final year phd stress

The Savvy Scientist

Experiences of a London PhD student and beyond

PhD Burnout: Managing Energy, Stress, Anxiety & Your Mental Health

PhDs are renowned for being stressful and when you add a global pandemic into the mix it’s no surprise that many students are struggling with their mental health. Unfortunately this can often lead to PhD fatigue which may eventually lead to burnout.

In this post we’ll explore what academic burnout is and how it comes about, then discuss some tips I picked up for managing mental health during my own PhD.

Please note that I am by no means an expert in this area. I’ve worked in seven different labs before, during and after my PhD so I have a fair idea of research stress but even so, I don’t have all the answers.

If you’re feeling burnt out or depressed and finding the pressure too much, please reach out to friends and family or give the Samaritans a call to talk things through.

Note – This post, and its follow on about maintaining PhD motivation were inspired by a reader who asked for recommendations on dealing with PhD fatigue. I love hearing from all of you, so if you have any ideas for topics which you, or others, could find useful please do let me know either in the comments section below or by getting in contact . Or just pop me a message to say hi. 🙂

This post is part of my PhD mindset series, you can check out the full series below:

PhD Burnout: Managing Energy, Stress, Anxiety & Your Mental Health (this part!)
PhD Motivation: How to Stay Driven From Cover Letter to Completion
How to Stop Procrastinating and Start Studying

What is PhD Burnout?

Whenever I’ve gone anywhere near social media relating to PhDs I see overwhelmed PhD students who are some combination of overwhelmed, de-energised or depressed.

Specifically I often see Americans talking about the importance of talking through their PhD difficulties with a therapist, which I find a little alarming. It’s great to seek help but even better to avoid the need in the first place.

Sadly, none of this is unusual. As this survey shows, depression is common for PhD students and of note: at higher levels than for working professionals.

All of these feelings can be connected to academic burnout.

The World Health Organisation classifies burnout as a syndrome with symptoms of:

– Feelings of energy depletion or exhaustion; – Increased mental distance from one’s job, or feelings of negativism or cynicism related to one’s job; – Reduced professional efficacy. Symptoms of burnout as classified by the WHO. Source .

This often leads to students falling completely out of love with the topic they decided to spend years of their life researching!

The pandemic has added extra pressures and constraints which can make it even more difficult to have a well balanced and positive PhD experience. Therefore it is more important than ever to take care of yourself, so that not only can you continue to make progress in your project but also ensure you stay healthy.

What are the Stages of Burnout?

Psychologists Herbert Freudenberger and Gail North developed a 12 stage model of burnout. The following graphic by The Present Psychologist does a great job at conveying each of these.

I don’t know about you, but I can personally identify with several of the stages and it’s scary to see how they can potentially lead down a path to complete mental and physical burnout. I also think it’s interesting that neglecting needs (stage 3) happens so early on. If you check in with yourself regularly you can hopefully halt your burnout journey at that point.

PhDs can be tough but burnout isn’t an inevitability. Here are a few suggestions for how you can look after your mental health and avoid academic burnout.

Overcoming PhD Burnout

Manage your energy levels, maintaining energy levels day to day.

Eat well and eat regularly. Try to avoid nutritionless high sugar foods which can play havoc with your energy levels. Instead aim for low GI food . Maybe I’m just getting old but I really do recommend eating some fruit and veg. My favourite book of 2021, How Not to Die: Discover the Foods Scientifically Proven to Prevent and Reduce Disease , is well worth a read. Not a fan of veggies? Either disguise them or at least eat some fruit such as apples and bananas. Sliced apple with some peanut butter is a delicious and nutritious low GI snack. Check out my series of posts on cooking nutritious meals on a budget.
Get enough sleep. It doesn’t take PhD-level research to realise that you need to rest properly if you want to avoid becoming exhausted! How much sleep someone needs to feel well-rested varies person to person, so I won’t prescribe that you get a specific amount, but 6-9 hours is the range typically recommended. Personally, I take getting enough sleep very seriously and try to get a minimum of 8 hours.

A side note on caffeine consumption: Do PhD students need caffeine to survive?

In a word, no!

Although a culture of caffeine consumption goes hand in hand with intense work, PhD students certainly don’t need caffeine to survive. How do I know? I didn’t have any at all during my own PhD. In fact, I wrote a whole post about it .

By all means consume as much caffeine as you want, just know that it doesn’t have to be a prerequisite for successfully completing a PhD.

Maintaining energy throughout your whole PhD

Pace yourself. As I mention later in the post I strongly recommend treating your PhD like a normal full-time job. This means only working 40 hours per week, Monday to Friday. Doing so could help realign your stress, anxiety and depression levels with comparatively less-depressed professional workers . There will of course be times when this isn’t possible and you’ll need to work longer hours to make a certain deadline. But working long hours should not be the norm. It’s good to try and balance the workload as best you can across the whole of your PhD. For instance, I often encourage people to start writing papers earlier than they think as these can later become chapters in your thesis. It’s things like this that can help you avoid excess stress in your final year.
Take time off to recharge. All work and no play makes for an exhausted PhD student! Make the most of opportunities to get involved with extracurricular activities (often at a discount!). I wrote a whole post about making the most of opportunities during your PhD . PhD students should have time for a social life, again I’ve written about that . Also give yourself permission to take time-off day to day for self care, whether that’s to go for a walk in nature, meet friends or binge-watch a show on Netflix. Even within a single working day I often find I’m far more efficient when I break up my work into chunks and allow myself to take time off in-between. This is also a good way to avoid procrastination!

Reduce Stress and Anxiety

During your PhD there will inevitably be times of stress. Your experiments may not be going as planned, deadlines may be coming up fast or you may find yourself pushed too far outside of your comfort zone. But if you manage your response well you’ll hopefully be able to avoid PhD burnout. I’ll say it again: stress does not need to lead to burnout!

Everyone is unique in terms of what works for them so I’d recommend writing down a list of what you find helpful when you feel stressed, anxious or sad and then you can refer to it when you next experience that feeling.

I’ve created a mental health reminders print-out to refer to when times get tough. It’s available now in the resources library (subscribe for free to get the password!).

Below are a few general suggestions to avoid PhD burnout which work for me and you may find helpful.

Exercise. When you’re feeling down it can be tough to motivate yourself to go and exercise but I always feel much better for it afterwards. When we exercise it helps our body to adapt at dealing with stress, so getting into a good habit can work wonders for both your mental and physical health. Why not see if your uni has any unusual sports or activities you could try? I tried scuba diving and surfing while at Imperial! But remember, exercise doesn’t need to be difficult. It could just involve going for a walk around the block at lunch or taking the stairs rather than the lift.
Cook / Bake. I appreciate that for many people cooking can be anything but relaxing, so if you don’t enjoy the pressure of cooking an actual meal perhaps give baking a go. Personally I really enjoy putting a podcast on and making food. Pinterest and Youtube can be great visual places to find new recipes.
Let your mind relax. Switching off is a skill and I’ve found meditation a great way to help clear my mind. It’s amazing how noticeably different I can feel afterwards, having not previously been aware of how many thoughts were buzzing around! Yoga can also be another good way to relax and be present in the moment. My partner and I have been working our way through 30 Days of Yoga with Adriene on Youtube and I’d recommend it as a good way to ease yourself in. As well as being great for your mind, yoga also ticks the box for exercise!
Read a book. I’ve previously written about the benefits of reading fiction * and I still believe it’s one of the best ways to relax. Reading allows you to immerse yourself in a different world and it’s a great way to entertain yourself during a commute.

* Wondering how I got something published in Science ? Read my guide here .

Talk It Through

Meet with your supervisor. Don’t suffer in silence, if you’re finding yourself struggling or burned out raise this with your supervisor and they should be able to work with you to find ways to reduce the pressure. This may involve you taking some time off, delegating some of your workload, suggesting an alternative course of action or signposting you to services your university offers.

Also remember that facing PhD-related challenges can be common. I wrote a whole post about mine in case you want to cheer yourself up! We can’t control everything we encounter, but we can control our response.

A free self-care checklist is also now available in the resources library , providing ideas to stay healthy and avoid PhD burnout.

Top Tips for Avoiding PhD Burnout

On top of everything we’ve covered in the sections above, here are a few overarching tips which I think could help you to avoid PhD burnout:

Work sensible hours . You shouldn’t feel under pressure from your supervisor or anyone else to be pulling crazy hours on a regular basis. Even if you adore your project it isn’t healthy to be forfeiting other aspects of your life such as food, sleep and friends. As a starting point I suggest treating your PhD as a 9-5 job. About a year into my PhD I shared how many hours I was working .
Reduce your use of social media. If you feel like social media could be having a negative impact on your mental health, why not try having a break from it?
Do things outside of your PhD . Bonus points if this includes spending time outdoors, getting exercise or spending time with friends. Basically, make sure the PhD isn’t the only thing occupying both your mental and physical ife.
Regularly check in on how you’re feeling. If you wait until you’re truly burnt out before seeking help, it is likely to take you a long time to recover and you may even feel that dropping out is your only option. While that can be a completely valid choice I would strongly suggest to check in with yourself on a regular basis and speak to someone early on (be that your supervisor, or a friend or family member) if you find yourself struggling.

I really hope that this post has been useful for you. Nothing is more important than your mental health and PhD burnout can really disrupt that. If you’ve got any comments or suggestions which you think other PhD scholars could find useful please feel free to share them in the comments section below.

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‘You have to suffer for your PhD’: poor mental health among doctoral researchers – new research

Lecturer in Social Sciences, University of Westminster

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Cassie Hazell has received funding from the Office for Students.

University of Westminster provides funding as a member of The Conversation UK.

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PhD students are the future of research, innovation and teaching at universities and beyond – but this future is at risk. There are already indications from previous research that there is a mental health crisis brewing among PhD researchers.

My colleagues and I studied the mental health of PhD researchers in the UK and discovered that, compared with working professionals, PhD students were more likely to meet the criteria for clinical levels of depression and anxiety. They were also more likely to have significantly more severe symptoms than the working-professional control group.

We surveyed 3,352 PhD students, as well as 1,256 working professionals who served as a matched comparison group . We used the questionnaires used by NHS mental health services to assess several mental health symptoms.

More than 40% of PhD students met the criteria for moderate to severe depression or anxiety. In contrast, 32% of working professionals met these criteria for depression, and 26% for anxiety.

The groups reported an equally high risk of suicide. Between 33% and 35% of both PhD students and working professionals met the criteria for “suicide risk”. The figures for suicide risk might be so high because of the high rates of depression found in our sample.

We also asked PhD students what they thought about their own and their peers’ mental health. More than 40% of PhD students believed that experiencing a mental health problem during your PhD is the norm. A similar number (41%) told us that most of their PhD colleagues had mental health problems.

Just over a third of PhD students had considered ending their studies altogether for mental health reasons.

There is clearly a high prevalence of mental health problems among PhD students, beyond those rates seen in the general public. Our results indicate a problem with the current system of PhD study – or perhaps with academic more widely. Academia notoriously encourages a culture of overwork and under-appreciation.

This mindset is present among PhD students. In our focus groups and surveys for other research , PhD students reported wearing their suffering as a badge of honour and a marker that they are working hard enough rather than too much. One student told us :

“There is a common belief … you have to suffer for the sake of your PhD, if you aren’t anxious or suffering from impostor syndrome, then you aren’t doing it "properly”.

We explored the potential risk factors that could lead to poor mental health among PhD students and the things that could protect their mental health.

Financial insecurity was one risk factor. Not all researchers receive funding to cover their course and personal expenses, and once their PhD is complete, there is no guarantee of a job. The number of people studying for a PhD is increasing without an equivalent increase in postdoctoral positions .

Another risk factor was conflict in their relationship with their academic supervisor . An analogy offered by one of our PhD student collaborators likened the academic supervisor to a “sword” that you can use to defeat the “PhD monster”. If your weapon is ineffective, then it makes tackling the monster a difficult – if not impossible – task. Supervisor difficulties can take many forms. These can include a supervisor being inaccessible, overly critical or lacking expertise.

A lack of interests or relationships outside PhD study, or the presence of stressors in students’ personal lives were also risk factors.

We have also found an association between poor mental health and high levels of perfectionism, impostor syndrome (feeling like you don’t belong or deserve to be studying for your PhD) and the sense of being isolated .

Better conversations

Doctoral research is not all doom and gloom. There are many students who find studying for a PhD to be both enjoyable and fulfilling , and there are many examples of cooperative and nurturing research environments across academia.

Studying for a PhD is an opportunity for researchers to spend several years learning and exploring a topic they are passionate about. It is a training programme intended to equip students with the skills and expertise to further the world’s knowledge. These examples of good practice provide opportunities for us to learn about what works well and disseminate them more widely.

