poor judgment in social and personal interactions.
Sexual activity. Drug use is associated with high-risk sexual activity, unsafe sex and unplanned pregnancy.
Mental health disorders. Drug use can complicate or increase the risk of mental health disorders, such as depression and anxiety.
Impaired driving. Driving under the influence of any drug affects driving skills. It puts the driver, passengers and others on the road at risk.
Changes in school performance. Substance use can result in worse grades, attendance or experience in school.

Health effects of drugs

Substances that teens may use include those that are legal for adults, such as alcohol or tobacco. They may also use medicines prescribed to other people, such as opioids.

Or teens may order substances online that promise to help in sports competition, or promote weight loss.

In some cases products common in homes and that have certain chemicals are inhaled for intoxication. And teens may also use illicit drugs such as cocaine or methamphetamine.

Drug use can result in drug addiction, serious impairment, illness and death. Health risks of commonly used drugs include the following:

Cocaine. Risk of heart attack, stroke and seizures.
Ecstasy. Risk of liver failure and heart failure.
Inhalants. Risk of damage to the heart, lungs, liver and kidneys from long-term use.
Marijuana. Risk of impairment in memory, learning, problem-solving and concentration; risk of psychosis, such as schizophrenia, hallucination or paranoia, later in life associated with early and frequent use. For teens who use marijuana and have a psychiatric disorder, there is a risk of depression and a higher risk of suicide.
Methamphetamine. Risk of psychotic behaviors from long-term use or high doses.
Opioids. Risk of respiratory distress or death from overdose.
Electronic cigarettes (vaping). Higher risk of smoking or marijuana use. Exposure to harmful substances similar to cigarette smoking; risk of nicotine dependence. Vaping may allow particles deep into the lungs, or flavorings may include damaging chemicals or heavy metals.

Talking about teen drug use

You'll likely have many talks with your teen about drug and alcohol use. If you are starting a conversation about substance use, choose a place where you and your teen are both comfortable. And choose a time when you're unlikely to be interrupted. That means you both will need to set aside phones.

It's also important to know when not to have a conversation.

When parents are angry or when teens are frustrated, it's best to delay the talk. If you aren't prepared to answer questions, parents might let teens know that you'll talk about the topic at a later time.

And if a teen is intoxicated, wait until the teen is sober.

To talk to your teen about drugs:

Ask your teen's views. Avoid lectures. Instead, listen to your teen's opinions and questions about drugs. Parents can assure teens that they can be honest and have a discussion without getting in trouble.
Discuss reasons not to use drugs. Avoid scare tactics. Emphasize how drug use can affect the things that are important to your teen. Some examples might be sports performance, driving, health or appearance.
Consider media messages. Social media, television programs, movies and songs can make drug use seem normal or glamorous. Talk about what your teen sees and hears.
Discuss ways to resist peer pressure. Brainstorm with your teen about how to turn down offers of drugs.
Be ready to discuss your own drug use. Think about how you'll respond if your teen asks about your own drug use, including alcohol. If you chose not to use drugs, explain why. If you did use drugs, share what the experience taught you.

Other preventive strategies

Consider other strategies to prevent teen drug abuse:

Know your teen's activities. Pay attention to your teen's whereabouts. Find out what adult-supervised activities your teen is interested in and encourage your teen to get involved.
Establish rules and consequences. Explain your family rules, such as leaving a party where drug use occurs and not riding in a car with a driver who's been using drugs. Work with your teen to figure out a plan to get home safely if the person who drove is using substances. If your teen breaks the rules, consistently enforce consequences.
Know your teen's friends. If your teen's friends use drugs, your teen might feel pressure to experiment, too.
Keep track of prescription drugs. Take an inventory of all prescription and over-the-counter medications in your home.
Provide support. Offer praise and encouragement when your teen succeeds. A strong bond between you and your teen might help prevent your teen from using drugs.
Set a good example. If you drink, do so in moderation. Use prescription drugs as directed. Don't use illicit drugs.

Recognizing the warning signs of teen drug abuse

Be aware of possible red flags, such as:

Sudden or extreme change in friends, eating habits, sleeping patterns, physical appearance, requests for money, coordination or school performance.
Irresponsible behavior, poor judgment and general lack of interest.
Breaking rules or withdrawing from the family.
The presence of medicine containers, despite a lack of illness, or drug paraphernalia in your teen's room.

Seeking help for teen drug abuse

If you suspect or know that your teen is experimenting with or misusing drugs:

Plan your action. Finding out your teen is using drugs or suspecting it can bring up strong emotions. Before talking to your teen, make sure you and anyone who shares caregiving responsibility for the teen is ready. It can help to have a goal for the conversation. It can also help to figure out how you'll respond to the different ways your teen might react.
Talk to your teen. You can never step in too early. Casual drug use can turn into too much use or addiction. This can lead to accidents, legal trouble and health problems.
Encourage honesty. Speak calmly and express that you are coming from a place of concern. Share specific details to back up your suspicion. Verify any claims your child makes.
Focus on the behavior, not the person. Emphasize that drug use is dangerous but that doesn't mean your teen is a bad person.
Check in regularly. Spend more time with your teen. Know your teen's whereabouts and ask questions about the outing when your teen returns home.
Get professional help. If you think your teen is involved in drug use, contact a health care provider or counselor for help.

It's never too soon to start talking to your teen about drug abuse. The conversations you have today can help your teen make healthy choices in the future.

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Dulcan MK, ed. Substance use disorders and addictions. In: Dulcan's Textbook of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 3rd ed. American Psychiatric Association Publishing; 2021. https://psychiatryonline.org. Accessed Jan. 24, 2023.
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Why do teens drink and use substances and is it normal? Partnership to End Addiction. https://drugfree.org/article/why-do-teens-drink-and-use-substances/. Accessed Jan. 24, 2023.
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My child tried drugs, what should I do? Partnership to End Addiction. https://drugfree.org/article/my-child-tried-drugs-what-should-i-do/. Accessed Jan. 24, 2023.
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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Substance Abuse — Impact of Drug Addiction on Society

Impact of Drug Addiction on Society

Categories: Drug Addiction Substance Abuse

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Published: Feb 12, 2024

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A Review of the Prevention of Drug Addiction: Specific Interventions, Effectiveness, and Important Topics

Background:.

This study was a narrative review on prevention of addictive behaviors with an effort to clarify the major concepts of prevention and its dimensions.

The PsycInfo and MedInfo databases were used to identify prevention. Α total of 65 articles were found 46 of which were included in the review. Τhe data were analyzed using content analysis.

For a better understanding of the results, it was deemed advisable to categorize them into: (a) the types of major interventions and the theoretical approaches on which they were based, (b) the results of the review articles according to (1) variables and factors concerning the prevention proved important through the review and (2) a number of more general important topics which arose in the prevention of addictive behaviors.

Conclusion:

The results highlighted the greater effectiveness of community-based programs, applied primarily in broader contexts but also secondarily in high-risk groups. Τhe results were discussed based on the combination of the emerged factors with each other and prevention experience.

Introduction

One of the most important questions in the field of psychotropic substances addiction, including alcohol abuse, is which ways, methods, techniques, or interventions are effective in substance use prevention. Given the fact that there are various kinds of prevention strategies, this question becomes even more complicated as it is hard to find and systematize these factors. It is essential to continue research in this direction since the question why young people resort to substances and get addicted to them has not been fully answered yet. Furthermore, it is generally accepted that prevention is better than treatment.

Psychotropic substances addiction refers to the substance-related disorders as described by Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-V). Although the psychological mechanism of addictive substance use is considered to be common with or at least similar to that of addiction to illegal substances and alcohol, in this study, the surveys that focus exclusively on alcohol were not included. The reason for this decision was that articles on alcohol prevention are numerous and could be investigated –as already done- in a separate study. Besides, alcohol use displays certain peculiarities; for example, it is a legal and easily accessible substance.

Traditionally, prevention strategies have been categorised into primary, secondary, and tertiary preventions. Primary prevention refers to the prevention of substance use and abuse. Secondary prevention refers to the early identification and treatment of individuals already using substances, while tertiary prevention refers to the treatment and reduction of harm in people who have already used substances and have consequences from their use. We can literally talk about prevention only in primary and partially in secondary types. Tertiary prevention is essentially not prevention but treatment and reduction of harm.

Another distinction that has been made in recent decades (e.g., National Advisory Mental Health Council Workgroup on Mental Disorders Prevention Research 1 ) classifies prevention strategies into universal, selective, and indicated preventions. The universal strategies apply to the general population (e.g., students) in order to inform and raise awareness about the issue of drugs. 2 Selective strategies target individuals at increased risk of substance use and abuse (e.g., children of addicts, children growing up in high-risk environments or neighborhoods). Indicated strategies are for people who may not already be addicted to drugs but have had a contact with them (e.g., young people experimenting with substances).

Preventive interventions in the three categories described above may have different goals, including the following: (a) increasing the knowledge about drugs in adolescents; (b) reducing the use of drugs; (c) delaying the onset of first use; (d) reducing abuse of drugs; and (e) minimising the harm caused by the use of drugs. 3 Additionally, regarding the context of implementation of prevention interventions, it is evident that these interventions can aim at different settings such as schools, families, the wider community, the media, 4 or even in places of gathering of young people e.g., cultural centres, parks, cafes, and so on.