The wellbeing and mental health of PhD students is a subject that we must continue to talk about and reflect on. However, these conversations need to happen in a way that considers the evidence, offers balance, and avoids perpetuating unhelpful myths.

Indeed, in our own study, we found that the percentage of PhD students who believed their peers had mental health problems and that poor mental health was the norm, exceeded the rates of students who actually met diagnostic criteria for a common mental health problem . That is, PhD students may be overestimating the already high number of their peers who experienced mental health problems.

We therefore need to be careful about the messages we put out on this topic, as we may inadvertently make the situation worse. If messages are too negative, we may add to the myth that all PhD students experience mental health problems and help maintain the toxicity of academic culture.

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How do you cope with PhD stress?

The word stress spelt out in Scrabble tiles

This week for a slightly different kind of post, we asked some of the Pubs and Pubs team ‘what has been the most stressful thing for you lately? How have you coped with this?’ Here is how we get through when things seem to be going against us:

A blurred landscape, brought into focus by a camera lens in the centre of the image. Lens is held by a hand

One of the main challenges I find, both in general and over the last few weeks, is staying focused on my core task of working towards the PhD. There’s always another semi-relevant book to read, or conference proposal to write, let alone maintaining contact with friends and loved ones. For various different reasons I’ve also been unable to attend my regular writing group this term, which was usually the time when I refocused my efforts on my thesis. In the last week, I’ve been much stricter about setting aside time for writing, and have done some new plans of my current chapter and the overall thesis. This has helped me to reconnect with my own work, and begin to make more definite progress. I think that I also need to update my diary more regularly again, to maintain a sense of direction and purpose. If I have a message for others here, it’s to be aware of your own working practices, and change them if things don’t seem to be going right.

The words 'less is more' mounted on a white background

Don’t take on too much

I recently said yes to a few too many things and as a result have to deliver papers at an average rate of one-per-week in November. While I am grateful for the opportunities, it has also left me with an unwieldy workload. My solution was to liaise with individuals organising the conferences/lectures and, where possible, alter my originally agreed title so that I could deliver a similar paper at most events. This meant I could hone one specific topic thus significantly reducing my stress levels! The general takeaway point, I guess, is to never be afraid of reaching out to people who have the ability to help you.

A number of white pills on a spoon, fruit and vegetables in the background

Look after yourself

I have always been a sickly person – it’s good I did not live before antibiotics or I would never have made it out of childhood. I have never, however, experienced anything like the past few months. In these final months of my PhD I’ve had a wide and alarming variety of health issues, the latest of which is tonsillitis. It has been absolutely remarkable to see just how much of an impact stress can have on my body. Unfortunately, I am still in the process of figuring out how to deal with this. Step one, and something I think every PhD student I know could be better at, is to actually take time off. We all know forcing ourselves to work and stressing about the time we are missing does not help us get better, but it is incredibly difficult to fight the impulse. I even offered to write this post solo – from my bed – before the committee wisely decided on a joint venture. So, I’m turning over a new leaf and taking some time off this week to lie in my bed and watch Netflix. I can’t promise it will be guilt-free, or that I won’t be checking my emails, but it’s a start!

Get a hobby

Recently I have been suffering from the final year blues. The deadline for submitting the PhD is hurtling towards me at an indecent speed and I’ve still got so much to do. Yet my brain seems to have stalled, I struggle to make it think at all. Even recalling memories from family holidays or characters from films/book seems to require a colossal effort, whilst I can’t seem to stop replaying the same worry on loop- how will I ever finish this??? Over the summer, however, I joined the Edinburgh City Brass Band. I come from an area that is famous for brass banding and have always played. When I started the PhD though, as with so many other things my cornet got neglected and my valves began to stick. Playing again has been a Godsend, for two hours a week I physically can’t think about work because there is a man waving a stick in front of me demanding I hit that Top A. Come to think of it that might be part of my problem- maybe I’ve been constricting the airflow to my brain. It has also provided additional structure to my week, a guilt-free break and a new group of people to socialise with who have nothing to do with the office. I can’t get sucked into talking about migration theories or micro-history- nobody cares! After rehearsals I feel refreshed and able to reset. I know there is nothing new in encouraging people to maintain hobbies outside the PhD, but as someone who finds it hard to turn off I think if I didn’t have a hobby that demands my undivided attention I would be really struggling to cope.

Try not to burn out

Being on what feels like the final stretch of the PhD has proven surprisingly stressful. I think pacing yourself is much easier when the task ahead seems very large – you can’t climb that mountain in one day, so why would you even try? But when the end seems close, the temptation to work a bit harder and longer creeps in. All it might take is one final burst to the finish line – or so it seems, because of course finishing is still a pretty long process that can’t be knocked off in the course of an afternoon.

Actually dealing with this realisation is another question. Self-awareness only takes you so far, and to a certain extent you actually need that extra impetus to get you over the line. It’s a race between finishing and burning out at this stage.

Final thoughts

Everyone’s path through the PhD is different, what we’ve offered here are a personal challenges at techniques at particular points we have all reached in our studies. If you’d like to share you experiences and tips, tweet us ! And consider joining our team to help PhD students across the world feel a little less alone, you have one week until the deadline.

You can find out more about Sam, Maurice, Laura, Roseanna and Fraser on our Who We Are page

Image 1: Stress, CC-BY-SA, Nick Youngson

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Image 3: less is more, CC-BY, Floriana

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Image 5: Australia Alexandra Brass Band, 1906, public domain, wikimedia commons

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November 3, 2017

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focus , hobbies , phd , planning , stress

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5 Ways to Combat PhD Stress

By Nicholas R.
January 8, 2024

When you’re starting your research career as an academic researcher, there will be many things that overwhelm you when you start out. As someone who has been through this myself, I have put together 5 ways of dealing with overwhelming feelings during your PhD journey.

These strategies may not work every time, but they’ve helped me get through my own struggles so far and hopefully can help you too!

1. Know What’s Going On

Before you dive into trying to solve any problem or figure anything out, take care of yourself mentally by knowing what exactly overwhelms you at the moment. One way to do this is to journal about what stresses you right now. When you feel more able to cope, try exploring solutions for those issues.

For example, if you find yourself struggling with managing workload, then it might be helpful to know that this type of stress often occurs at the very beginning and very end of a PhD, at least for myself and others I’ve spoken to.

Knowing the sources of your stress is the first step to addressing it.

2. Take Care of Yourself

Once you understand why you’re feeling overwhelmed, the next thing to consider is taking care of yourself physically. Stress from work, school, relationships etc., all contribute to poor health decisions such as skipping meals, engaging in unhealthy eating habits, drinking or smoking excessively, reducing sleep and exercise etc. All of which impact negatively on our physical and mental well-being.

In addition, one study showed that people under extreme levels of pressure (such as doctoral candidates) were more prone to developing heart problems compared to other groups. So while taking care of yourself should always be a priority, it’s especially important to prioritise it even further when we’re stressed.

It can seem difficult to balance personal needs and researcher responsibilities, but doing so requires prioritising self-care over everything else. In order to achieve this, set aside dedicated blocks of time each day where you avoid distractions, focus solely on activities related to your wellbeing, and allow yourself to fully engage in whatever activity brings peace to your mind and body.

3. Talk About It With Friends and Family

One thing that you learn early in a PhD is that there’s no such thing as a free lunch. While the rewards of doing your PhD are many, there is a significant cost, and it comes in the form of stress.

You’ve probably heard the expression “ PhD students are walking time bombs ” – which is basically just a polite way of saying that PhD students are walking around with a serious short-fuse, and it’s only a matter of time before that fuse goes off.

Seek support from others before that happens…

Talking to close friends and family members helps us to process emotions better. Research shows that talking to others provides relief by releasing negative thoughts and worries, so we don’t need to carry them around inside ourselves throughout the rest of the day. Having supportive individuals in our lives makes it easier to handle both small tasks and large ones.

If you live alone, however, having someone available to discuss your concerns with can provide valuable insight into whether or not you’re handling stressful events properly. A friend or family member can offer perspective and guidance without judging you for your current situation.

4. Make Time For Fun Activities

We’ve all heard that it takes 10 years to make a really brilliant scientist. You might have trouble proving this, but it is a very long time, and many people struggle with sticking to a research plan that is longer than 3 months.

We also know that there are many distractions available in the ‘real world’, that are not available to researchers. A few months ago, for example, I went to a pub quiz night. While this may sound like a total waste of time, in fact it has become a huge amount of fun for me, and has helped me to get my research into the right place.

I also find that regular, non-research-related social events help keep things fresh and remind me that there are more important things than my research at the moment.

5. Accept That This Is Just Part Of The Process

The hardest part about completing a PhD program is simply surviving it. Many of the lessons learned along the way will come from overcoming obstacles and failures. Learning from setbacks and mistakes prepares us for future success. But sometimes, no matter how hard we try, we just won’t be successful at accomplishing certain milestones or reaching our desired outcome.

That doesn’t mean giving up though. Instead, accept that failure can happen and move onto bigger opportunities. Sometimes we learn more from our successes and achievements rather than focusing on our failures and shortcomings. Also, remember that setbacks aren’t permanent. Often, after a short period of mourning, we bounce back stronger than ever.

We shouldn’t beat ourselves up over failing. Rather, let it inspire us to become wiser and smarter for next time. After all, it takes countless attempts to master the skills required to succeed.

Regardless of how you’re feeling, remember that you are not alone. You are not alone on your PhD journey. You are not alone in your feelings. And you are not alone in your desire to succeed.

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Advice to myself: Starting the final year of a PhD

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Having completed a good ¾ of my PhD remotely, I like to think that I’ve learnt a thing or two about motivation, reflection, and time-management. Here are a few things I’ve realised over the last 18 months that I am going to try and keep reminding myself of as I navigate the next year. Even if I don’t follow my own advice, there’s always hope that it’ll help another student .

Alicia Peel, EDIT Lab PhD student

1. Never start from a blank page

2. Teams is academic Instagram (and you are being catfished)

The versions of ourselves that we present in meetings are always the best, most put together versions. Having remote meetings on Teams has just exacerbated this. What you see of someone from the shoulders up for a few hours each week is rarely an accurate reflection of how they are actually functioning. Similar to a duck appearing to be swimming calmly on the surface of the water but paddling frantically below. Most other PhD students that I have spoken to remark on how everyone is coping better than them, working harder than them, producing more than them. But this only seems true because that’s all we show each other. The reality is that we are all giving ourselves a quick pep talk in the two minutes before our team meeting starts every week and summoning all of our strength to present our happiest and most high-functioning selves. We look like we’re on top of things because yesterday we didn’t leave our desk until we’d worked through the whole of our to-do list. The analysis we’re presenting seems so well thought out and ground-breaking because we’ve been stressing about every tiny part of it for the last three months. And as soon as the meeting is over? We’re going to be back in our dressing gowns crying into our third cup of coffee about the colour scheme of our WCPG poster.

“Most other PhD students that I have spoken to remark on how everyone is coping better than them, working harder than them, producing more than them.”

3. The PhD workload is dynamic

During every PhD, there are times when we will be working flat out, all hours of the day, to meet deadlines. What I’ve learnt is to use the times when things are quieter to balance out those manic periods. If you find yourself with a day or two where you’re on top of your to-do list, make the most of working at a slower pace. Do not make things harder for yourself by panicking about why you’re not insanely busy, feeling guilty that you could be working harder or inventing tasks that will end up being a waste of your time. Take those days as opportunities to dedicate a few hours to reading interesting papers that have been pushed to the bottom of the pile, or catching up on academic admin, like updating your CV, researching post-doc options or getting your thesis notes organised. Or even ending your day early and going for a walk. Being productive doesn’t always mean churning out papers, and those “slower” days go a long way towards helping you feel more prepared to handle the busier times.

“Use the times when things are quieter to balance out those manic periods.”

4. Start things early

Everything is more enjoyable when it’s not a high-stress task. Try keeping a note of ‘further-in-the-future’ tasks somewhere. These could bethings like conference posters, presentations or even writing up a paper. When you get an awkward short gap between meetings, or you’re waiting for feedback on something before you can resume working on it, go to that list of future tasks and make a start on something. You might not get very far, but you’ll thank yourself for any progress when you eventually come back to it two days before the deadline. Plus, it’s a nice change of pace to occasionally work on something that doesn’t have the pressure of an imminent deadline looming over it.

5. Every PhD is different

The paradox of being a research student: everyone’s PhD is better than yours. In reality, it’s almost impossible to compare PhDs and you definitely shouldn’t evaluate the strength of yours based on what others have done (or what you perceive others to have done). Some students collect their own data, some use several different methods, some take on more active roles in other aspects of research life. All these things mean that every single student is balancing their workload differently and will produce a different output. Even other students in the same lab, using the same methods, will have faced a completely different set of challenges because their research questions are different. If they weren’t, your PhD wouldn’t be a unique compilation of research. At a glance, everyone else’s projects look better simply because you are only paying attention to the headlines. The hardest thing to do is to take a step back and imagine how impressive your research and achievements look to other students (and if you can’t picture that on your own, go and talk to a new first year student for a nice ego boost).