The field of prevention is in general very broad as it includes prevention policies, designs, methods, techniques, and interventions. The design of interventions requires the appropriate theoretical background and the deployment of previous knowledge and results. Furthermore, it potentially includes various intervention implementation frameworks, a different extent of involvement, and participation of the individuals e.g., children, parents, and teachers.

There are a lot of important dimensions to be investigated in what is broadly defined as prevention. The effectiveness of the interventions is an important parameter. Effectiveness is usually defined as a reduction in substance use or a reduction in the positive attitude towards substances, after the implementation of a prevention program. The sustainment, however, of positive results on a long-term basis is an even more important dimension. The active participation of the involved members and the retention of the therapeutic results are other necessary components for the implementation of effective interventions.

As far as the evaluation of interventions is concerned, reliability should be tested as youth substance use programs are often of limited generalizability due to methodological restrictions and the absence of consistency in evaluation of interventions. 5

Furthermore, it should be mentioned that the concepts usually studied (e.g., self-efficacy, motivation for change, coping skills) are complex and hard to be assessed in self-report measures. In addition, these psychological processes may not be part of conscious awareness and thus may not be possible to be evaluated using self-report measures. Additionally, it is doubtful whether they are indeed related to the underlying pathology of addiction. 6

The main objective of this narrative review was to investigate the key modern trends in the prevention of psychotropic addiction and to identify which interventions are most effective and where and how they are performed.

A specific review of factors important for the prevention of drugs was conducted in PsycInfo and MedInfo databases, entering as search items for the factors the words “prevention”, “addiction”, “drug addiction”, “drugs”, “drug prevention strategies”, “substance use” and “dependence” or the combination of the above words. The data were collected from 2018 to 2021. The search included articles published from 2000 onwards. A total of 65 articles were found among which 46 articles were included in the review. Articles that clearly referred to the prevention of substance use (interventions, strategies, or prevention systems) were included in this study. Articles that indirectly referred to prevention or were restricted to medication or genetic aspects of prevention were excluded. Regarding the type of articles, 26 of them were research articles and 20 were review articles. Among the research articles, 11 were correlational quantitative studies, 9 were quasi-experimental studies, and 6 used qualitative designs. Concerning the participants, 34 of the studies were conducted on school-based programs and 9 on community-based prevention programs. The remaining ones did not refer to specific intervention programs and focused on theoretical elements or prevention and health policies systems.

Taking into consideration the above mentioned as well as the theoretical concerns and the steady need to improve the problematic parts, a search of relevant findings from research and review articles was conducted. Given the dissimilarity of the research studies found, the data were analyzed using content analysis and systematized in different categories according to the point on which each research focused. For a better understanding and categorization of the research results, it was deemed expedient to mention a) the major interventions and techniques used in the studies and b) the results categorized through the above-mentioned analysis.

(A) With regard to the type and the theoretical approach of the interventions applied in the studies found in this review, a wide range of theoretical approaches and techniques were identified that illustrate the preferred trends in prevention over the past years. Characteristically, there is a great heterogeneity among the programs and methods. 7 , 8 Before reviewing the results in the following section, these interventions are elaborated. The following categorization of interventions was chosen because it contributes to a systematic and comprehensive display ( Table 1 ).

a) A lot of studies used interventions that could be characterized as environmental interventions 9 - 11 which highlight mainly the implementation of interventions in a more natural, social, and cultural environment where the individuals act and behave. The aim of these interventions was to increase the cultural belonging to achieve which, a lot of interventions used culturally-based techniques. 12

b) A second category of studies, possibly the one encompassing the majority of them, includes the studies that used more cognitive-based techniques, namely interventions whose broader theoretical framework relies on the cognitive-behavioral approach. Thus, it specifically includes social skills interventions, strengthening families programs and life skills trainings, 13 enhancing communication channels interventions, CHAT- a solution focused strategies program, increasing self-efficacy methods, 14 - 16 McGuires’s persuasion, 17 CHOICE program, Cherokee self-reliance program, 18 Project ALERT program, Persuasion Communication Model, SMART program, random student drug testing, 19 development and monitoring of career goals, and internet-based prevention programs. 20

c) A third research category includes methods that could be characterized in a broader sense as humanistic. These methods are based on the restricted results of the mainly informative (based on providing information) and more cognitive approaches and illustrate the experiential character of prevention. Thus, a lot of prevention strategies deal with the promotion of youth development, 21 peer-to-peer mentoring, 22 motivational interviewing 23 , 24 (a method with a cognitive background as well), narrative therapy, educational and career counseling, and positive youth development strategies with the active participation of teachers and parents. 21 , 25 Obtaining insight and expertise from program personnel and school staff and administrators can bring the program to a point where these strategies can still be achieved and theoretical linkages made after a program has been implemented. This is a necessary foundation for measuring the success of an intervention. 21 A common characteristic of these methods is the intent of active participation of all the community members such as local media and teen networks. Some of them, when implemented in a school-based environment, are delivered by teachers, 26 not by specialized scientists alien to the school environment.

(B) In the second and main part of this section, the results of the reviewed articles are presented as categorized based on (a) variables and factors concerning the effectiveness proved important through the review and (b) a number of important topics highlighted for the prevention of addictive behaviors ( Table 2 ).

a) Concerning the variables and/or the factors that proved more or less important to the implementation of prevention programs, the self-efficacy variable is the most frequently mentioned one. Self-efficacy is the optimistic self-belief in one’s competence or chances of successfully accomplishing a task and producing a favorable outcome. 27 , 28 The building of self-efficacy seems to be a characteristic of addiction-proof children. 14 Apart from self-efficacy, other variables from the cognitive approach associated with successful efforts of prevention are motivational enhancement, life coping skills, decision-making, 20 enhanced drug resistance skills, increased knowledge, and behavior determinants (attitudes, subjective norms, self-efficacy, intention) more negative towards drugs. 13

The variables that derive from the humanitarian tradition and positive psychology have very positive results when included in prevention programs. Thus, the promotion of positive youth development and the cultivation of an optimistic future orientation, 21 the development of hopefulness, 29 harmony among family members, 30 and the strengths and the enforcement of a healthy lifestyle have been repeatedly associated with a reduction in use of addictive substances. The positive role of self-reliance which is defined as being true to one’s self and being connected, responsible, disciplined, and confident 18 can be included in the same context.

Other studies investigated the social support and generally the effect of the social environment on addiction prevention. The results are usually controversial. Therefore, the influence of friends and peer pressure 31 may be associated with high-risk behaviors, but friends are preferred in seeking help. 26 , 30 Self-evidently, having family members who use drugs and adverse life events are associated with high risk. 31 , 32 On the other hand, peer networks and dynamic group leaders can also help to motivate the students. 33 The role of the teachers in prevention is estimated to be positive, as their involvement in prevention programs is associated with lower risk. A positive impact seems to be attributed to parenting monitoring and strict parenting as well as religiosity. 26 Especially in the school context, it seems that belonging to the public school network, development of activities targeting sexuality, development of “Health at School Program” activities, offering extracurricular activities, and having an administrator that participated in training courses on drugs are associated with program implementation. 34

b) With regard to the more general important topics highlighted in substance addiction prevention, a first point is that a lot of researches were based on an informative approach about prevention (e.g., decision), 31 namely the provision of information to the target group (youths or students) about the negative effects of addiction that is expected to lead to a logical refusal of substance use. The major conclusion drawn is that prevention strategies based mainly or exclusively on information have poor results, 17 , 35 which is confirmed by a study according to which most youths were aware of the adverse health effects of substance use. 31 However, other studies based on internet-based interventions supported that intervention groups have more knowledge and are less likely to use cannabis. 20 It is recommended to adopt a broader approach which embraces other directly or indirectly involved individual groups (parents, teachers) and control the quantity and quality of the information provided. 35 , 36 Relevant to the provision of appropriately purposeful information about substance use was the finding about the inadequate awareness and messages in workplace, 37 an example of the expansion of prevention in environments outside the school.