“The paradox of being a research student: everyone’s PhD is better than yours.”

How much of my own advice will I follow in the next year? That remains to be seen. By the time I’m approaching handing in my thesis my perspective may have completely changed and these points could go out the window (“start things early” haha nice try). But for now, the aim is to approach my final year with a sense of balance, realism, and intention to complete the best PhD that I can in the boundaries I am working within. I’ll let you know how it goes.

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Dr Rachael Lappan

Microbiologist and ARC DECRA Fellow

Melbourne, Australia
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Surviving the final year

12 minute read

Published: February 22, 2019

I recently survived the final year of a PhD. Yes, it can be done. Look! I’m actually handing it in and moving on with my life! (Sort of).

After 8 years as a student at @uwanews , 5 years of which were spent at @telethonkids , I am finally entering the real world and am now just... unemployed 😅Thanks to everyone whose support got me here. #PhD #phdchat #phdone #phdohgodwhatnow pic.twitter.com/mztxbgCOOk — Rachael Lappan (@RachaelLappan) December 19, 2018

Each individual’s PhD experience is very unique, but I expect most people will experience stress, burnout, misery, guilt, despair, impostor syndrome or a mid-PhD crisis at some point along the way. Spatterings of these things probably serve to build character, but they’re a real problem when they impede your progress and drain your overall life happiness. The final year in particular, where everything suddenly becomes real and urgent, is generally going to suck for a while. Now, no advice you will receive is going to be a replacement for counselling (which is absolutely worth trying even if you consider yourself mentally healthy). But here’s some perspectives, in no particular order, from someone who made it out alive (but not unchanged). 1

Managing time and commitments

Dealing with being overwhelmed, life stuff (that non-phd stuff that wasn’t supposed to disappear), getting the thing done.

At the start of your PhD, it may have been easier to plan your time. With 3-4 years ahead of you, there was plenty of room to be generous in estimating how long things might take. It was forseeable that you may not get all the results you hoped for, the research direction may change, or that you might run into a bunch of technical challenges. This is scientific research. However, now you’re in the final year everything needs to be wrapped up and finished. Going weeks or months over schedule because of other commitments, experiment failures or new avenues of research now means that you’re going to have to either live without money or spend most of your time on a paid job to survive. Delaying your submission makes it harder to finish, especially if the rest of your life moves on. So this is the year to be strict with your time.

Say no to more things. Be very critical of what you spend your time on. You are allowed to say no to things that take up chunks of your time but do not help you finish your thesis. People will understand, especially if they have a PhD. I tried to focus on things that either substantially added to my CV, or paid me some money. The rest of my time was mostly thesis, sleeping, eating and not abandoning my hobbies . Even then, remember that ‘finishing’ your thesis doesn’t mean ‘completing all the things’ - plan out what you need to achieve in order to have a good, examinable thesis. You may need to let go of other experiments/analyses if you simply do not have the time. This ensures you don’t end up doing an endless PhD, but can also be somewhat liberating; it’s nice to say “I simply haven’t got enough time left” and not have to worry about months of optimising, failure, or gaining a deep understanding of the method only to find out it doesn’t help you answer your question anyway.

Don’t worry about hours. Your time is up to you, especially once you’re in the writing up phase. I mean, don’t sleep through meetings with your supervisors, but in general, I found it beneficial to try and let go of the idea that I had to be in at 9am each day. You have a finite number of hours between now and when you submit, so it makes sense to use them whenever you will be most productive. If you need more sleep, get more sleep. If today’s a bad day and you only get a couple of hours work done, that’s okay. Nobody’s counting (and if they are, they shouldn’t be - like I say, we’re aiming for efficiency this year, not total time spent in agony). Weekends and evenings are probably going to be necessary, but I tried to leave easier work (like formatting) for these times when I knew my brain wouldn’t be very happy to be working.

At some point this year you may feel overwhelmed. Sometimes you will be so overwhelmingly overwhelmed that you find yourself unable to work. I found that this usually happened when I was hit by the sheer amount of work I had left to do (unquantifiable) and the short amount of time in which I had left to do it (quantifiable). I think this is where the panic comes from; the uncertainty of exactly how much time you do need, and the certainty of how much time you’ve got left. Something that helped me overcome this was to remember that at no point do you have do all of this work at once. The entire PhD is completed one small task at a time, no matter how good you are.

I would write lists or plan things out on paper when I became overwhelmed. This is where fountain pens and nice quality paper can change your life (that’s what I reckon anyway). Keep planning and replanning. This can keep you clear on what your goals are for each day. Make the tasks small (subsections or paragraphs for example); the smaller they are the more you get to tick off in a day, and the more productive you will feel. What is the most urgent task? What is the first step? Go from there. Sometimes taking a few minutes to clear your head (with a free 5-minute guided meditation for example, like in the Headspace app) can help you refocus and get cracking on something. You don’t need to plan out your whole week, or even your whole day - just what comes next. While you are writing up, you may also be needing to write some job applications. It is hard to do both at once when you are so stressed, but that’s okay - just slot it into your plan. Work on an application when you get sick of your thesis.

Also, in general - don’t compare yourself to others. It’s not a reliable measurement as there’s too many variables that differ and you’re each a sample size of 1. You really are your own worst critic. Be nice to yourself - remember, the poor thing is trying to finish a PhD.

Don’t forget about your family, friends, partner, children or fluffer. They love you. In the final year when you are probably at your busiest, it’s important to remember to make time for them. But you’re so busy, I know. However, remember that periods of rest are as essential as periods of work for long-term functioning. That’s how hearts work , and look at their productivity. Make the commitment to a dinner, some games, an outing, a short holiday - it doesn’t have to be much, but a bit of time without the PhD on your mind can be a great relief. It is challenging to combat the guilt, but I often reminded myself that I will be more efficient tomorrow if I conk out at 1pm, have a break, and come back fresh than if I push through into the evening when I’m just not feeling it. Always prioritise sleep.

The other important part of your life is food. Try to continue to eat well; if you eat poorly, you’ll feel worse in general (though I absolutely understand that a whole bag of chips can get you through a chapter). It really helps to have someone at home who can cook all your dinners for you (thanks Scott). If you don’t, look into those budget one pot meals and a slow cooker and cook up as many servings at once as you can (e.g. Budget Bytes ). This is especially useful when your scholarship funds have run out. Just don’t fill yourself with 2 minute noodles - you may never shit again. At least have some Metamucil with them.

I like producing good pieces of writing, and I’m reasonably good at it. The trouble with producing good writing is the part where you actually have to write the thing. You may experience a strong desire for your vague mental image of a chapter to just happen (you promise not to tell anyone if the universe just messed up and it appeared). How easy it must be for everyone else to say “you’re nearly there!” and then sit back for a couple of months until your complete thesis emerges into existence.

I cannot match the writing advice of countless books and blogs, so here’s my bit. Just put something. Just spill your thoughts onto the page in some way. Then have a look at it another day, and fix it a bit. Then you can fix it some more, and maybe someone else will help you fix it. Then it will look much better. Having access to a whiteboard is useful for organising thoughts. Read it out loud to yourself and see if anything sounds dopey. Writing can be hard and it can suck, but each day you write something , even if it later gets deleted, is progress. Know that you are always moving forwards and never backwards. Additionally, it doesn’t have to be perfect, or even really great. If it’s not good enough , your supervisors and/or your examiners will let you know. Once your PhD is complete, you will not be reading it several times in the years to come thinking “that paragraph’s a bit crap and could have been better.” I mean you might, but you a) should probably never look at it again for your own sanity and b) won’t care, because you’ve got the PhD anyway.

Remember, that’s the ultimate goal here: get a PhD.

Also, keep in mind that you not only need to write your thesis, but to format it too. Don’t overlook the formatting; it can take much longer than you think. If you’re formatting in Word, prepare for it to refuse to save your document, destroy your computer, and shift all of your figures into the void behind the page each time you correct a typo. If you are using something better suited to theses like LaTex or Bookdown (highly recommend if you’re willing to learn), start formatting some completed chapters early if you can; LaTex in particular can be a steep learning curve and you will need to spend a decent amount of time troubleshooting errors and improving appearances on the page. Getting this done earlier in the year will greatly relieve your stress when writing the final discussion.

So. To all of you who are in the final year of your PhD, or have a final year coming up: you are always moving forwards, even if it doesn’t feel like it. You will soon leave the PhD-phase of your life. The bad days will happen, and they will pass. Just move on to the next task. Continue moving on until the task is ‘submit’.

I hope this was a helpful, comforting or relatable read. Keep in mind that all of the advice you receive this year is just advice - only you know what is best for you. Feel free to leave a comment below, find me on Twitter , or email me . Thanks for reading - and you will survive!

1 In a good way! I can deal with stress, deadlines and pressure with greater ease now that I have done a PhD. It helps knowing that I’ve made it through something tough before. It probably also helps to not be in the midst of a PhD anymore, but the point is; I can have faith in my abilities if I just remember that I made it through a PhD. No matter where your career goes after this, that is something to always remain proud of.

You may also enjoy, tips for introverts at scientific conferences.

11 minute read

Published: July 19, 2018

Earlier this month I was at ASM 2018 in Brisbane, which contained a lot of great microbiology! I always love spending time in Brisbane, but this time, I was giving a talk at 5:20pm on my birthday… at least it was a productive birthday!

The microbiome in children with recurrent ear infections - new paper

Published: February 26, 2018

This year is the PhD’s final year, so I’m going to become a bit of a hermit and will probably be blogging less.

Text editing from the command line with vim

9 minute read

Published: December 21, 2017

When learning bioinformatics, you will perhaps need to create or edit text files, shell scripts or Python scripts from the command line. Using a Unix-based text editor is also good practice for getting used to the environment if you are new to the command line. I have seen that many people have their preference for nano , emacs or vim . I started with nano, as it is quite straightforward to use - but then I moved to vim (probably because it had lots of colours).

How I teach myself new bioinformatics tools

8 minute read

Published: November 08, 2017

I’m not sure if there’s a name for people who thought they would be doing lab work for the rest of their lives and then find themselves thrust into the deep end of bioinformatics, but I am one of them. This seems to be a common occurrence in research labs, and will probably continue to be until undergraduate programs catch up with the bioinformatics skills required in many fields of research. Fortunately I quite enjoy the stuff, but I am continually learning new things, and I find that with much of it self-taught it can be a long process to learn and then do each analysis.

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Advice Topic: Stress Management

Slowing down, being present.

As the spring quarter begins, we know that many of you will be experiencing anxiety over fulfilling requirements for your very first —or final — year in your grad program, planning your career trajectory beyond the UW, or managing your time to balance work, family, and graduate school. As the weeks go by, the work will seem to just pile up. This is real.

The good thing is, you can approach being a graduate student from a totally different perspective — by being intentional and mindful. We invite you to take a deep breath (really, a full breath in and out), create some space for yourself to slow down, and check out some possible strategies for being mindful that you can consider incorporating into your schedule.

Resist busyness. There’s an unspoken culture in graduate school that perpetuates the idea that over-productivity is a good thing: that performing and talking about how busy we are is key to being successful in a graduate program. Stanford Career Coach Dr. Chris Golde offers a different perspective and states, “Graduate students report more than can be done.” She recommends slowing down “to make peace with [our] limitations,” and says “there will always be those around you — students and faculty — who accomplish far more than you do. Hold yourself to a standard of what is realistic for you.”

Set achievable goals. It can be tempting during this time of the year to be overly ambitious about your goals, and setting an unrealistic standard for yourself can actually lead to you not achieving what’s most important to you — whether you are in career planning mode, completing your capstone, thesis or dissertation, or working on or off campus. Again, we invite you to slow down. We know that when we were in graduate school, goal setting wasn’t something that we suddenly knew how to do. Take some time to map out and visualize your goals. And finally, we encourage you to reward yourself for each task you complete towards your end goals.

Be mindful. Mindfulness can simply be defined as taking time to observe your thoughts, feelings, and bodily sensations from moment to moment, without judgment. Why would this be beneficial to practice while you are in graduate school? Research has shown that over time, mindfulness can help us be more compassionate to ourselves and people in our communities, help us be less reactive and more calm in the face of conflict, and help us increase our focus to what truly matters in our lives.

We hope these strategies are helpful to you as you as you navigate the new quarter!