The importance of development stages and the transition from one development stage to the next was another topic highlighted in the review. 38 Studies focused on the understanding and recognition of possible genetic risks and protective factors at the crucial age of children and teenagers. 39 , 40 Some data seem to be confirmed, such as the fact that the onset of substance use at a later stage reduces the problematic use. 12

A lot of studies 18 , 41 - 43 mentioned the effectiveness of culturally grounded interventions. These interventions are culturally sensitive, which means that they primarily take into consideration the cultural characteristics of the population on which the intervention is implemented. Quite often sub-techniques are used that deploy special cultural characteristics of a place (e.g. canoe). 41 The positive results of these efforts reinforce the poorer results of interventions, where a prevention program is transferred and implemented invariably from one country to another, mainly from a developed country to a so-called developing country. 42 Therefore, the integration of appropriate theory and cultural elements seems to be necessary. However, there are also findings that consider that risk and protective factors concerning majority-based research may also be predictors for minorities. 43

Similar to the above is the finding that a lot of preventive interventions followed the ground-up methodology, namely the configuration of interventions after relevant research in population members, where the intervention was implemented later on. 16 , 20 Therefore, in case the aim is to apply an intervention in the school-based environment, the prevention strategies are configurated and chosen after some preliminary work (e.g., focus groups) with the affected populations (e.g., teachers, students), which illustrates the needs of these particular individuals at a specific time. This is in contrast with the most common method (up-ground) where already tested interventions are applied to various populations. 40

As mentioned in the methods section, the greatest part of interventions took place in school-based environments that seem to be probably the most suitable ones for the implementation of interventions, as indicated by findings about effectiveness. 19 However, the findings are not always consistent, as there are also findings that suggest minor to insignificant positive results. 17 Furthermore, certain findings indicated a lower effectiveness in boys compared with girls and better results in children of a low socio-economic level compared with children of a higher socio-economic level. 42 With regard to the frequent implementation of prevention programs in school-based environments, a question of generalization is raised, as expected, namely to what extent the whatsoever results achieved in this environment can be sustained outside this environment. 20

A classic study indicated small- to medium- sized differences in behavioral problems between students who participate for the longest period of time and those who participate for the shortest time 19 which highlighted the importance of the sustainment of the results as well as the retention of students both in the school-based environment and the prevention programs. As noted, the impact of education and persuasion programs tended to be small, at best. When positive effects were found, they did not persist. 17 Furthermore, in terms of effectiveness, the flexibility in delivering the program, such as offering the program in different days and times, seems quite important. 22 However, low effectiveness, indicated even by large-scale studies, is probably attributed to issues of methodology, such as selection strategies. 43

A matter of greater importance with various social aspects that was highlighted was social responsibility with regard to addiction prevention. 44 The importance of the involvement of all the community members leads to the conclusion that prevention concerns potentially every member of the society and not just the populations included in the so-called high-risk groups. Thus, the involvement of school, neighborhood, family, and various associations and religious bodies 45 - 48 seems to be important as it enhances the conscientiousness and responsible behavior of the citizens towards such a vitally important matter. In the same context, the importance of a broader collaboration and consistency between policy design and implementation of educational interventions 17 is also highlighted; however, this is a very complex issue which faces various obstacles during its implementation such as the cost of the interventions. 4

The policy issue comes to the forefront when addiction prevention issues are dealt with. Roumeliotis 49 showed drug addiction is presented as a problem to be handled by experts rather than politics. This shows an important shift in the role of policies in prevention and treatment. Certainly, there is an increasing trend towards harm reduction and even educational approaches and other more traditional forms of prevention including harm reduction. 48 These matters are underlined by the necessity for transdisciplinary scientific collaborations that have the potential to strengthen substance use and abuse research and prevention. 49 Transdisciplinarity is distinguished from other forms of cross-disciplinary collaboration, such as multidisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity. Transdisciplinarity is the process whereby researchers work jointly using a shared conceptual framework that draws together discipline-specific theories, concepts, and approaches to address a common problem. 49

As indicated in the first part of the results, there is great heterogeneity in the interventions and techniques of addiction prevention. This might imply a great variety of available methods and strategies that can be used. The selection of the suitable methods in each case should be based on the needs of the population to which the respective program is applied and on the study of the effectiveness of the available interventions. Any combination of methods and techniques is legitimate as long as it is based on a justified theoretical background and previous experience from prevention programs. The reported trend of environmental interventions 8 - 10 is a positive step, as it takes into account people’s needs in the natural and social environment in which they act. Given the prevalence of cognitive-behavioral methods on a large scale in the treatment of mental disorders, it is absolutely natural for similar interventions to be used in prevention as well. 15 , 16 These interventions, which require a rational data processing, have a proven effectiveness; however, quite often they seem to be inadequate for the prevention of rather complex psychosocial problems, such as addiction. For this reason, there is a prevalence of more experiential interventions (either in combination with cognitive-behavioral techniques or not), which attempt to include not only the directly affected people (e.g., the students) but also parents, teachers, and other community members or bodies. 34 , 35 Apart from the above mentioned, other factors should be taken into account including ‘Who is training the trainers?’, ‘How can quality delivery be ensured on a large scale?’, ‘How can a universal program become part of a chain of prevention?’ and ‘How do we handle the needs of practitioners?’ 50 - 52

With regard to the factors/variables that play an important role in addiction prevention, as expected, the findings highlighted already known variables, such as self-efficacy 14 - 16 and the development of positive characteristics like hopefulness 29 and social support. 31 It could be assumed that based on the repeated findings, an effective prevention program could include the development of cognitive and social skills in line with the development of a positive lifestyle, way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. The introduction of complementary concepts and interventions from the field of positive psychology would be a suggested step at the therapeutic level. Such interventions could be the emergence and strengthening of strengths as well as mental resilience and positive emotions, such as hope and gratitude. According to Peele, 53 addiction-proof children have skills to gain real rewards in life, values that sustain moderation, and reject addiction in favor of pursuing positive goals, and confidence that they can achieve these goals. This is in contrast with addiction-prone children, who are more likely to come from backgrounds that deny them any opportunity, are plagued by bad feelings (depression, anxiety, lack of purpose), and have history of dependence. The reinforcement of these characteristics seems to be even more effective when teachers, parents, and the broader community are involved in the program. Therefore, prevention should concern a bigger part of society and should not be implemented fragmentarily only to the population at risk.

As indicated by the findings, in the review of substance addiction prevention, certain repeated matters raised which were evaluated in order to improve future choices and practices. Therefore, the restricted effectiveness of strategies based exclusively on information 17 , 35 has been confirmed, as aptly pointed out by Zafeiridis. 54 As we live in an era in which information constitutes a basic part of our lives, information is recommended to be provided at an initial stage of prevention, whereas later on it should become more experiential. As indicated, it is important to control the quantity and quality of the information 35 , 36 to be essentially helpful to parents, teachers, and children.

Prevention programs should also take into account the importance of development stages. 38 A reasonable conclusion drawn by the findings is that prevention should be applied at a young age (even at pre-school age), because the beginning of substance use later on reduces the possibility of problematic use. This is probably due to the fact that young people, from an age onwards, have already managed to develop important cognitive and emotional mechanisms of dealing with situations. The recognition of protective factors, as well as risk factors at a crucial age is also helpful in designing an effective intervention.

An issue dealt with in numerous researches was the importance of culturally-based interventions. 17 , 41 The programs implemented in developed countries can form a good knowledge and practice basis, but it is obvious that they should not be applied invariably in different cultural environments. A good suggestion in this regard would be the development of programs through the ground-up methodology, which initially illustrates the population needs, followed by the design of prevention interventions. To this end, the theoretical knowledge should be deployed and there should also be an integration of the appropriate theory and cultural elements.

With regard to the usual choice of implementing prevention programs in school-based environments, 19 it seems that school-based environment remains the most suitable one for these interventions as it combines the daily involvement of the child in a series of activities in the community environment where potentially significant others, such as teachers and parents, are also involved. The utilization of research findings is important in order to increase the so far minor positive results and generalize them in different conditions outside school.

On a broader level, it is commonplace that substance addiction prevention should be dealt with not only by the directly affected populations but by various bodies, such as associations, communities, religious bodies, as well as every individual member of the society. It is a reasonable assumption that the increase in social responsibility brings about an increase in individual responsibility and that the social well-being is interrelated with the individual one.

Finally, on a policy level, drug prevention is not something only experts should deal with, but requires an active political will and active involvement of the citizens. Accordingly, not only transdisciplinarity, but also the consistency of policy design and implementation of educational interventions is required and vital. To overcome possible obstacles, the cost of prevention should be calculated and compared to that of interventions. Effective prevention can, therefore, have multiple benefits on both personal and social levels.

The results of this study concerning the prevention of drug use showed the most effective interventions are those implemented in community contexts, such as schools, at a young age, and based on experiential methods tailored to the needs of each population. Humanitarian approaches are effective and can be applied in parallel with cognitive and behavioral approaches. In this context, methods from positive psychology could be used. It is important for clinicians working in the community to implement or recommend prevention programs with the above characteristics. Nevertheless, even for those clinicians who do not work in the community, it is important to know what really prevents substance use to make the right referrals and give the right directions. At the level of health services, it is important that prevention programs are implemented primarily universally in a broad context such as schools but also secondarily selectively in high-risk groups. Finally, it is important to emphasize that substance abuse prevention is not just for mental health professionals but also for the whole community, teachers, parents, and every individual citizen.

The present narrative review highlighted some important issues for addiction prevention. However, this was not a systematic review or meta-analysis. Further studies are recommended to conduct a more systematic review.

Acknowledgments

I thank the colleagues in the Department of Psychology at the University of Western Macedonia and the students in the course of psychopathology for their support.

Citation: Flora K. A review of the prevention of drug addiction: specific interventions, effectiveness, and important topics. Addict Health . 2022;14(4):288-295. doi:10.34172/ahj.2022.1348

Conflict of Interests

Author declares no conflict of interests.

Ethics Approval

Not applicable.

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Essay on the Prevention and Control to Drug Addiction

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Essay on the Prevention and Control to Drug Addiction!

“Prevention is better than cure” is also true here. Tobacco, drugs/alcohol abuse are more during young age and during adolescence.

Thus remedial measures should be taken well in time. In this regard the parents and teachers have a special responsibility.

The following measures would be particularly useful for prevention and control of alcohol and drug abuse in adolescents.

1. Avoid undue Peer Pressure:

Every child has his/her own choice and personality, which should be kept in mind. So a child should not be pressed unduly to do beyond his/ her capacities, be it studies, sports etc.

2. Education and counselling:

Education and counselling are very important to face problems, stresses, disappointments and failure in life. These should be taken as part of life. One should utilize a child’s energy in some other activities like sports, music, reading, yoga and other extra curricular activities.

3. Seeking help from parents and peers:

Whenever, there is any problem, one should seek help and a guidance from parents and peers. Help should be taken from close and trusted friends. This would help young to share their feelings of anxiety and wrong doings.

4. Looking for Danger Signs:

If friends find someone using drugs or alcohol, they should bring this to the notice of parents of teacher so that appropriate measures would be taken to diagnose the illness and the causes. This would help in taking proper remedial steps or treatment.

5. Seeking Professional and Medical helps:

Highly qualified psychologists, psychiatrists and de-addiction and rehabilitation programmes can help individuals who are suffering from drug/alcohol abuse. If such help is provided to the affected persons, with sufficient efforts and will power, the patient could be completely cured and lead normal and healthy life.

Drug Addiction: Causes, Prevention and De-addiction
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We Need to Stop Trying to Raise “Drug-Free” Kids

The important shift away from abstinence to addiction resistance..

Posted May 13, 2024 | Reviewed by Michelle Quirk

What Is Addiction?
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Kids and teens lack basic knowledge about what alcohol and drugs actually do in their brains and bodies.
School-based alcohol and drug education programs are incomplete, and there is an important role for parents.
Addiction resistance is a more realistic goal than abstinence.

“Beer then liquor, never sicker… Liquor then beer, never fear .” This was a common refrain when I was a Gen X teenager. Besides “Don’t drink and drive,” this was the extent of how I was taught to drink responsibly. Like most kids, most of my knowledge about alcohol and drugs didn’t come from my parents or my school’s alcohol and drug education programs.

Now I am a clinical psychologist, professor of psychology, and mother to three young kids who have a genetic vulnerability to addiction . I’ve spent the past 20 years studying addiction and providing evidence-based addiction treatment. I’ve helped thousands of people better understand the risk and protective factors that influence why one person develops addiction when another doesn’t. I’ve heard countless “If only I had...” stories from parents, students, and people in addiction recovery.

Problems With School Alcohol/Drug Prevention Programs

Each semester that I taught college courses on addiction, I was dismayed by students' lack of basic knowledge about what psychoactive substances actually do in their brains and bodies. They shared their personal experiences with “alcohol/drug education” programs they encountered in their school settings, and these accounts typically share a common refrain—these “prevention” initiatives become jokes, trigger rebellious substance use, or have little to no impact on their substance use decisions.

At worst, prevention programs create shame for people struggling with their substance use and actually impede help-seeking by shutting down communication with adults. Abstinence-only and anti-drug programs cause people to internalize stigmatizing messages like “Users Are Losers,” “Just Say No” (like it’s just that simple and easy for everyone), and “Good Kids Don’t Get High.” Yet they also recognize the disparity between the way that alcohol is discussed compared to other drugs, and that inconsistency leads to confusion.

To receive federal funding, schools must check a box on the annual paperwork stating they deliver alcohol/drug education programming to their students. But there is no metric for what that education includes. So, many schools are able to check that box (and retain their funding) with “Red Ribbon Week” activities like “On Wednesday, wear neon to show you’re too bright for drugs!”

When we talk about addiction prevention, we typically focus on school-based curricula. But that misses two key elements that are critical for helping kids develop the resilience and protective factors they need to combat addiction and other mental health struggles—school policies and parent training. At home, many parents assume their kids are either too young to talk about alcohol and drugs or that the school will provide the essential knowledge their kids need to be “drug-free.”

My parenting tactics are different, and definitely the minority (for now). My 9-year-old knows how to recognize the signs of alcohol intoxication and knows that drugs like methamphetamine can alter one’s perception of reality. I am purposely raising my kids to know that it’s not the substance (alcohol or drugs) that is the problem, but that other factors make some people more vulnerable to substance use becoming dysfunctional. My kids will all know at a young age that since genetic predisposition accounts for 50 percent of the chance of developing addiction, they are 10 times more likely to develop addiction than their friends without a family history of addiction.

Building Addiction Resistance

Why does my 9-year-old know more about the risk factors for addiction than most college students? Because I’m not trying to raise “drug-free” kids . As a clinical psychologist specializing in evidence-based addiction treatment, I’m trying to raise addiction-resistant kids. I fully accept the likelihood that they will use alcohol or other drugs at some point. Instead of trying to scare them out of that choice or build shame and stigma around the addiction history in our family, I am choosing to provide them with the essential knowledge and skills they need to make informed decisions about substance use. Building their addiction resistance gives them the best chance to navigate the hellscape of adolescence with healthy coping skills instead of turning to alcohol and drugs to self-medicate, tolerate distressing thoughts or feelings, or foster a sense of belonging with their peers.

My approach definitely isn’t popular (yet), but I am developing the Raising Resilient and Addiction-Resistant Kids program to provide a viable alternative to abstinence-only messaging. Many parents have trouble stepping outside of the narrative that trained them to think that providing honest education about alcohol and drugs somehow condones their use and leads to a higher risk of addiction, but many others are ready for a different approach.

In a feel-good-all-the-time society like the United States, how can we expect kids and teens to make informed choices about alcohol and drugs if we don’t provide them with the foundational knowledge and skills they need to do so? How can we tell them to “Just Say No" when that message is overly simplistic and fuels stigma against substance users that perpetuates innumerable social injustices in the pursuit of “drug-free communities”?

The “Users Are Losers” message shuts down communication lines between students and educators, and children and parents. We’ve made so much progress destigmatizing mental health struggles like depression , anxiety , autism , and posttraumatic stress disorder, yet we continue to perpetuate the Us vs. Them mentality when it comes to substance use and addiction. Where does that leave kids whose risk factors for addiction outweigh their protective factors?

If we truly want to reduce addiction… If we truly want to reduce drug overdose deaths… If we truly want to “save our kids” from drugs, then we need to stop trying to raise “drug-free” kids and focus on raising addiction-resistant kids instead.

Kelly E. Green, Ph.D. , is a psychologist specializing in evidence-based addiction treatment, the author of Relationships in Recovery , and an Associate Professor of Psychology at St. Edward’s University in Austin, Texas.

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Drug Education and Prevention Essay

The issue of drug abuse has been a threat to many economies of the world. This has propelled governments and other community organizations worldwide to formulate ways of curbing this menace from all corners. Among the methods that are used are frank, positive futures and the national drug strategy.

While each of these has its own salient features, they all serve the common goal of educating the public about the risks involved in drug abuse and also the ways of avoiding becoming victims of drug abuse. Some governments and organizations have gone a step ahead and created rehabilitation centers that help those persons recovering from the abuse of drugs.

The extent to which each of the methods used is efficient varies. This is due to the limitation of the policy in rearing some areas of life. In this paper, the modalities that are followed by frank and those that are followed by the positive futures are measured against one another with an aim of comparing their effectiveness and coming up with appropriate recommendations for each.

For the purpose of the study, the information that is contained in the course material chilling out: the cultural politics of substance consumption, youth and drug policy by Blackman S. is heavily relied upon (Spring1 2010, 30).

The biggest questions that the book-chilling out poses are; the connection between politics of drug war and the prevention of drug abuse, popular culture and also the consumption of drugs. The book is critical of many methods that are used in curbing the crime of drug abuse.

The various policies that are in place concerning drug abuse are critically looked into and the loopholes that are present are brought out in clear. The book brings out the relevance of the main economy to the policies that are made concerning the issue of drug abuse. The book also criticizes the assumptions that the policy makers have made as some of them are unrealistic (Blackman 2003, 45).

The author furthermore tackles the moral obligation of the various stakeholders in the policy making and implementation of the education and prevention of drug abuse. The books main target of the book is the prevention of drug abuse.

Its main take is that if enough prevention measures are put in place, then the cases of drug abuse will be relatively lowered and thus the costs that are incurred in the rehabilitation of the drug addicts are effectively lowered (Spring1 2010, 23).

The effect of art in the course of tackling drug prevention and education is also brought out in the light. The author applauds the efforts that are being put in place by the musicians, media, and the cultural studies in helping the society to learn the dangers of drug abuse.

The policies that are being made in enhancing the artists in their endeavors are also tackled in this book. The book is recommendable to any study into the cases of drug abuse education and prevention (MacLean 2005, 10).

The frank method works in a friendly manner. Then name Frank in itself sounds like a name of some individual. On the contrary it is not. The name was coined out of the method that the campaign is carried out and so frank is a friend mainly of the youth he understands what they are going through and talks to the youth with a tone of understanding.

He talks of the issues that affect the livelihood of the youth and relates that to the drug abuse and comes up with a way of solving these problems. The drugs that are mainly targeted are Tobacco, Cannabis, Opiates, alcohol, Ecstasy, Cocaine and derivates, Amphetamines, Methamphetamines and Inhalants/ solvents.