Your mental health and well-being matter to us,

Core Programs Team #UWGradSuccess

5 tips to boost your productivity

All of us struggle with motivation at different times, and winter can be particularly challenging. That said, it can also be a good time to hunker down and get some work done. Whether you plan to stay in academia or not, you will need written products coming out of your postdoc years to demonstrate what you have accomplished. Perhaps you are also finishing up publications from your doctoral research or laying the groundwork for a new research direction. Recently, the National Center for Faculty Diversity and Development (NCFDD)’s “Monday Motivator ” featured 5 tips for productivity.

Create a plan. How? Dr. Rockquemore writes: “It’s a simple process: 1) list your writing and wellness goals for the remainder of this calendar year, 2) map out all the steps that are needed to complete your goals, and 3) figure out when that work will get done.” While it may not be in your skill set yet, it is truly simple once you start. During your next work week, put “Planning” in your calendar for a 1-2 hour block and work through it. This is your work . This is a great time to revisit your Individualized Development Plan (IDP).
Write every day. We also know that your own writing is the task that will consistently get put aside for other demands (e.g. lab meeting, responding to your advisor, looking up one more article, sifting through Facebook, etc.). Research shows that if you dedicate just 30 minutes a day to writing (really writing), you will make consistent progress toward a writing goal and complete a product faster than if you hope for a half-day or protected Saturday that never does emerge.
Join a group of daily committed writers . You are not alone. We all have to write and produce. Just like a regular exercise or spiritual practice, if you are connected with others who are also committed, it helps you sustain the practice. You can meet face-to-face for your blocks of writing time or just stay connected online and check-in, which gets to the next point:
Commit to regular accountability. Tell someone your goals and plans, and schedule a check-in meeting (virtually or in-person) to see how it is going. In the short-term, this can be yourself. Apps such as Grid Diary can help you self-assess at the end of the day what 3 things you accomplished, and set personal goals for how tomorrow can be better.
Find dedicated mentors . All of this takes hard work, and sifting through the noise that comes at you on a daily basis. Find mentors—you should have a full team—who genuinely are invested in your success (see blog posts on mentoring ). They can help hold you accountable, prioritize what needs to happen, strategize where products need to go, and troubleshoot when things fall through the cracks (which they will).

If you are interested in signing up for a weekly email with these Monday Motivator tips from NCFDD, or checking out other writing resources on their website, you can login with the UW membership.

Pushing Through to the End of the Quarter

It’s the home stretch of the quarter and we know you are actively working through your projects, grading, and other milestones, even while looking ahead to the break. We offer a few tips that can help you make the most of these final weeks.

Set Priorities. Look over your schedule for the next two weeks. Block out time slots you know you can’t be flexible on: hard deadlines for school, work, and family time. Hold off on meetings or appointments that can actually wait until after the quarter (and holiday break) is done. You’ll start to see where you have wiggle room for things like self-care. The reality is, there is always time take care of ourselves. This can be a glass of water, a healthy snack, getting up from your desk to stretch, a 10-minute walk outside, or even taking a nap to improve your productivity. Setting priorities allows us to realistically see that we do have control over our schedules, especially when stress makes us feel the complete opposite.

Writing. Carve out 30 minutes of time each day to work on your writing. Set a timer, close your web browsers, and unplug from social media. You’ll find that you’re eventually making progress on that larger writing project. For more support, remember that you can schedule an appointment with a writing tutor at your UW campus. You also have the option of reaching out to a peer or two in your department — or from outside of your program — to hold one another accountable for writing by organizing group writing sessions. If you’re considering something more structured beyond this quarter, here are some tips for organizing a thesis or dissertation writing group.

Connect with your support network. It can be a struggle to stay motivated these last few weeks of the quarter and complete what needs to get done. But as Andrea Zellner from GradHacker states, “Don’t underestimate the power of your cheering section. Maybe all you need to get moving is a pep talk.” Call, Skype, or meet up with a close friend or family member, so they can root you on! Attend a community gathering with like-minded peers, such as the upcoming Holiday Gathering for First-Gen Graduate Students in Seattle, or the Holiday Wine, Beer & Spirits Walk in Bothell, or organize a low-key, small potluck with peers to celebrate one another. If you’re needing mental health support — and there is no shame in this at all — reach out to your campus counseling center for an appointment or for community resource referrals.

Check in with advisors and mentors. Maybe you’re in a 9-month graduate program, about to complete the first quarter of your Master’s degree, or heading into the final months of your doctoral program. Maybe you and your advisor or mentor haven’t checked in with each other in a while (because life happens). Whether you are thinking through your goals for winter quarter or needing guidance on your research or next steps in your graduate program, it might be a good idea to schedule a time to meet with your advisor(s). Check in with them via email to see about scheduling a time to meet during early winter quarter. Just scheduling the meeting can give you piece of mind.

We hope you find these tips useful in helping you push through — and thrive — at the end of the quarter!

Managing stress – a lifelong pursuit!

No question about it, being a postdoc is stressful . Academic life is stressful. Your future is uncertain, you are under pressure to produce, you may have family and life circumstances that add to the joy – and the stress – of your experience. Given the data on mental health among graduate students and postdocs, we at the Graduate School encourage open dialogue about how things are going. Check in with each other. And seek help and support when you need it.

Three practices have been shown to make a difference for resilience and well-being:

Self-care. Sometimes things get so out of whack you have to remind yourself of the basics: enough sleep, healthy food, exercise. All of these things help you think better and perform better. We know there are times you have to push through, but this is a marathon and you have to sustain yourself for the long haul. Find the daily or weekly practice that keeps you on solid ground.
Connecting with support networks. Seek out people you can be real with. These may be peers, part of your mentoring team, or friends or family from back home. You need a place to speak openly and honestly about how you are doing, a place where you can just be heard. Sometimes online communities can be strong points of connection too. When you find others that feel like you do, it helps you feel less alone and gain more perspective.
Remembering your purpose. Why are you here? This could be the bigger picture reason you are here – is it love of science? Passion for problem-solving? A desire to make a contribution in the world? Keeping your driving purpose and passion closer to the front of your mind can help you regain focus and motivation when the details or deadlines are rushing in.

One study of postdocs at UT Austin showed that the difference between those who are flourishing and those who are languishing is more positive emotions. It makes sense, right? Positive emotions don’t just happen by themselves – you have to fuel them. Keep things in your life that bring you joy or passion. Check in about things you are grateful for , even – or especially – when times are dark and hard. It all helps keep your positive fire going!

If you or someone you know is struggling with depression or thoughts of self-harm, please visit Samaritans or MentalHealth.gov . The National Suicide Prevention Lifeline is a free, confidential 24-7 service that can provide people in suicidal crisis or emotional distress, or those around them, with support, information and local resources. 1-800-273-TALK (8255).

References:

The science of resilience & Tips on developing resilience
Elisabeth Pain (2016). Trainees and mental health: Let’s talk! . Science Magazine.
Nick Roll (2017). Calling attention to a postdoc’s struggles and suicide . Inside Higher Education.
Christian T. Gloria & Mary A. Steinhardt (2013). Flourishing, languishing, and depressed postdoctoral fellows: Differences in stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms . Journal of Postdoctoral Affairs, 3(1).

Digging Deep for the Final Push

Spring is the time of year where several big projects come to the fore. Your to-do lists may include one—or more—of the following: doing a job search, writing up your thesis or capstone summary, continuing work on that dissertation, defending your dissertation, or making arrangements to move with your family after graduation. And by no means are these small tasks. So it’s no wonder why, for different reasons (a task feels too big, intimidating, or the long-term benefits don’t seem readily apparent because of immediate stress or anxiety), we put off doing these projects.

First things first, you are definitely not alone in these feelings. We at Core Programs hear you and encourage you to dig deep for that final push this quarter. Fortunately, there are strategies that can help you do just that. Below are just a few:

Practice self-compassion. One of the biggest reasons we might procrastinate from doing a task is because we judge ourselves internally before we even begin. We might tell ourselves that we “need to be perfect,” or that we are “incompetent” or “undeserving” of a graduate degree, getting that job after graduation, or even success in general. Sometimes these are feelings we internalize, rather than verbal messages. And all of this can stop us in right our tracks. One way to move through negative self-talk is to practice being mindful. When negative thoughts come up, avoid over-identifying with those thoughts and say to yourself, “That’s interesting that I’m thinking that.” If you do judge yourself for not working on one of your projects, that’s a perfect moment to be self-compassionate. You can ask yourself, “What would a caring friend say to me right now?”

Negotiate with yourself. We all have ways we can avoid getting things done. For some of us, it’s spending a few hours on Netflix. For others, it might be reading a book we enjoy, rather than the required reading for a graduate seminar. Still for others, it might be playing video games. And let’s be real—completely denying yourself of a coping mechanism for stress is neither realistic nor the complete answer. Might you meet yourself halfway? For example, can you set aside time in your schedule to write for 15 min., then watch a 30 min. Netflix show—eventually working your way up to 30 min. writing increments? The goal is not to deprive yourself or even judge yourself for avoiding, but to aim for breaking down your projects into manageable tasks.

Be resourceful. One important skill we know you have as graduate students is being resourceful. You have developed this skill over time, and this has helped you tap into your strengths to navigate the university system, your graduate education program, and life in general. It is also perfectly okay to reach out for support when you need it. Check in with a peer, loved one, or member of your thesis or dissertation committee to hold you accountable to breaking down and completing your projects in a realistic manner—and to remind you to reward yourself for each, no matter big or small. You can also schedule an appointment with at a UW writing center, form a writing group, or meet with advisors at your campus career center.

We hope you found these strategies useful, and we know you can do it!

Core Programs Team

Additional Resources

5 Strategies for Self-Compassion , PsychCentral
Procrastination 101: It’s Not About Feeling Like It – How We Can Get Past Feeling Like It , Psychology Today
Procrastination , The Writing Center at University of North Carolina – Chapel Hill
Nothing is Certain Except Procrastination and Taxes , PhD Comics

When Things Don’t Go As Planned… Now What?

As we’ve noted in past newsletters, this is the time of year where it seems everyone around you is hitting milestones, getting summer internships or jobs, being awarded fellowships, or graduating. What happens when you find yourself in the midst of setbacks or what feel like roadblocks to your progress?

Maybe you’ve been applying for jobs and haven’t received calls for interviews. Maybe all those fellowship applications are going unanswered. Perhaps your committee or advisor decided to postpone a major exam until the fall quarter, throwing off the timeline of goals you planned for. What now?

We consulted a few sources for advice, including the UW Resilience Lab . First, it’s important to acknowledge and sit with the emotion you’re experiencing (perhaps shame, disappointment, frustration, anger, or all of the above). Recognizing your feelings is an important step for moving forward, otherwise it can be difficult to see through the emotion and be creative about next steps.

Second, talk with trusted individuals about what you are facing. It can feel like everyone around you is successful, but you may be surprised at just how many setbacks and failures are experienced by all of us (including advisors and mentors). Talking with others can help validate your feelings and also help you see additional perspectives on what’s happening–as well as generate more creative ideas about what you can do to adjust, adapt, and move forward.

Business consultant and author Chris Winfield offers these tips to address what to do in the face of setbacks, highlighting how setbacks can be learning and growth opportunities:

– Give yourself time. Lifehacker recommends 24 hours just to let it out. – Avoid making any big decisions, if you feel panicked or overwhelmed. – Make peace with your failures. – Cut yourself some slack (but don’t let go of the rope). – Regain your control.

For more on these tips, see Winfield’s blog post .

Whether you are sailing through the end of the quarter or not sure what’s next for you, we stand with you.

Best Regards,

What Was Your Greatest Professional Setback and How Did You Deal With It? Three Psychologists Share What They Learned , gradPsych Magazine
Accepting Setbacks: Surviving When Your Dissertation Changes , GradHacker
Getting Past Rejection in Graduate School , GradHacker

Work-Life Balance? For Real?

The aspiration of “work-life balance” is often recommended in our everyday lives, but this approach can be met with a sense of dread rather than a sense of hope. Really though, when the demands of work and life seem to be unending, how can we possibly keep it all in “balance”? This can feel so true, especially if the popular analogy to life balance–that of tipping scales–feels all together inaccurate. In actuality, most of us have more than one set of “scales” in our lives (e.g. graduate school, additional jobs on or off campus, family and community commitments, self-care, etc.), and they can often feel like they are in competition with each another. Below are some possible ways to rethink how we might approach working towards work-life integration rather than “balance.”

Integration. Some have talked about “work-life integration.” The idea is that a life worth living is better served if your passions and life commitments are incorporated or expressed in your daily work. This is not to say that we don’t have obligations that we just plain have to do. But this perspective does however allow us to ask ourselves, “During any given work week, do I have opportunities to feed my passions and core commitments in some way?”

Separation. That said, sometimes what refuels you is practicing setting clear boundaries between work and play or being able to volunteer with community groups or organizations that have nothing to do with graduate school work or a job. These are important projects too and—as David Whyte would say—are still integrated in that you are stoking your own fires in service to your work and your engagement in your life.