The main target of the program is the youth between the age of 11 and 18 years. The program considers that the persons at this age will be better advised in making their decisions when they attain the age of majority -18 years. Te target facilitators of the program are the parents and professionals whose routine work involves dealing directly with the youth who fall in this age group.

The major theme in the program which is a government initiative is to create awareness among the youth about how much drug abuse can deteriorate the life of the drug user. The program has also been used as a platform through which the government and other persons who would wish to communicate with the young generation have been using. It has been used successfully in learning institutions at the community level and also at the national level at passing down the various government policies that affect the youth.

The method that is used in positive futures is quite different. While Frank shows the youth and other drug users the effects of drug abuse, positive futures focuses on the benefits of living a drug free life. Though both may sound to be similar they are not the same.

The main focus in positive future is to make the youth know how much it shall be profitable to their lives if they shall be able to detach themselves from rugs. This makes it hard for any persons who would wish to glorify drugs as he or she does not get a premise on which to table the motions.

The method that is a national activity involving the youth at the age of between 10 and 19 years has recorded a high reception both on the local and the national levels. It is worthy noting here that it is at this age that most persons are initiated to drug abuse. While those youth who live in less advantaged environments are recorded to get involved in drugs at the ages of 10 to 14 while the others in the society usually get involved when they are between 15 and 19 (Spring2 2010, 33).

In comparison, both methods are seen to targets the youth. This is the first assumption that has been evidenced in both the methods that it is the youth who are adversely affected by the abuse of drugs. On the contrary it has been proved that even persons at advanced ages have fell victim of drug abuse.

The craving for more caffeine, alcohol, nicotine and other abused drugs increases with the increased usage as opposed to the thinking that it reduces. Thus even though both the projects help in reducing the occurrence of drug abuse and addiction at the young age and thus on the future old age, the current drug abusers who are beyond the age bracket are left out of the programs.

The usage of modern technology is so evident in both the Frank method and positive future method. While old persons may be content with the old technology, the young persons are always innovative and usually ready to try out new developments in the market.

The fact the two programs run websites which are regularly updated and are in line with current technology; it is a major booster to the programs. This makes it even easier for the policy makers to receive information and feedback from the youth.

The networking of the program has also been made better by use of the new technology. The youth would rather identify themselves with the technology based sources and channel of communication that print media (Spring1 2010, 15).

In contrast, the programs tackle the same topic on different dimensions. The main aims of Frank program is to educate the youth on the dangers of getting involved in drug abuse while the main target of the positive future is to educate the youth on the advantages of living a drug free life.

Thus the activities that are undertaken in positive future are based more on the life skills that are vital in alienating the mind of a young person form having the mentality of drug abuse. The activities involve sports, investments, discussions and also interactions among others.

On the other hand the activities that are included in the Frank method bring out the issue of drug abuse as a vice. This has posed as a threat to the system at last where the victims are turned into heroes and heroines by the spectators.

The other major contrast of the two programs is the persons who are involved in the facilitation of the projects. Frank as stated earlier acts as a friend who is out to help his fellow friend. It is more of a passive voice that knows much about drugs. Thus the program mostly relies on their websites and youth to youth facilitation.

This is in line with the aim of maintaining the confidentiality of the person that is seeking the services of the system. On the other hand, positive future depends on the assistance of parents and other stakeholders in the running of its projects. Unlike Frank whose facilitators are the fellow youth, the facilitators in positive futures are parents and other professionals who are involved in the daily life of the youth (Spring2 2010, 25).

The attainment of a drug free future is the other common goal of the two programs. The target of the youth at their early stages is a clear evidence of this goal. The generation that crops out of these persons are thus prepared to take life positively as well as being educated on the dangers of living in drug abuse. Thus both the Frank projects and positive future projects give birth to a drug free society.

The response that has been received from the Frank method has accusations of false presentation of truth. Due the fact that the method is usually purposed to be friendly to the youth works on the negative as the policy makers are usually too lenient on the youth so that they may not loose the prey.

This leads them to presenting half truths and the result is that the youth end up having only half baked information. Thus the judgment that the person relying on this information makes is not fully informed. The ability of the system to be uplifted to a pint where truth can be told in black and white is rare since the system has to remain youth friendly.

From among the youth the feedback has been on the affirmative. In its first year only, the program recorded a very high number of visits at its official website and many calls. This number has been rising steadily as the days go by. The fact that the youth can be able to comment or even ask questions at a platform that they feel is secure for them has encouraged persons who have issues of drug abuse to come open and share their experiences.

The confidentiality is further enhanced in that the persons running the websites need not know the real person is the one who is been attended to. Some of the youth fearing to be disclosed use fictitious contacts like the email. Their main aim is to benefit from the program (Spring 2 2010, 14).

The magnitude of the youth who participate in the program has made even more trust it even though they were earlier conservative about the program. The youth have been passing the information about the program to one another. Also the use of parents, guidance and teachers as the facilitators of the program has been received in good faith and has made the number of beneficiates of the program to rise. Then parents have been sending the information about the programs through their own social networks that is different form the official websites that the program uses (Spring1 2010, 33).

The response that is received from the positive futures has been good with a record 59000 youth at the age of 10 to 16 attending positive future projects in 2009. This was a 65% rise from the number that attended the projects in the previous year from the same age bracket. While this was not evident at the early stages of the program the trend is changing and many more youth are expected to take part in future projects.

Apart from taking part in the projects, the participants have received both awards and experience in the activities that they have been engaged in the positive future projects. Some have even made up their minds to take up some of these activities as their career choice. This has been so common in the sporting activities where the participants have been reported to take professional sportsmanship after getting involved in positive future projects.

Blackman has been critical of the areas that are covered by the Frank initiative. According to Blackman, the measures to counter the issue of drug abuse should be a continuous process that involves education at early stages of life. Thus there should be introductory classes for persons below the age of 11 that the program covers. This is to create preparedness on the youth even before they are involved with other more involving projects at the age of 11.

This is also the case for the positive futures. The introductory lessons are missing in the project at early stages. This at some point affects some learners considering that the ability to absorb information varies. The persons with slow learning capability may thus feel disadvantaged as opposed to when introductions are done at early stages. More over there are activities that can involve the persons at lower age groups.

The contribution that chilling out makes in the fight against drug abuse is however priceless. The book tackles the issue of art as a way of dealing with the cases of drug abuse. As we have seen, the above two and many other programs are targeted towards the youth since they are the most affected.

Similarly, the youth have a better taste for art than any other group. This qualifies the use of music, and other literal means in reaching out to the persons whom the information about drug abuse education and prevention is intended. This is part of the activities that positive future uses in its education projects. Like sports, the field of art has recorded a good number of persons who after passing through the projects decide to take as a career (Smart, 2005, 32).

For any of the programs to be sufficiently effective, it should have legality. This is an issue that Blackman does not leave out. He calls upon the government to make legislation that encourages the education and prevention programs. Both Frank and positive future programs have had legislation that help them in achieving both their short term and also long term goals. The availability of these laws assist and also guide the policy makers in coming up with projects that are legal and keeps them in the safe side of the law (Blackman 2003, 70).

In conclusion, the two programs can be termed effective each on its own way. The concurrent implementation of both projects has been praised by many persons as being counter productive in that the persons who fail the target of Frank method are easily captured in the positive future programs.

Recommendations are however made for the projects to cover even the victims of drug abuse who fall above the age groups that are represented by the two programs. Even though the government has other programs that cater for the persons in those age groups, the productivity of Frank and positive future programs has been rated so high in consideration.

This recommendation is made considering that the cut-off of the target group is at the age when most youth start to be engaged in income generating activities. This makes them vulnerable to many pleasures with drug abuse being one of them.

Blackman, S. 2003. Chilling Out: The Cultural Politics of Substance Consumption, Youth and Drug Policy . London. Amazon.

MacLean, S. 2006. Book review: Chilling Out: The Cultural Politics of Substance Consumption, Youth and Drug Policy . London. Amazon.

Smart, R. 2005. Book Review. Chilling Out: The Cultural Politics of Substance Consumption, Youth and Drug Policy . London: Amazon.

Spring. 2010. Models and Methods of Drug Education 1: Drug Prevention through Social Marketing . Manchester.

Spring. 2010. Models and Methods of Drug Education 2: Youth Development and ‘Diversionary Activities’ . Manchester.

Barriers and Facilitators to Clinical Education Practices
An Instructional Technology Facilitator's Reflection
Ethics and Law in Health Profession: Case of Mr. Frank
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Impact of Culture on Communication in a Health Setting
Workplace Stress Problem
Health Outcome of Tobacco Use: Lung Cancer
The Different Lifestyle Issues that Affect People’s Health
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Drug-Impaired Driving: The Contribution of Emerging and Undertested Drugs

Impaired driving is often associated with alcohol use and frequently leads to accidents, injuries, and fatalities. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, one person was killed every 39 minutes in an alcohol-related crash in 2021. [1] But alcohol is not the only concern; the use of illicit drugs, legalized drugs such as cannabis, and the abuse of prescription medications may also impair a driver’s abilities. In 2022, an estimated 13.6 million people drove under the influence of illicit drugs during the prior year. [2]

In 2007, the National Safety Council (NSC) introduced testing scope and cutoff standardization for impaired driving cases and traffic fatalities to improve testing consistency. Since 2013, it has recommended that forensic toxicology labs regularly test blood for 35 of the most often encountered drugs and metabolites. Referred to as Tier I drugs ( Figure 1 ), they are now included as a testing standard in many forensic toxicology labs. [3] Furthermore, these compounds can be detected and confirmed with commonly used analytical instrumentation.

Figure 1. List of Tier I and Tier II drugs. Tier II drugs can be both individually named drugs and classes of drugs (e.g., atypical antipsychotics).

NSC also created a second drug category with significant impairment potential, termed Tier II drugs. These drugs include emerging novel psychoactive substances, prescription drugs, and traditional drugs of abuse with limited or regional prevalence, many of which require advanced instrumentation for detection. Most laboratories test for Tier I drugs, but only test for select Tier II drugs when they are regionally relevant. Therefore, the frequency and the types of Tier II substances contributing to drug-impaired driving cases and fatal crashes is not well understood.

NIJ-funded researchers from the Center for Forensic Science Research and Education examined blood samples from over 2,500 driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) cases. The goal was to create a detailed picture of both Tier I and Tier II drugs that contribute to impaired driving cases and compare results to the NSC’s recommended testing scopes. Researchers also analyzed drug presence at various blood alcohol concentrations to assess the operational impact of different testing thresholds and stop limit testing.

What is Stop Limit Testing?

If a sample meets or exceeds a pre-determined blood alcohol concentration threshold, some labs will not perform any additional drug tests. This cutoff is most commonly either 0.08% or 0.10%. [4] The proscribed per se blood alcohol level in the U.S. across every state is 0.08% (except Utah, where it is 0.05%) . Labs that adhere to this practice will not detect other drugs that may cause or contribute to driving impairment.

This stop limit testing can interfere with a comprehensive understanding of drug involvement in impaired driving. Why do so many labs use it?

Toxicology labs have limited budgets and resources.
Driving impairment can be explained by the blood alcohol concentration alone.
A lack of enhanced penalties for drug use means there is no need to measure beyond the blood alcohol level.
Agencies that use the laboratories’ services have requested this limit.

National Safety Council Recommendations Are Supported

Researchers estimated the frequency with which drugs contribute to the national DUID problem by testing 2,514 cases using a scope of 850 therapeutic, abused, and emerging drugs. They examined deidentified blood samples randomly selected from a pool of suspected impaired driving cases. The samples were collected from NMS Labs in Horsham, Pennsylvania, between 2017 –2020.

Of the 2,514 suspected DUID cases examined:

The overall drug positivity (Tier I or Tier II drugs) was 79%, nearly double the 40% positive for alcohol ( Figure 2 ).
A smaller portion of cases (23%) tested positive for both drugs and alcohol.
Only 17% of the cases were positive for alcohol alone.
Naturally occurring cannabinoids experienced a statistically significant increase in positivity over the four years.

Figure 2. The frequency of cases with (a) no drugs or ethanol detected (4%), (b) ethanol detected (40%), (c) drugs and ethanol detected (23%), and (d) drugs detected (79%).

Alcohol use in combination with drugs spanning multiple categories was common, as was multiple drugs used in combination. THC (the primary psychoactive component of marijuana) was most often found with ethanol (n=359), and it was frequently found with amphetamine/methamphetamine (n=146).

Samples with a blood alcohol content of 0.08% or higher that were also positive for either Tier I or Tier II drugs occurred 19% of the time (n=478). Cases with blood alcohol content of 0.10% (the cutoff used most frequently by toxicology labs) were also positive for Tier I or Tier II drugs 17.3% of the time (n=434). This suggests that laboratories employing stop limit testing may miss many drug-positive cases.

“Limiting testing based on alcohol results precludes information of drug involvement in several cases and leads to underreporting of drug contributions to impaired driving,” said Mandi Moore, one of the researchers involved in the study.

The research supported NSC’s recommendations for Tier I and Tier II testing. Tier I drugs were found in 73% of suspected impaired driving cases while only 3% contained just Tier II drugs. This suggests that Tier I testing captures the vast majority of drug-involved DUID cases. However, some Tier II drugs (diphenhydramine, gabapentin, hydroxyzine, and two novel psychoactive substances) were found as often or more often than some Tier I drugs, potentially indicating their increased prevalence and a need to re-examine guidelines.

Study Limitations

The cases used in this analysis were exclusively from Pennsylvania. Therefore, they provide a geographically limited snapshot rather than a comprehensive characterization for the entire U.S. population. However, the sample size of over 2,500 cases was “suitable to meet the research goals outlined” by the researchers.

Because Tier II and novel psychoactive substances were found in relatively low frequencies, the researchers did not develop or validate additional confirmatory methods as they had previously planned.

Filling in the Big Picture Details

This work increases awareness of drugs that labs are less likely to test for and labs’ role in addressing the DUID problem. It also demonstrates how frequently DUID cases involve drugs other than alcohol. Although stop limit testing can be justified, data on both alcohol and drug use creates the clearest picture of DUID contributing factors. Current estimates of drug frequency in DUID cases are likely to be inaccurate and actual usage is likely to be higher than previously believed due to stop limit testing. Equipping labs with sufficient resources could encourage labs to eliminate stop limit testing.

About This Article

The work described in this article was supported by NIJ award number 2020-DQ-BX-0009 , awarded to the Frederic Rieders Family Renaissance Foundation.

This article is based on the grantee report “ Assessment of the Contribution to Drug Impaired Driving from Emerging and Undertested Drugs ” (pdf, 26 pages), by Amanda L.A. Mohr and Barry Logan, The Center for Forensic Science Research and Education (CFSRE) at the Frederic Rieders Family Renaissance Foundation.

[1] NHTSA.gov, accessed January 29,2024, https://www.nhtsa.gov/risky-driving .

[2] Select Illicit Drugs include the use of marijuana, cocaine (including crack), heroin, hallucinogens, inhalants, or methamphetamine. For more information, see "Table 8.35A" in 2022 NSDUH Detailed Tables, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/reports/rpt42728/NSDUHDetailedTabs2022/NSDUHDetailedTabs2022/NSDUHDetTabsSect8pe2022.htm#tab8.35a .

[3] ANSO/ASB Standard 120.

[4] Amanda D’Orazio, Amada Mohr, and Barry Logan, “Updates for Recommendations for Drug Testing in DUID & Traffic Fatality Investigations, Toxicology Laboratory Survey,” Willow Grove, PA: The Center for Forensic Science Research & Education at the Frederic Rieders Family Foundation, June 28, 2020, https://www.cfsre.org/images/content/research/toxicology/Survey_Report_Final.pdf .

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NIDA supports research to develop and test effective, sustainable, scalable strategies to prevent substance use or misuse, progression to substance use disorders, and other negative health effects of substance use.
Evidence-based prevention strategies can have long-term, cost saving benefits for both personal and public health, particularly when they are implemented during childhood and adolescence. Effective prevention strategies have been designed to meet people’s needs at different stages of life—from the prenatal period through early childhood, adolescence, and adulthood—and in varied settings like family life, schools, healthcare settings, and communities.
Studies indicate that substance use disorders and other drug-related harms are more likely to occur when a person has experienced risk factors such as a family history of substance use disorders, personal trauma, or access to drugs. Protective factors, such as healthy family and peer relationships and financial stability, may lessen a person’s risk of developing substance use disorders.

Why are some people more likely to use drugs?

People report using drugs for a wide variety of reasons. Some people use drugs to feel pleasurable, stimulating, or relaxing effects. Others who experience anxiety, stress, depression, or pain may use drugs to try to feel better. Some people use drugs to try to improve their focus in school or at work or their abilities in sports. Many people—especially young people—use drugs out of curiosity and because of social pressure. The age at which people start using drugs—and whether or not they continue—depends on many different individual and societal factors across a person’s life. Read more about risk and protective factors that impact whether people use drugs or develop substance use disorders .

Some people who use drugs go on to develop substance use disorders or experience other harms . However, evidence-based prevention strategies can help people avoid substance use, substance use disorders, and related health and safety problems.

Why are some people more likely to develop substance use disorders?

What are substance use disorders what is addiction.

Substance use disorders are chronic, treatable medical conditions from which people can recover. They are defined in part by continued substance use despite negative outcomes. Substance use disorders may be diagnosed as mild, moderate, or severe based on whether a person meets defined diagnostic criteria. Addiction is not a formal diagnosis, and the term is used in many ways. Some people use the term to describe some substance use disorders, especially more serious presentations.

While many people try drugs at some point in their lives and even continue to use them, only some people develop substance use disorders. No single factor determines whether a person will develop a substance use disorder. These chronic but treatable health conditions arise from the interplay of many different individual and societal factors across a person’s life 1 . Read more about risk and protective factors that impact whether people use drugs or develop substance use disorders .

Importantly, evidence-based prevention strategies can help people avoid substance use and substance use disorders. For those who do develop substance use disorders, safe and effective treatment can help.

Which risk and protective factors impact whether people use drugs or develop substance use disorders?