Reflection. How do you spend your days? Your weeks? Are you happy with your personal mix of commitments and activities? Is the mix serving you and contributing to your ability to be your best self –whether at work or at home with friends and family? Many of us need to do a mental “check-in” on these questions every few months or so, and when necessary, adjust the mix. The aspiration of “work-life balance” is often recommended in our everyday lives, but this approach can be met with a sense of dread rather than a sense of hope. Really though, when the demands of work and life seem to be unending, how can we possibly keep it all in “balance”? This can feel so true, especially if the popular analogy to life balance–that of tipping scales–feels all together inaccurate. In actuality, most of us have more than one set of “scales” in our lives (e.g. graduate school, additional jobs on or off campus, family and community commitments, self-care, etc.), and they can often feel like they are in competition with each another. Below are some possible ways to rethink how we might approach working towards work-life integration rather than “balance.”

We hope that these strategies for work-life integration are useful to you. Also, please let us know if you have other tips or strategies, and we’ll share them out!

Kelly, Jaye, and Ziyan Acknowledgements

Thanks to Professor Carolyn Allen’s class of first year doctoral students in English, who inspired this reflection.

Work-Life Balance Vs. Work-Life Integration, Is There Really a Difference? , Rachel Ritlop
Work Life Integration: The New Norm , Dan Schawbel
Work/Life Integration , Haas School of Business at UC Berkeley

From an Overworked TA

The class I am a TA for requires 12 hours of student interaction and about half a day of preparing materials. Every week. This is way more than the 20 hours/week that I am paid to do. The instructor knows this and had originally requested twice as many TAs as we have, but the department, being broke, only assigned two of us for this awful job. This particular class is known to be this way, as I have learned from talking to past sufferers. I have been TA-ing for two years now and have noticed a wild disparity in the workload for different classes. My question is: how is this fair? The department pays everyone the same amount, still how is it that some TAs get away with just 4 hours of work while others have to do upwards of 20? Since this is an issue of the department, I don’t know how to proceed. The officials in the department get very defensive when asked this. I don’t want to risk not being considered for future TA positions and am therefore not going to pursue the topic with them, but isn’t this just exploitation of us students by those in power? If the department has no money, they should figure out a better way to do this than exploit two students every  quarter (yes, this class is taught every quarter). I am at a loss here and am losing my sanity not finding time to do anything else that actually matters for my Ph.D. Please help. –Anonymous

This week’s answer is provided after consultation from the Labor Relation’s Office .

Yikes. I’m sorry this TA-ship has been such a negative experience for you. Fortunately, you have resources at your disposal to help you resolve some of these issues.

You’ve said you do not wish to pursue these issues with your department. But you should know all academic staff employees are covered under a collective bargaining agreement by UAW Local Union 4121 . If you do want to file a grievance against your department, the Union will help you do that. A Union representative urges Academic Student Employees to remember that addressing workplace concerns is time-sensitive under the Union contract.

Another resource available to you is the Office of the Ombud , which provides a space for members of the UW community to voice their concerns and develop plans for addressing difficult situations. The Ombud is easily accessible, with offices on all three campuses. Students contact the Ombud to discuss a range of issues including TA appointments. They are your go-to for addressing problems with the department’s culture. They’ll advise you on your situation without starting a formal complaint or grievance, and they won’t contact your department about the matter unless you ask them to do so.

Best of luck!

Ask the Grad School Guide is an advice column for all y’all graduate and professional students. Real questions from real students, answered by real people. If the guide doesn’t know the answer, the guide will seek out experts all across campus to address the issue. (Please note: The guide is not a medical doctor, therapist, lawyer or academic advisor, and all advice offered here is for informational purposes only.) Submit a question for the column →

Strengthening Yourself for the Last Leg of the Quarter

We at Core Programs recognize and respect all the hard work you’ve been doing as graduate students during this winter. We know that Winter quarter can be especially challenging given the weather, the darkness, and the usual stressors of navigating a graduate program. The good news is that the light is returning and the quarter is coming to a close! For this final push, we offer a few strategies. Maybe one or more will serve you:

Saying “Not Right Now”. We know that many of you are balancing personal and family time, school, and work responsibilities, and we encourage you to take a pragmatic look at your schedule for the next few weeks. What can you absolutely hold off on doing for now (that you can then return to later)? What do you absolutely need to make room for? Whom do you need to say no to? With the rhythm of the quarter system, there are time intensive moments where you have to keep your head down and focus. There’s a lot to do, but it will pass by quickly. Then you can once again say “yes” to other things after the quarter is done.

Schedule your needs. Put the most important things you need to accomplish in your calendar, including self-care practices. When it comes to working on those final seminar papers, consider setting aside 30-60 minutes a day to work on a draft versus trying to do it all in one sitting. Writing in smaller chunks will help you feel better knowing that you are making regular progress. Believe it or not, scheduling yourself for 30 minutes of exercise, or connecting with someone important, can make a difference in your overall productivity. So can getting enough sleep! While many people do gain energy from looming deadlines and big pushes of work, suffering isn’t a requirement of graduate school. We just can’t do our best work, if we are constantly in a stressed and exhausted state of mind.

Ask for help. Now is as good a time as any to reach out for help . Do you feel stuck on an individual project and don’t know how to move forward? If you haven’t done so already, connect with peers in your program who are further along in their graduate work. More often than not, they have strategies that worked for them, that you can then try out for yourself. If you are having a hard time finding someone in your department, get a list of peer referrals from your Graduate Program Advisor or a student organization on campus that you relate to. Or maybe you need to reach out to your professor for an extension all together—because life happens. There is no shame in this at all. Asking for what you need is a sign of honest self-assessment and shows you are taking responsibility for yourself. But you have to act fast. Either drop in during your professor’s office hours or send them an email with your extension request, with a reasonable deadline for when you plan to submit your work (this may have to be negotiated depending on your professor’s upcoming schedule). If you’re communicating by e-mail, you can put “Time Sensitive Request” in the subject line and follow up with your professor as needed.

Reward yourself. Make room in your schedule to celebrate yourself for all the work you’ve done—however small or big the milestone. Recognizing your achievements is so important, as no one else will make time in your schedule to do so except for you. When you have many important deadlines at the end of the quarter, consider allowing yourself a small celebration after a project is done–before you turn to the next task or project. Plus, it really allows you to be present with your progress in graduate school. You are doing a ton of work! Go for a walk with a friend. Make yourself a nice dinner. Go dancing (and get to the venue before the cover charge). Take a short dive into Netflix. Schedule a game night in with friends, or 21 other affordable examples of treating yourself .

We love hearing from you! Let us know your strategies for getting through Winter Quarter!

Kelly, Jaye, and Ziyan Core Programs Team

Set Yourself Up for Success

Welcome new and returning UW graduate students at all three campuses! Whether you are beginning your very first quarter, in your second and final year of your program, or currently doing lab, thesis or dissertation work, Core Programs is here to support you by connecting you with tri-campus resources, professional development events, and wellness programming. As you begin the new quarter, here are some strategies that that can help set you up for success ( your success ):

You Belong Here. Some of you are the first in your families to earn a Bachelor’s degree, and now you are going even further by pursuing Master’s or Doctoral degrees. Some of you have moved hundreds, or even thousands, of miles away from your families and communities to attend graduate school. And while many of you are feeling excitement, anxiety, fear, or homesickness (totally normal by the way), the impact of these feelings are experienced unequally based on race, gender, sexuality, economic background, ability, and citizenship. A sense of belonging while you are in graduate school can greatly reduce both isolation and feeling like you will not be smart enough (aka imposter syndrome ). We encourage you to reach out and connect with community, as this is vital to your success. Seek out peers, get curious. See below for a list of events and opportunities to connect.

Take It One Day at a Time. Think about what you need to thrive each day. For many of us, this can include time for exercise, enough sleep, time for connecting with a friend or family member, and time to get some work done. Take a look at your daily calendar and plan blocks of time where you can accomplish things from your priority lists and to-do lists, even while sustaining yourself. Graduate school is a marathon that can feel like a sprint sometimes. Keep the big picture in mind – why are you here, and where are you going next? You might have bigger projects you want to (or need to) accomplish. Break those down into manageable and realistic tasks and do just a little bit on the project each day. Before you know it, you’ve made progress.

Take Control of Your Schedule. This one may feel challenging to do when you have so many demands on your time – perhaps classes, research obligations, work responsibilities, family life, etc. And yet, your calendar is your own. Make note of the essential elements in each day and then look for the available spaces that might lie between other obligations. Even with a 15 or 30 minute time block, you can make progress on something that is important to you. Perhaps that is marking off one of the bite-sized tasks from your priority list (it can be energizing just to cross something off!), or stretching or going for a walk, or just resetting with some needed down time. Make sure you are getting what you need, even while you are being responsive to others’ needs. You can set boundaries on your time too. Give yourself 60-90 minutes of productive time and then reward yourself with a 30 minute break. When time feels out of our control, it can add to our feeling of being overwhelmed. Take it back – time is yours.

At Core Programs, we are right there with you – balancing many competing demands and needs and passions. We will keep sharing out resources and tips as we find them, and if you find things that really work for you, we want to hear about them too! Write us at [email protected] or post a photo on Instagram at #UWGradSuccess.

Additional Resources:

We Are Not Imposters, Inside Higher Ed
Back-to-School Beatitudes: 10 Academic Survival Tips, Crunk Feminist Collective
Working Smarter, Not Harder: Time Management for Graduate Students, North Carolina State University

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Open Access

Ten Simple Rules for Finishing Your PhD

* E-mail: [email protected]

Current address: Gene Center, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Munich, Munich, Germany

Affiliation Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

Affiliation Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America

Affiliation Society for Experimental Biology (SEB), Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom

Jacopo Marino,
Melanie I. Stefan,
Sarah Blackford

Published: December 4, 2014

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003954
Reader Comments

Citation: Marino J, Stefan MI, Blackford S (2014) Ten Simple Rules for Finishing Your PhD. PLoS Comput Biol 10(12): e1003954. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003954

Editor: Philip E. Bourne, National Institutes of Health, United States of America

Copyright: © 2014 Marino et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors have received no specific funding for this article.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

After years of research and with completion in sight, the final year of the PhD often represents the most challenging time of a student's career, in which the ultimate reward is the PhD honor itself. A large investment in time, energy, and motivation is needed, with many tasks to be completed; concluding experiments must be carried out, results interpreted, and a research story mapped out in preparation for writing the final thesis. All the while, administrative obligations need attention (e.g., university credits and mandatory documents), papers may need to be published, students mentored, and due consideration paid to planning for the next career move. Without some form of strategic action plan and the employment of project management skills, students run the risk of becoming overwhelmed and run down or of not meeting their final deadlines. Personal time management and stress resilience are competences that can be developed and honed during this final period of the PhD.

Here, we present ten simple rules on how to deal with time issues and conflict situations when facing the last year of a PhD in science. The rules focus on defining research goals in advance and designing a plan of action. Moreover, we discuss the importance of managing relationships with supervisors and colleagues, as well as early career planning.

Rule 1: Plan Your Last Year in Advance

Preparing a plan of action for the final year of your PhD is vital. Ideally, devised and agreed upon with your supervisor, a plan will help to optimize the time left and reduce feelings of being overwhelmed. Individuals plan in different ways; some prefer to work towards their goals in a stepwise linear fashion, whilst others are more comfortable flitting from task to task until all the jobs are done. There is no definitive way to plan, so find out what works best for you. You may decide to map out a timeline, or perhaps a mind-map is your preferred planning style. Whichever method you use, it's important that you adhere to your plan whilst allowing for some flexibility (but not distraction or procrastination).

Your time frame will vary according to the organization of your graduate school, your supervisor or advisory committee, and even your graduation date, but one year before submission of your doctoral thesis is the time when you should decide on how best to invest the last months of your research and associated activities. Having a plan of action will help to avoid time wasting, e.g., being distracted by superfluous experiments that might be interesting but are not necessary. Furthermore, from a psychological point of view, referring to a concrete plan can make you feel more secure and in control. Ideally, the supervisor and PhD student should both agree on the overall plan (with provision for the unexpected, e.g., technical issues), with intermittent reviews every few weeks to check that progress is being made. Your supervisor should also be able to advise you on the organization and writing of your thesis—for example, its structure—and the number and length of chapters to include.

Rule 2: Make Your Priorities Clear

Select the activities you want to include in your plan. What are your priorities? They are likely to include experiments that will give the thesis a conclusion or that may be necessary to publish a final paper. Mandatory administrative tasks will also need attention, and allowing time to prepare for your next career move will give you the best chance of a seamless and successful transition post-PhD. As a final year PhD candidate, you are likely to have acquired high-level competencies comparable to those of a junior postdoctoral researcher, in which case your supervisor may offer you responsibility for new projects or graduate students. Saying no to him/her can be difficult for various reasons, e.g., fear of potentially creating conflict in your relationship or causing a negative reaction or of perhaps losing the opportunity to be included in future research activities and publications. It can also be difficult to let go of a topic or project to which you are wedded or to miss out on the opportunity to help train the next generation of scientists. In such situations, referring back to your plan (Rule 1), previously agreed upon with your supervisor, should help to remind you both of your priorities and deadlines, making negotiation easier. However, should any conflict of opinion arise between you, bear in mind that finding a mutually agreeable solution is the best way forward. You can take advice from a mentor or refer to the many publications that provide approaches and tactics for effective negotiation. If the relationship between you and your supervisor is more complicated and cannot be resolved by a discussion, you may need to turn to your graduate school, your academic committee, or other senior managers in your institution, who can act to mediate the situation.

Rule 3: “The Truth Can Wait”

A research project is never really finished, so do not try to do everything before submitting. In fact, the perfect doctoral thesis does not exist; there are students with good research projects and many publications and others with more difficult and testing challenges who are still waiting for their first paper. If the project is ambitious, it might take several years to reach the final goal, and thus the thesis might only be a small part of the whole story. If the project is going well, it will open up new research questions and future directions, some of which will be beyond the scope of a PhD. At some point, you need to decide that what you have is enough for a PhD and start writing (a strategy we heard described at a dissertation-writing seminar in Cambridge as “the truth can wait”; it helps to write this on a post-it note and stick it on your computer!). Starting to write the thesis is not easy when there is a sense that more could be done to accumulate more data and a fuller story; a common mistake is to go back to the lab instead of getting started with the results chapters of the thesis. To postpone writing will cause delays and not necessarily improve the thesis whilst increasing the prospect of unfulfilled and extended deadlines. Thus, once the experiments that you have agreed on have been completed, it is really important to start writing with the data in hand.

Rule 4: Enlist Support

Finalizing experiments and writing the thesis (and even papers), as well as considering your next career transition, can be stressful and even isolating. It is a contrast to the relatively more relaxed earlier years of the PhD experience, and the writing process does not come naturally to everyone. The prospect of facing these stresses alone can make the experience even harder to bear, so it is advisable to communicate with and find support in those you trust and respect. Relying on such people during this period can help to ease the strain and enable you to achieve your final aims so that you arrive at your PhD graduation with your sanity still intact! Talking about personal feelings with selected colleagues usually helps you to realize that you are not alone, whatever difficulties and challenges you might be experiencing with your research project, supervisor, or coworkers. Sharing uncertainties and talking through issues can be constructive, helping you to understand the strategies other people use to cope with similar problems. As well as colleagues, it can also help to talk to friends and family, even though they won't be as au fait with the highly particular challenges you are experiencing. You can share your feelings and anxieties with them, but they can also act as a welcome distraction to help you to relax and take a break from thinking about the stresses of your PhD.

Support and advice can also come in the shape of courses, books, blogs, mentoring, etc. There is much published on the subject of how to write a thesis [1] . Furthermore, graduate schools, such as those in which we are based, usually offer courses to help PhD candidates improve their personal and professional skills. For example, the University of Zurich organizes courses on, amongst others, time and self-management skills, managing conflict, and academic writing and publishing [2] . The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at Harvard lists workshops and resources offered across the university on topics such as scientific writing, time management, and overcoming procrastination. In addition to relying on your supervisor, postdoctoral researchers in your group or department (or even friendly collaborators) may agree to read chapters of your thesis and comment on aspects such as content, logical flow of ideas, and the overall structure. At a later stage, you may want to engage someone to check your grammar, spelling, and reference style (this can be especially important if you are not writing in your native language). If your PhD defense includes a presentation, try to practice beforehand, preferably in front of some of your peers, and include asking for feedback and possible questions that may come up. This should make you feel more prepared and confident.

Rule 5: Get Familiar with the Software

Being familiar with software for both writing and making figures will facilitate the creation of your thesis. One of the most effective tools with which to produce a scientific document is LaTeX ( www.latex-project.org ). This software, freely available, is not as immediately understandable as other text editors, but the advantages are greater: it offers a professional layout similar to published books, it makes the insertion and management of figures easier as their position in the file does not depend on text editing, and it allows for easy typesetting of mathematical equations and referencing of articles from a bibliography database. Moreover, the text file size does not increase while inserting figures, making its handling easier. An example LaTeX package for typesetting dissertations is “classicthesis”, written by André Miede ( http://www.miede.de/index.php?page=classicthesis ). Although advantageous, LaTeX can also present disadvantages. In contrast to commonly used text editors (e.g., Microsoft Word), it does not make it easy to track changes in the manuscript, often a preferred way for supervisors to correct theses in an electronic form. Therefore, we suggest you discuss the preferred software with your supervisor when you agree upon your plan (Rule 1).

A professional design software can also speed up the creation of figures for your thesis, which can be further used for your final PhD presentation, so check whether your institution provides an introductory course to some of these software packages. Taking a one-day class can save you a lot of time later. Organize your bibliography; many excellent reference managers exist that allow you to catalogue and annotate the papers you have read and integrate them seamlessly with text processing software (e.g., Endnote or the freely available Mendeley and Readcube). Choose one that fits your needs and check whether your university provides institutional licenses (and be disciplined about adding each paper you read to it!).

Consider using version control software. This allows you to keep a log of all the changes you make to a file or directory and makes it easy to recover a previous version if something goes wrong or to merge two versions of a file. This is often used in software projects to produce, document, and improve computer code, but it can also be useful when working on a long text document, such as a dissertation. Commonly used free version control systems include git/GitHub [git, github], Subversion [svn], and Bazaar [bzr] (see Table 1 ).

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003954.t001

Most important of all is to have a backup strategy. A hard-drive crash at the wrong moment can set your work back by weeks and jeopardize the timely completion of your thesis. Institutions or departments will often have a backup system employees can make use of. This may require you to install a specific piece of software on your computer that backs up your data at regular intervals or to save your file on an institute server. Contact the information technology (IT) department at your institute to learn about your options.

Rule 6: Know Your University's Procedures and Regulations

During the course of your PhD, you will have been acquiring project management skills, such as organizing your time and resources, reviewing progress, and meeting deadlines. In order to avoid last-minute surprises, you can capitalize on and develop these skills during the final year of your PhD. Prepare a list of all the documents and certificates that you will need, even before you start writing; it will be of critical importance to include this information in your plan and priorities (Rules 1 and 2). Having a good working relationship with someone who can help you to navigate a bureaucratic process will usually be an asset and will ensure you are familiar and aware of all the rules. Considering the amount of documents and certificates that are needed for handing in a thesis, it is advantageous to introduce yourself to the institute secretary or human resources manager, as well as any other staff who can help you to deal with the administrative side of the process. Don't rely on previous documents, which may have been revised since the last person in your group graduated. Be aware of all the necessary institutional administrative requirements (e.g., credit points, research seminar attendance, publications, etc.), as well as the faculty criteria, including deadlines (as well the date of the graduation ceremony), thesis copy numbers and format, font size, binding, and supporting documents. Take time to go through the list of documents and start collecting them in a folder. Get the formatting right early on, e.g., by using a dedicated template file. With your documents in order, you are bound to feel you have the situation more under control, which can help to reduce stress and enable you to focus more closely on writing your thesis.

Rule 7: Exploit Synergies

You are doing a lot of work for your thesis, so use it to your advantage. The literature review in your introduction can also be used to write and publish a future review article, an idea that might also be welcomed by your supervisor. If you are intending to write a grant proposal for a postdoctoral fellowship on a similar research topic, you can use some of the thesis introduction and future directions as a basis for your research plan. If you are keen to gain teaching experience, you could propose a short course on your specialty area. For instance, at Harvard Medical School, senior graduate students and postdoctoral researchers can be involved in lecturing on short, specialized “nanocourses” [3] . You may also be able to deliver a specialized lecture within a class your supervisor is teaching or, ideally after you have completed the PhD, teach at a workshop or summer school.

Take advantage of opportunities to deliver a talk as an invited speaker at a conference or at another institute, for example, if you are visiting a research group or investigating possible postdoctoral options. This will give you the chance to practice your defense presentation in front of an unfamiliar audience and, at the same time, allow a potential future supervisor and colleagues to gain a more complete picture of your research interests, skills, and personality.

Rule 8: Pay Attention to Your Career

It is not always easy to decide on which career path to follow after your PhD. You have been trained primarily towards an academic research career, and so many PhD graduates choose to continue on with a postdoctoral position as their first career destination. This is perfectly acceptable, and many industrial employers look upon early-career postdoctorals favorably. However, it is worth bearing in mind that permanent tenured positions are hard to secure nowadays and competition is tough, with less than 5% of those who complete a PhD ultimately realizing an academic career [4] . For those who are determined to have an academic career, a strategic research plan is crucial; for those who are unsure, a viable alternative career plan is equally important.

Knowledge of your professional and personal skills and capabilities, personality, values, and interests, as well as how to map them onto the job market and sell them to employers, will help you to make effective career decisions and a successful transition to your next job. In addition, factors such as your personal situation and priorities, mobility, and preferred work–life balance all need to be taken into consideration before entering the complicated world of the job market. Be ready to make compromises either in your work or personal life, depending on your priorities. Take advantage of courses and professional career guidance and coaching while you are still at university, as they are usually offered free of charge. Along with books and websites, face-to-face career support can help raise your self-awareness and knowledge of the job market so you can start to decide which types of career may best suit you. Blackford's book and blog [4] contain useful material on career planning for bioscientists, with concrete examples of different career paths within and outside of academia, and further information and resources. In addition, the Science Careers portal offers an online tool [5] to create an individual development plan and explore your career options based on your skills, interests, and values. Also, take advantage of dedicated career job boards associated with specialist websites, such as that of the International Society for Computational Biology [6] .

How soon should you start job seeking? Finding a job whilst writing up your thesis can seem like an attractive prospect, but it's important to consider that applying for jobs can easily take up as much time as working a full-time job. Then, if you do secure a job, the time left for writing up your thesis, completing experiments, and wrapping up your lab work will be seriously limited. It is exceedingly hard to write a doctoral thesis in the evenings after work or on the weekends, so in case you are offered a job before you have finished the PhD, consider seriously how this might affect your work and life. On the other hand, finishing a PhD when scholarship money has been seriously reduced (or has run out) comes with a different set of challenges. Many students need to tap into their savings (if indeed they have any), drastically reduce their spending, and move out of their accommodation. Losing employment at the university can also affect health insurance, social security, and visa status. Finishing up a PhD under these additional constraints and pressures can be extremely challenging, both logistically and psychologically. To ensure that you can concentrate all your time on (and get paid for) finishing your PhD, start planning ahead one year earlier. Be aware of your university's regulations, talk to your supervisor about the funding situation (is it possible for you stay on as a postdoctoral researcher for a short period?), and know what you need to do in order to finish on time (Rule 1).

Rule 9: Network

Unofficial statistics tell us that only around 30% of jobs are advertised, so to enhance your employment prospects you would be well advised to network in order to access the hidden job market. During the final year of your PhD, and even earlier, you can build up and extend your network so that your chances of finding the job of your choice are optimized. If you are looking for research positions, your supervisor might have contacts or know about positions available in academia or industry. Reviewing your personal network further will reveal it consists of colleagues, friends, and family. You may also have a wider network of collaborators (research and industry), people associated with your research whom you have met during the course of your PhD, as well as many others. Conferences, seminars, informal gatherings, and learned societies are great places to meet the academic community face to face or to broaden your horizons. Job fairs are held at universities and sometimes during conferences, where experts from industry look for potential employees as well as sometimes provide informal advice on your curriculum vitae (CV). Try to exploit these opportunities if they come your way.

A relatively recent, and highly democratic, addition to the networking system is social media, through which it is possible to meet people online from all over the world and from all walks of life. More and more professors, researchers, students, policy makers, science “celebrities”, science communicators, industry personnel, and professionals have a presence on social media, using it primarily for work-related purposes. Researchgate, LinkedIn, and Twitter are probably the most useful platforms for networking with academia, business, and the wider world, respectively. Your online profile should be fully completed and reflect your expertise, achievements, and personality. Used to greatest effect, social media will give you access to information, jobs, and influential people—its importance to you as a PhD student cannot be overestimated.

Rule 10: Leave on Good Terms

Wrap up the work in your lab, especially if you are leaving the institute. This includes any required training of new personnel in the methods and techniques you use, having lab notes in order, making it easy for other lab members to access your protocols and data, organizing and labelling your reagents and equipment, and documenting your computer code. If someone is taking over an unfinished project from you, take time to hand it over. Discuss with your supervisor to find a solution for who will do the final experiments, how to proceed with the writing of journal manuscripts, and what should be the order of authorship. If you have started a project that you want to take with you to your new lab, discuss with your supervisor how to handle possible future publications and how to agree on material transfer. If your work resulted in patents or patentable innovations, make sure you are clear about regulations concerning patents and intellectual property, both at your PhD institution and at the institution to which you are moving. Stay in touch with your former colleagues and cultivate the contacts you have made in graduate school; they are sure to be useful during the course of your career.