Risk factors for substance use and substance use disorders can include a person’s genes, other individual characteristics, and aspects of their social environment, and the impact of these factors can change at different stages of a person’s life. 1 Generally, the more risk factors a person has—such as early-life trauma, chronic stress, a family history of addiction, or peers who use drugs—the greater the chances that they will use substances and develop a substance use disorder. 2,3

But even in the presence of multiple risk factors, substance use and substance use disorders are not inevitable. Other factors can help protect someone from using substances and developing a substance use disorder. Protective factors include individual traits like optimism and environmental influences like healthy family and peer relationships and financial stability. 4

It is important to note that many risk and protective factors are not a result of choices an individual person makes, but rather are a facet of their inherited genetics, family, life circumstances, and other aspects of their biology and environment. Better understanding these factors is critical to developing prevention strategies that lessen the impact of risk factors and bolster or introduce new protective factors. NIDA funds research to identify risk and protective factors and seek ways to prevent substance misuse and substance use disorders even when multiple risk factors are present. This includes the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development℠ Study (ABCD Study®) and the HEALthy Brain and Child Development (HBCD) Study , which will inform our understanding of healthy development—including brain and cognitive development, and how drugs and other exposures affect it—and the HEAL Prevention Cooperative , which is supporting research to prevent opioid misuse and opioid use disorder among vulnerable adolescents and young adults.

Examples of factors that may influence a person’s likelihood of drug use, misuse, or of developing a substance use disorder include:

Individual Factors

Age at substance use initiation: Drug use at a young age can influence brain development and behavior in ways that increase the likelihood of going on to use other drugs and developing a substance use disorder. 5 Consequently, people who start to use substances as children and young adolescents are more likely to develop a substance use disorder than are those who first use substances in late adolescence or young adulthood. 6,7,8 For this reason, most prevention programs focus on preventing or delaying substance use in youth. Read more about prevention for young people .
Genetics: Inherited biological factors can play a significant role in a person’s likelihood of using substances and of developing a substance use disorder. 2,10
Other mental health problems: People with other mental illnesses like depression, anxiety, PTSD, and many other psychiatric conditions are also more likely to use substances and to develop substance use disorders. 4,11,12
Biological sex: Factors related to biological sex—such as different brain structure and function, tissue composition, endocrine, and metabolic functions in males and females—can influence how a person responds to drugs. 13 For example, women use drugs less frequently and in smaller amounts than men, but they can experience the effects more strongly, and substance use in women tends to develop into addiction more quickly than in men. 14,15
Personality : Individual characteristics such as risk-taking, sensation-seeking, aggression, or heightened responses to chronic stress can influence the likelihood of using substances and developing a substance use disorder. 16,17,18
Specific types and patterns of drug use : Use of certain drugs such as opioids, nicotine, and methamphetamine is associated with a higher likelihood of developing a substance use disorder than is use of other drugs like psychedelics. 19,20 Similarly, injection drug use is more strongly associated with developing a substance use disorder, as more drug is delivered more rapidly to the brain than via other routes of administration. 21

Family Factors

Family relationships : Research shows that growing up in a supportive, stable family environment versus one associated with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) like trauma, abuse and neglect can impact a person’s likelihood of problem drug use and of developing substance use disorders later in life. 22,23 A higher level of parental involvement and young people’s perceptions that parents are aware of their activities have also been found to be protective. 24,25
Parental substance use and attitudes : Whether parents use drugs or alcohol and their level of permissiveness or acceptance of substance use influence whether a child or adolescent is likely to use substances. 26,26

Community Factors

School : Studies show certain aspects of a school environment—such as how often other students use drugs and how connected students feel to their classmates—can influence whether students use or avoid substances. 4 ,27
Peers : Whether an individual’s peers use drugs or disapprove of substance use is a major influence on whether that individual will use substances, particularly during youth. 4 ,27
Neighborhood : Research shows that living in a neighborhood with high levels of poverty or violence is associated with a higher likelihood of using substances. 25,27,28 Positive community relationships and environments have been associated with less substance use and less progression from substance use to substance use disorders. 29

Structural Factors

Social: Stigma and discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, or other factors can cause chronic stress that makes someone more vulnerable to substance use and to developing substance use disorders. 30
Economic: Growing up in a household or neighborhood with lower resources can affect children’s brain development in ways that may make them more vulnerable to future substance use disorders. 31 Housing insecurity and limited access to education and employment are also associated with substance use disorders. 32
Laws and culture : Access to substances, 27 as well as the laws, policies, culture, norms, and attitudes surrounding their use in a society, can influence whether an individual uses substances and experiences related health problems including substance use disorders. 4

How can substance use and substance use disorders be prevented?

Researchers have been working for decades to better understand the factors that influence substance use and negative outcomes associated with it. 33 Results have led to the development of evidence-based interventions designed to prevent substance use and negative outcomes related to it. Read more about evidence-based prevention programs .

What are evidence-based prevention strategies? How are they delivered, and what kinds of activities do they include?

Evidence-based prevention programs are designed to prevent substance use and related negative outcomes. Most strategies are designed to be delivered in specific settings, to specific age groups, and to specific populations. Prevention programs may aim to:

Reduce risk factors and enhance protective factors.
Help people avoid or delay the onset of drug use.
Stop substance use from progressing into higher-risk substance use or a substance use disorder.
Reduce harms related to substance use and misuse, such as injuries or infections.

Prevention programs can be categorized as universal (broad approaches for the public or for everyone in a certain setting); selected (for individuals or groups with a known risk factor for substance use disorders), or indicated (for individuals with behaviors that indicate they may be at risk for substance use disorders). 34,35

Prevention programs are also typically designed to meet people’s needs at specific stages of life—the prenatal period, early childhood, adolescence, or adulthood—and in specific settings like family households, doctor’s offices, and communities. 36

Family-based programs help parents and other caregivers access resources and skills associated with better substance use outcomes in children. 37,38,39 These may include, for example, the Nurse-Family Partnership, an intensive parenting skills intervention that provides home nurse visits for new and expecting parents, or parenting classes to teach caregivers about early child development and how to build warm, supportive relationships with children. Find out more about parent and caregiver resources from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMSHA), and from the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, including the publication Growing Up Drug Free: A Parent's Guide to Substance Use Prevention .
School-based programs help students develop social, emotional, cognitive, and substance-refusal skills and provide accurate information on drugs. 40,41 Such programs might provide children with social and emotional skills training , connect at-risk youth to positive mentors, or coordinate after-school activities. Examples include the Good Behavior Game and Classroom-Centered Intervention . See NIDA resources for parents and educators .
Community-based programs engage community organizations and leaders to identify and address local-level risk factors for substance use and facilitate ways to lessen their impact. 42 This includes Communities that Care , which identifies and implements evidence-based interventions that best match a community’s needs and resources.
Population-specific programs help groups of people with shared circumstances or characteristics—such as housing status, ethnic and racial identity, sex and gender, or geographic location–overcome unique challenges and amplify unique strengths that may impact substance use outcomes. 43 For example, a program for young people experiencing homelessness may deliver housing, education, and health care to help counteract risk factors for new or worsening substance use.
Prevention strategies in health-care settings help clinicians determine if patients may be at risk for substance use disorders and connect them to care and other services that can help ( Mitchell 2013 ). 44 This includes activities such as screening as part of a routine pediatric primary care visit. 45 NIDA provides  two evidence-based brief online screening tools  that providers can use to assess for substance use disorder (SUD) risk among adolescents 12-17 years old, the Screening to Brief Intervention (S2BI) and the Brief Screener for Tobacco, Alcohol, and other Drugs (BSTAD).
Programs can also be tailored for workplaces and justice settings . For example, NIDA-funded research has investigated ways to reduce substance use in justice-involved youth in rural communities.

Read more about how NIDA is advancing the science on effective prevention strategies.

Are prevention programs a good return on investment?

Studies have shown that evidence-based prevention strategies have long-term, cost saving benefits for both personal and public health, with positive effects that last for generations. NIDA-supported research continues to evaluate the economic impact of prevention programs, how to optimize cost efficiency and effectiveness, and how to translate science into sound policy. In addition to promoting better health outcomes, well-managed prevention programs have been shown to be cost-effective and make good financial sense for several reasons :

Substance use can lead to economic losses . Drug overdose, substance use disorders, and other complications of substance use often lead to profound losses for individuals, families, and communities. While some losses may be difficult to quantify, research shows substance use can lead to economic losses as well. Data from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention show that opioid use disorder and opioid overdose alone cost the United States $1.02 trillion in 2017. 46
Greater investment in prevention could offset some of these costs . A study of one state health system found that more than 10 percent of the hospital costs incurred in 2019 (more than $327 million) were associated with adolescent high-risk behaviors, including substance use, that could be prevented through screening and referral to family-based prevention programs. 47
Impacts can be long lasting . A 2021 analysis of the Communities That Care prevention system, which helps communities utilize their resources most effectively to address identified risk factors, showed that an approximately $602 investment in each child (adjusted to 2017 dollars) yielded an estimated $7,754 in savings by the time participants were 23. 48 Further, research has shown that prevention interventions in early childhood, such as the Raising Healthy Children program, can have positive impacts on behavior and health outcomes for generations. 49
Prevention programs may benefit multiple health outcomes . Substance use disorders frequently co-occur with other mental illnesses, such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The benefits of prevention for substance use disorders, particularly in early childhood, can extend to preventing other mental illnesses later in life. 43

How can harms related to substance use be prevented?

Many prevention strategies aim to prevent not only substance use and substance use disorders but other harms associated with drug use, such as drug overdoses, infectious diseases, or injuries. Some strategies aim to do so by preventing drug use directly. By contrast, harm reduction approaches seek to reduce certain health and safety issues associated with drug use 50 and to improve health and wellbeing during active drug use. Find more information on harm reduction .

How is NIDA advancing the science on substance use prevention?

NIDA funds research to understand risk and protective factors, to reduce risk factors and bolster protective factors, and to translate this understanding into evidence-based strategies and determine how best to implement and scale these strategies.

Developing and testing new, safe, effective, and sustainable strategies to prevent substance use or misuse and their progression to substance use disorders or other negative health effects is a key research priority for NIDA.

NIDA-supported prevention research adapts to address evolving situations like the current drug overdose crisis; equitable access to health care; and social and structural influences on health. NIDA research also aims to promote and to capitalize on advances in basic and behavioral sciences, data science, and technology.

NIDA also supports research to examine the social and economic impact of certain laws and policies in preventing substance use and its negative health effects. Together, this research helps policymakers and public health professionals make informed decisions to promote better health outcomes around substance use.

NIDA conducts and funds research with particular attention to:

Identifying and targeting biological factors—like neural pathways in the brain—involved in the development of substance use and substance use disorders.
Identifying risk and protective factors for substance use and misuse, substance use disorders, and related health and safety problems like overdose. This includes learning more about child and adolescent development through studies like the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development℠ Study (ABCD Study®) and the HEALthy Brain and Child Development (HBCD) Study to better understand the factors that influence substance use and related health problems.
Enhancing people’s resilience and buffering against stressors to help prevent substance use and promote healthy behaviors across the lifespan.
Developing strategies to prevent substance use and the progression of substance use to harmful use, to the use of multiple substances, and to a substance use disorder and other adverse health effects.
Understanding why and how effective prevention approaches work and improving their uptake and reach. These includes integrating them into medical care, social services programs, communities, schools, and families.
Developing tailored prevention strategies to help underserved or low-resource populations with risk factors for substance use and related health problems.
Supporting research to evaluate effective harm reduction approaches, such as preventing and reversing drug overdoses as well as mitigating the spread of HIV and hepatitis .
Addressing stigma towards people who use drugs. People who use drugs may face mistreatment, stereotyping, and negative bias from society, including in healthcare settings. These challenges may lead them to avoid seeking medical help, leading to a worsening of substance use disorders and raising the risk of related harms and overdoses. 16, 51,52
Including local partners, end users, and potential funders in the research process, including the development and testing of potential strategies, and ways to communicate findings.

How can I help someone at risk for substance use or related health problems?

If you or someone you know may be at risk for substance use or health problems related to substance use, the following resources may help:

If you or someone you know is struggling or in crisis, call or text 988 or chat 988lifeline.org to reach the 988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline. 988 connects you with a trained crisis counselor who can help.
For referrals to substance use and mental health treatment programs, call the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration National Helpline 1-800-662-HELP (4357) or visit www.FindTreatment.gov .
For more information about substance use disorder in children and adolescents, you may be interested in Growing Up Drug Free: A Parent's Guide to Substance Use Prevention , a publication from the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration and Department of Education.
You can find more parent and caregiver resources on substance use prevention from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMSHA).

NIDA is a biomedical research organization and does not provide personalized medical advice, treatment, counselling, or referral services. Learn more.

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Find more resources on prevention.

Access the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration publication, Growing Up Drug Free: A Parent's Guide to Substance Use Prevention .
Find more parent and caregiver resources from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMSHA).
Search for more SAMSHA publications on substance use prevention.
Learn more about primary prevention efforts in the Overdose Prevention Strategy from the Department of Health and Human Services.
Read more from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on preventing youth substance use and creating Drug-Free Communities .
See the latest news from the NIDA-supported National Drug Early Warning System , which seeks to detect new and emerging substance use patterns to prevent related threats to public health.
Browse NIDA substance use prevention resources for Parents and Educators and learn more about NIDA’s National Drug and Alcohol Facts Week® .
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About Child Abuse and Neglect
Risk and Protective Factors
Public Health Strategy
Essentials for Childhood Framework

Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect

Offering children safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments prevents child abuse and neglect.
Training and treatment for children and families can reduce short- and long-term effects of child abuse and neglect.
Everyone has a role to play in preventing child abuse and neglect.

father giving son piggyback ride in the park

Creating safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments is essential for helping children and families thrive. These relationships and environments also help protect children against or lessen the negative effects of violence.

Safety, stability, and nurturing are defined as follows:

Safety: extent to which a child is free from fear and secure from physical or psychological harm within their social and physical environment.
Stability: degree of predictability and consistency in a child's social, emotional, and physical environment.
Nurturing: extent to which a child's physical, emotional, and developmental needs are sensitively and consistently met.

Everyone has a role to play in preventing child abuse and neglect and helping all children reach their full potential.

Parents and Caregivers

Young children experience the world through their relationships with parents and other caregivers. The quality of these relationships and the environment in which they develop, play a significant role in a child's development. Parents and caregivers can:

Set aside time each day to talk or play with your child.
Establish routines. Children feel secure when the environment is structured for them.
Validate your child's feelings and offer physical and emotional support.
Know who is supervising your child when they're outside your home.
Teach your child how to stay safe when they're online or on digital devices.
Seek parenting skill training programs to help build stronger relationships with your children.

Raising children can be challenging— ask for help when needed . Reach out to babysitters, family members, or close friends. Discuss your concerns with your child's doctor. Also consider finding out if your community offers support groups or programs for parents and caregivers.

Resource‎

Ensuring the well-being of children is a shared responsibility. Friends, family, and other trusted adults can help by developing nurturing, supportive relationships with the children in their lives. Volunteering as a mentor at an afterschool program or offering to babysit are other ways to help.

Neighborhood associations can connect families to resources and other neighborhood adults to help with household tasks or with childcare.

Employers can adopt or support workplace policies that help families, such as livable wages, paid leave, and flexible and consistent schedules.

Everyone can recognize the challenges that families face and offer support and encouragement to reduce stress. Help encourage parents and caregivers to ask for help when they need it. Everyone can also support efforts to:

Adopt policies in support of families (such as family-friendly work policies).
Increase access to high-quality childcare and education.
Create safe places or neighborhood activities where children are supervised, and families can gather.
Provide access to free or low-cost evidence-based parent training.
Discourage violence and help ensure the safety of all members of a community.

Public health practitioners, partners, and other professionals also play a vital role in preventing child abuse and neglect.

Training and treatment for children and families can reduce the short- and long-term effects of child abuse and neglect exposure. These effects can include physical, emotional, behavioral, and mental health issues. It can also improve parent-child interactions, parenting behaviors, and family functioning. Treatment for children and families can also help prevent later involvement in violence.

These are a few evidence-based resources that promote safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments.

Early Head Start : These programs are designed to nurture healthy attachments. Services encompass the full range of a family's needs from pregnancy through a child's third birthday.
Adults and Children Together Against Violence: Parents Raising Safe Kids (ACT) : The program teaches positive parenting skills to parents and caregivers of children from birth to age 10.
SafeCare : The program focuses on creating positive relationships between caregivers and their children, ensuring homes are safe to reduce the risk of child unintentional injury, and keeping children as healthy as possible.

Child Abuse and Neglect Prevention

Child abuse and neglect can have long-term impact on health, opportunity, and well-being. CDC works to understand the problems of child abuse and neglect and prevent them.

For Everyone

Public health.

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National drug use surveys indicate some children are using drugs by age 12 or 13. Prevention is the best strategy. These prevention programs work to boost protective factors and eliminate or reduce risk factors for drug use. The programs are designed for various ages and can be used in individual or group settings, such as the school and home.
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The effect of art in the course of tackling drug prevention and education is also brought out in the light. The author applauds the efforts that are being put in place by the musicians, media, and the cultural studies in helping the society to learn the dangers of drug abuse. The policies that are being made in enhancing the artists in their ...
Drug-Impaired Driving: The Contribution of Emerging and Undertested
Impaired driving is often associated with alcohol use and frequently leads to accidents, injuries, and fatalities. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, one person was killed every 39 minutes in an alcohol-related crash in 2021.[1] But alcohol is not the only concern; the use of illicit drugs, legalized drugs such as cannabis, and the abuse of prescription ...
Prevention
Highlights. NIDA supports research to develop and test effective, sustainable, scalable strategies to prevent substance use or misuse, progression to substance use disorders, and other negative health effects of substance use. Evidence-based prevention strategies can have long-term, cost saving benefits for both personal and public health ...
Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect
Key points. Offering children safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments prevents child abuse and neglect. Training and treatment for children and families can reduce short- and long-term effects of child abuse and neglect. Everyone has a role to play in preventing child abuse and neglect.