Acknowledgments

Jacopo Marino is grateful to colleagues from the University of Zurich for the everyday discussions that have inspired this manuscript. Melanie I. Stefan is likewise grateful for discussions on the topic with fellow predocs (and sympathetic postdocs) at the European Bioinformatics Institute. She would also like to acknowledge advice and support from Nicolas Le Novère and Susan Jones, which helped her navigate her PhD and graduate in a timely manner. She has since learnt a lot from discussions with colleagues at the California Institute of Technology, the University of Tokyo, and Harvard Medical School.

1. Turabian KL (2013) A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 8th edition. Chicago (Illinois): The University of Chicago Press.
2. University of Zürich (2014) Courses for PhD candidates and postdocs. Available: http://www.grc.uzh.ch/phd-postdoc/courses-uzh_en.html . Accessed 30 October 2014.
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4. Blackford S (2013) Career planning for research bioscientists. Wiley-Blackwell. Available: http://www.biosciencecareers.org . Accessed 30 October 2014.
5. Hobin JA, Fuhrmann CN, Lindstaedt B, Clifford PS (2012) You Need a Game Plan. Science Careers Career Magazine. Available: http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org/career_magazine/previous_issues/articles/2012_09_07/caredit.a1200100 . Accessed 30 October 2014.
6. International Society for Computational Biology (2011) ISCB Careers. Available: https://www.iscb.org/iscb-careers . Accessed 30 October 2014.

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Health Psychol Open
v.2(2); 2015 Jul

Examining perceptions of academic stress and its sources among university students: The Perception of Academic Stress Scale

Dalia bedewy.

1 Tanta University, Egypt

Adel Gabriel

2 University of Calgary, Canada

The development of a scale to measure perceived sources of academic stress among university students. Based on empirical evidence and recent literature review, we developed an 18-item scale to measure perceptions of academic stress and its sources. Experts ( n = 12) participated in the content validation process of the instrument before it was administered to ( n = 100) students. The developed instrument has internal consistency reliability of 0.7 (Cronbach’s alpha), there was evidence for content validity, and factor analysis resulted in four correlated and theoretically meaningful factors. We developed and tested a scale to measure academic stress and its sources. This scale takes 5 minutes to complete.

Introduction

Stress among undergraduate and graduate students is multifactorial, arising from both academic and non-academic factors, including socio-cultural, environmental, and psychological attributes ( Brand and Schoonheim-Klein, 2009 ). Stress levels may escalate to significant proportions in some students, to present with symptoms of anxiety especially during tests and examination periods. In fact, previous research suggested a modest prevalence rate of 10 to 35 percent of college students experience functionally impairing levels of test anxiety ( Chapell et al., 2005 ; Naveh-Benjamin et al., 1997 ). However, not all students experience anxiety with the same severity. In the Social Survey of the German Student Union, it was estimated that approximately 15–20 percent of student’s functioning become impaired by exam nerves in a “modest” to “high” degree ( Neuderth et al., 2009 ). Also, it was demonstrated that the delay and the drop-out in university students occur significantly more often in students with test anxiety and is associated with psychiatric morbidity including suicidal behavior and high economic costs ( Schaefer et al., 2007 ). Also, it was demonstrated that 10 percent of dental students suffered from severe emotional exhaustion, 17 percent complained about a severe lack of accomplishment, and 28 percent reported severe depersonalization symptoms ( Pohlmann et al., 2005 ). Academic factors were the predominant cause of stress in most students, followed by physical, social, and emotional. Majority of students with stress reported high scores of poor self-esteem, and about half scored high on depression scales ( Baste and Gadkari, 2014 ). Results from the literature suggest that higher level of stress to be associated with poor academic performance ( Sohail, 2013 ).

Perceived stress was reported in some research, to vary among different sociodemographic groups ( Acharya, 2003 ; Pau et al., 2007 ; Polychronopoulou and Divaris, 2005 ). For example, it was found that females, younger students, those without a previous higher education qualification, and those not satisfied with their decision to study dentistry were significantly more likely to report perceived stress levels when compared to their counterparts ( Morse and Dravo, 2007 ; Pau et al., 2007 ). However, in other studies, men showed more stress (62.9%) than women. However, females perceived more stress in the interpersonal domain score more significantly than males ( Saxena et al., 2014 ; Tangade et al., 2011 ). In a recent study, it was demonstrated that the most common sources of stress among medical students ( n = 161) were related to both academic and psychosocial pressures. These included high parental expectations, frequency of examinations, vastness of the academic curriculum, sleeping difficulties, worrying about the future, and about becoming a doctor. From reviewing the literature, stress among dental and medical students in different cultures is well documented and was associated with significant psychiatric morbidity in the literature ( Al-Omari, 2005 ; Naidu et al., 2002 ; Pohlmann et al., 2005 ; Rajab, 2001 ; Shah et al., 2010 ; Tuisuva and Morse, 2003 ). For example, it was demonstrated recently that more than half of the respondents were affected by depression, and over two-thirds by anxiety and stress, and females consistently reported higher score of stress as compared to their male counterparts ( Iqbal et al., 2015 ; Kumar et al., 2014 ).

Literature search summary

Workload and test difficulty and exam format.

In a number of studies, authors found that the most frequently reported factors contributing to stress and anxiety around the examination periods were extensive course loads, lack of physical exercise, and long duration of exams, reported by the students ( Harikiran et al., 2012 ; Hashmat et al., 2008 ; Sansgiry and Sail, 2006 ; Shah et al., 2010 ). The perception of extensive course load and long duration of examinations were found to be the most important sources of test anxiety in a number of research studies. For example, in a cross-sectional study, Hashmat et al. (2008) examined factors contributing to exam anxiety among the final medical students ( n = 120), using structured self-administered questionnaire including questions about lifestyle, study style, psychological problems, and examination system. Authors found that the most frequently reported factors by the students, contributing to exam anxiety, were extensive course loads (90.8%), lack of physical exercise (90%), and long duration of exams (77.5%). Authors also reported that most students had poor knowledge of exam-taking and anxiety-reduction ( Hashmat et al., 2008 ). Medical students’ performance in periodic examinations was the most frequently and severely occurring sources of stress ( Shah et al., 2010 ).

It was demonstrated in both laboratory and in self-report questionnaires that students report and experience higher levels of anxiety from the objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) than from the written examinations ( Furlong et al., 2005 ). Also, Omigbodun et al. (2006) and Polychronopoulou and Divaris (2005) found that excessive school work, congested classrooms, strikes by faculty, and lack of laboratory equipment were identified as a source of stress. The fear of course failure, uncertainty about future, clinical training difficulties, and work overload were among the perceived sources of stress among dental students ( Acharya, 2003 ; Polychronopoulou and Divaris, 2005 ). In a recent study, it was reported that 16.2 percent of the variance accounted for the excessive cognitive, somatic, and emotional responses on the Examination Anxiety Scale scores ( Bedewy and Gabriel, 2013 ). Based on a self-administered survey, it was demonstrated that test anxiety among pharmacology students ( n = 198) was positively correlated with students’ perceptions of course load and negatively related to their ability to manage time with course work ( Sansgiry and Sail, 2006 ).

Morse and Dravo (2007) utilized a modified version of the Dental Environment Stress questionnaire (41 items) to assess levels of stress among undergraduate students ( n = 115). Authors reported that there was slight to moderate stress. However, sources of stress were more prominent among female students and with the following items: full loaded day, followed by criticism from clinical supervisors in front of patients, amount of assigned work, fear of failing a course or year, examination and grades, financial resources, fear of employment after graduation, and fear of facing parents after failure ( Morse and Dravo, 2007 ).

Factors related to academic expectations and pressures to perform

It was demonstrated in a number of studies that parental pressures and teachers’ expectations were associated with stress around the time of examinations or about choosing particular academic study or a future career. For example, students who joined dentistry due to parental pressure, with associated fear of facing parents after failure, described greater stress than those who joined of their accord ( Acharya, 2003 ; Tangade et al., 2011 ). Authors recommended that parents need to be counseled against forcing their children to join an educational program, not of their choice ( Tangade et al., 2011 ). Also, receiving criticism from supervisors about academic or clinical work was one of the sources associated with significant stress among dental students ( Kumar et al., 2009 ). Other authors suggested that parental pressure predicted a higher degree of test anxiety, as the threat of negative evaluation from others is increased. Conversely, it was theorized that parental support would predict a lower degree of stress and test anxiety, as the threat of negative evaluation is reduced ( Putwain et al., 2010 ). Also, a higher than expected levels of emotional exhaustion were found in a large sample of first-year undergraduate students, and among entry-level students dental students in seven European dental schools ( Polychronopoulou and Divaris, 2005 ), and recently, Tangade et al. (2011) found that final year students presented with higher stress scores. Using a descriptive cross-sectional design, Wang and Yeh (2005) examined the perceptions and sources of entrance exam stress among third-year nursing students ( n = 441) and its effect on coping behavior. Authors concluded that the five main stressors of entrance exam stress, in descending order, included taking tests, the student’s own aspirations, learning tasks, teacher’s aspirations, and parent’s aspirations ( Wang and Yeh, 2005 ).

Factors related to students’ academic self-perceptions

Other sources which are commonly related to students’ academic self-perceptions involve such scores especially those related to their personality characteristics, intelligence, their past academic achievements, and other academic environmental and psychosocial sources.

Hancock (2001) and Hembree (1988) reported that negative cognitions related to examinations, when such students underestimate their own abilities, or overestimation of the consequences related to their failure, are often accompanied by higher anxiety levels and poor performance. It was demonstrated that in a number of studies, among dental and medical students, stress was high enough to present with psychiatric disorders in substantial proportions of students. The experience of severe stress and anxiety among dental school students is well documented. Students often report stress-related symptoms that may range from mild anxiety to sleep and eating disorders, as well as resulting in reduced performance, inability to concentrate, hostility, depression, and other debilitating effects ( Stewart et al., 2006 ; Westerman et al., 1993 ). In a cross-sectional survey examining the level of perceived academic stress among medical, dental, psychology, and sports students, it was demonstrated that sports and psychology students had a lower perceived stress risk compared with medicine students ( Neveu et al., 2012 ).

The relationship between personality traits and stress and anxiety related to taking examinations was also examined in a number of studies. For example, Liu et al. (2006) argued that test anxiety should be related to the personality and self-esteem, and that the prevalence of test anxiety should be higher in introversive, unstable emotional, apparent psychoticism or low self-esteem students. Xu et al. (2005) examined the effects of self-concept on the test anxiety among medical college students, using the test anxiety questionnaire and the English-learning self-concept scale. Authors found that all the dimensions of self-concept were significantly related to test anxiety, among which are the general self-concept and the academic self-concept. Others claimed that perceived academic competence was related to worry and tension ( Putwain et al., 2010 ).

Objectives of the study

If we are to develop programs to assist students in their scholastic activities and to minimize their anxiety and decrease their distress, one should develop a reliable tool to measure the sources of their stress and its associated causes.

The objective of this study is to develop and psychometrically assess an instrument with demonstrated evidence of validity, to measure academic stress among university students, the Perception of Academic Stress Scale (PAS).

Participants

There were 100 students, both men and women, ranging from 19 to 26 years of age (mean = 20.5 years) who participated. The proportion of male to female participants was 30/10 (75%/25%). All the participating students were from the third-year, Educational Psychology class at Tanta University Egypt. Students were included if they were planning to sit their third-year final course examinations in Educational Psychology. All students who participated in this study did not have a history of diagnosed psychiatric disorders, and all provided their consent to be included in the study.

The examination process involved taking a 3-hour written essay paper and an oral examination on the same day, which followed the written examination almost immediately. The written examination carried 75 percent of the total mark, and the oral examination carried the rest (25%). Students did not receive any credits for any assignments, or any homework, which they did during the whole year. Students, therefore, have to memorize a large amount of knowledge, for the two main semesters that they attended throughout the year.

Education experts

Both male and female experts (defined as more than 15 years of experience as a faculty in the area of Education and or Educational Psychology) were invited to participate in this study. Participated in the formal validation process were 12 experts from the Faculties of Psychology and Educational Psychology at Tanta University. There were female/male = 3/9, mean age = 54 years, standard deviation (SD) = 8.7 years, and mean years of experience as independent Psychology Consultants = 24, SD = 6.8. Letters of invitations were delivered face to face inviting experts to participate in the validation process. There was also one-on-one discussion and feedback about each item of the scale with regard to its relevancy to sample sources of academic stress among undergraduate students. Among experts, there were seven at the rank of professor, two at the associate professor, and three PhD lecturers. Initially, experts provided opinion about the overall content of the instrument. Each expert reviewed and provided comments on the relevance of the scale to be developed before testing the instruments with students.

The design involved the development and the psychometric assessment of a scale to measure the perceived sources of academic stress among undergraduate university students. Following extensive literature review, a table of specification with the initial items was created to guide item construction for developing the scale. We were able to identify a list of specification with three main components to characterize sources of academic stress among university students: (1) the academic expectations subscale (four items), (2) workload and examinations subscale (eight items), and (3) students’ academic self-perceptions subscale (six items). The items related to these academic stresses were converted into an 18-item, 5-point Likert-type questionnaire, resulting in the PAS.

Table 2 displays the PAS three main subscales: (1) the academic expectations subscale (four items), (2) workload and examinations subscale (eight items), and (3) students’ academic self-perceptions subscale (six items).

Table of specification and students’ and experts’ ratings of the PAS scale.

The volunteer panel of experts discussed and reviewed the items to examine the appropriateness and clarity of each item and to ensure that each item assessed students’ sources of academic stress as perceived by students in faculty sittings. Experts were invited to rate each item formally for its relevance in measuring academic stresses, on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = extremely irrelevant, 2 = irrelevant, 3 = slightly relevant, 4 = relevant, and 5 = strongly relevant). The objective of the consultation with experts was to provide both face and content validity by providing their agreement about the relevance of each item separately as a measure of students’ academic stress. For the purpose of developing the PAS, it was agreed to include only items receiving a mean score of 3.5 or above rating from experts, as relevant to develop the scale. This process resulted in selecting the PAS (18 items).

Format, layout, and language review of instruments

All items were reviewed for clarity and grammatical corrections. After the scale had been written, the Microsoft Word computer program was used to assess the grammar, in order to ensure that students could easily understand and interpret each item.

Administration to students

The scale was pilot tested with four students. Student’s concerns and feedback were sought in the following aspects of the scale:

Clarity of items, identifying and reporting any ambiguous items, and items difficult to interpret.
Difficulties with language, technical jargon, or any offending language.
Reactions and responses to the format and layout of each item.
Time needed to complete the scale.

After a slight modification based on experts’ and students’ input, the Perception of Academic Stress Scale (PAS = 18 items), was distributed by e mail to a heterogeneous group of undergraduate and postgraduate students from educational psychology specialization, from all four classes of education (Class 1 to Class 4) class of Educational Psychology ( n = 160). Hundred students (100/160, 62%) returned the completed PAS. Students were asked to rate on a 5-point Likert-type scale (from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) their perceptions and experiences about each item in measuring sources of academic stress.

Appendix 1 displays the final version of the administered scale. Five items scoring were reversed to avoid response patterns ( Appendix 1 ). Completed responses and consent were returned via e-mail or regular mail to the investigator at the Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education, Tanta University. All students provided their consent to participate in this project.

At the same time, students were also asked to provide demographics including age, sex, academic year, their faculty, and university affiliation, and if they had a history of academic failure. All students were also asked to rate their satisfaction with their learning environment and their overall physical and psychiatric health.

Data collection and analysis

Responses from educational and psychology experts were used to provide evidence for content validity for the instrument, while students’ responses and performances on the instrument were utilized to provide evidence for internal consistency reliability, and convergent validity as adduced in correlation analysis of the students’ responses on the subscales of the instrument. Students needed on average 5 minutes to complete the PAS.

Table 1 describes the demographics.

Demographics of participating students ( n = 100).

SD: standard deviation.

The results of students’ responses are summarized in Table 2 . The internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) was 0.7 for the 18 items of the PAS. Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) indicated that there were no significant differences in the mean PAS score, between sexes, and age groups in the severity scores of anxiety symptoms.

Experts’ responses

There were no significant differences in ratings of experts based on their length of experience ( p < 0.08). Expert’s ratings for all items on the scale ranged from a minimum of 3.8 to a maximum of 4.8 and an average rating for all the instrument items of 4.4. Experts’ responses yield an overall agreement of 89 percent among experts about the 18 items to measure academic stress ( Table 2 ).

Students’ responses

A close inspection of Table 2 will show that the level of academic sources of stress, as reported by students, was in the low range for most of the scales’ items. Overall, students reported confidence in their academic performance and in their ability to succeed. In this study, moderate-to-severe stress items were “My teachers are critical to my academic performance” and “Competition with my peers for grades is quite intense.” Also, the positively reported items were “Am confident that I will be a successful student, “Am confident that I will be a successful in my future career,” and “I can make academic decisions easily.”

Factor analysis

Several exploratory principal component analyses were conducted on the 18-item scale. Based on the Kaiser rule (eigenvalues > 1.0), the percentage of variance accounted for, and the cohesiveness of the factors (i.e. patterns of loadings), a four-factor solution appeared optimum. The four factors accounted for 43 percent of the variance in responses related to students’ experiences of academic-related stresses, and the varimax rotation converged in four iterations. Table 3 contains the factor loadings, the internal consistency reliability analysis, and the proportion of the observed variance for each factor.

Rotated component matrix * for the Perception of Academic Stress (PAS) scale.

Factor 1: pressures to perform.

Factor 2: perceptions of workload.

Factor 3: academic self-perceptions.

Factor 4: time restraints .

Factor 1: pressures to perform

This component consists of five items, has an internal consistency of 0.6, and explains 18 percent of the observed variance. It refers to the excessive stresses from the competitive peer pressures, parents’ expectations, and teachers’ critical comments on students’ performance.

Factor 2: perceptions of workload and examinations

This component consists of four items, has an internal consistency of 0.6, and explains 10 percent of the observed variance. The factor refers to stresses relating excessive workload, lengthy assignments, and worried about failing examinations.

Factor 3: self-perceptions

This component consists of five items having an internal consistency of 0.5 and explains 9 percent of the observed variance. It refers to academic self-confidence and confidence for success as a student, in future career and confidence in making the right academic decisions.

Factor 4: time restraints

This component consists of six items having an internal consistency of 0.6 and explains 8 percent of the observed variance. It refers to stresses as a result of limited time allocated to classes, inability to finish homework, the difficulty to catch up if behind, and the limited time to wind up or relax.

There were significant positive correlations ( p > 0.001) between factor scores and between the Pearson product moment correlations. A close inspection of Table 4 reveals the significant correlation between the three factors of the PAS. There were no significant differences between males and females, or across age groups, in the mean scores of the scale’s factors.

Pearson product moment correlations between PAS factors and subscale scores.

In this study, the perceptions of sources of stress among the psychology students were included in an 18-Likert-type item scale that had an overall internal consistency reliability of 0.7. There was 89 percent overall agreement among experts about the relevance of its contents to measure students’ sources of academic stress. Students’ experience of academic sources of stress was rated as mild to moderate, and most students reported confidence about their academic skills and confidence in their ability to succeed.

There were no differences between male and female students in their perceptions of academic stress, and factor analysis revealed four factors that explained 43 percent of the variance for this scale. The results from this study demonstrated that the scale’s items, related to academic stress clustered into four constructs (i.e. factors), which resulted in four components. The factors are theoretically meaningful and cohesive, as it was demonstrated by the significant correlations between their scores, supporting evidence for convergent validity. The four extracted factors—Factor 1, “ Pressures to perform,” Factor 2, “ Perceptions of workload,” Factor 3, “ Academic Self-Perception,” and Factor 4, “ Time restraints”—are in concordance with previous research, are theoretically meaningful, and cohesive within the framework of test anxiety.

In this study, Factor 1 “ Pressures to perform ,” which accounts for 18 percent of the variance, represents the experience of academic stress, related to teachers’ and parents’ high expectations and to peer pressures to perform and compete. In this study, however, students who completed the PAS reported mild level of stress for most items administered, despite the fact that the scale was administered around the time of taking a high stakes final examination, which is considered a major source of stress. In this study, moderate-to-severe stress sources were associated with teachers’ criticism of students’ academic performance and associated with the intense competition with peers. Results from this study support the fact that there were positively reported scores reflecting that students were significantly confident about the success in their academic performance and their future career and were confident in making academic decisions. These findings replicate the findings from other studies, which were conducted among medical and dental undergraduate students ( Morse and Dravo, 2007 ).

Evidence for content validity

The considerable effort to carefully develop a table of specifications with items for the present scale plus the systematic input from education experts enhanced the content and face validity of the scale. The follow-up by the experts further enhanced the content validity because of their high agreement on the relevance of the items.

Evidence for convergent validity

From the correlations between the four factors’ scores, there is evidence to support convergent validity for this scale. Convergent validity was demonstrated by the positive significant correlations between the three factors, especially by the significant positive correlation between the scores of Factor 1, “ Pressures to perform ,” and the scores of the other three factors.

Limitations of the study

The sample size was not large, and all patients were recruited from one class.

Notwithstanding the limitations of this study, a brief self-report scale to measure student’s perceptions of academic stress sources was developed. There is acceptable internal consistency reliability, and there is evidence for face, content, and convergent validity of this instrument. In future research, the scale should be administered to a larger, heterogeneous sample of students, and in different educational and cultural settings. Also, future research should examine the relationship between academic stresses and psychiatric disorders especially depression and anxiety disorders, which is lacking in the literature. Last but not least, prophylactic measures were suggested to manage stress among students, to include early identification of individuals who may be more prone to it, and implementation of stress management workshops can be effective. It is believed that implementing a positive student-centered environment is associated with full awareness of what is expected of them and can discuss perceived skills and weaknesses ( Burk and Bender, 2005 ). Others suggested improving the academic environment ( Neveu et al., 2012 ), problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies are the preferred choice to alleviate stress, the use of the student counseling services ( Iqbal et al., 2015 ), and curricular and policy changes aiming at assisting students in coping with identified stressors ( Harikiran et al., 2012 ).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to extend sincere thanks to all Tanta University faculties who participated in the validity assessments of this instrument. This research project was presented at the 66th Institute on Psychiatric Services (2014), San Francisco, California, USA.

Appendix 1.

The final version of the Perceptions of Academic Stress (PAS) scale.

Declaration of conflicting interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Career Guide 31 January 2020

Career resources for PhD students

The PhD is used to train most research scientists around the world and provides evidence of a gruelling period of independent study. But critics say many graduate student programmes have not adapted to accommodate changes in the workplace. Do PhDs need a rethink? This collection of articles and resources from across Nature Research looks at the PhD from a range of different perspectives.

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Open access
Published: 16 May 2024

Procrastination, depression and anxiety symptoms in university students: a three-wave longitudinal study on the mediating role of perceived stress

Anna Jochmann 1 ,
Burkhard Gusy 1 ,
Tino Lesener 1 &
Christine Wolter 1

BMC Psychology volume 12 , Article number: 276 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

563 Accesses

Metrics details

It is generally assumed that procrastination leads to negative consequences. However, evidence for negative consequences of procrastination is still limited and it is also unclear by which mechanisms they are mediated. Therefore, the aim of our study was to examine the harmful consequences of procrastination on students’ stress and mental health. We selected the procrastination-health model as our theoretical foundation and tried to evaluate the model’s assumption that trait procrastination leads to (chronic) disease via (chronic) stress in a temporal perspective. We chose depression and anxiety symptoms as indicators for (chronic) disease and hypothesized that procrastination leads to perceived stress over time, that perceived stress leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time, and that procrastination leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time, mediated by perceived stress.

To examine these relationships properly, we collected longitudinal data from 392 university students at three occasions over a one-year period and analyzed the data using autoregressive time-lagged panel models.

Procrastination did lead to depression and anxiety symptoms over time. However, perceived stress was not a mediator of this effect. Procrastination did not lead to perceived stress over time, nor did perceived stress lead to depression and anxiety symptoms over time.

Conclusions

We could not confirm that trait procrastination leads to (chronic) disease via (chronic) stress, as assumed in the procrastination-health model. Nonetheless, our study demonstrated that procrastination can have a detrimental effect on mental health. Further health outcomes and possible mediators should be explored in future studies.

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Introduction

“Due tomorrow? Do tomorrow.”, might be said by someone who has a tendency to postpone tasks until the last minute. But can we enjoy today knowing about the unfinished task and tomorrow’s deadline? Or do we feel guilty for postponing a task yet again? Do we get stressed out because we have little time left to complete it? Almost everyone has procrastinated at some point when it came to completing unpleasant tasks, such as mowing the lawn, doing the taxes, or preparing for exams. Some tend to procrastinate more frequently and in all areas of life, while others are less inclined to do so. Procrastination is common across a wide range of nationalities, as well as socioeconomic and educational backgrounds [ 1 ]. Over the last fifteen years, there has been a massive increase in research on procrastination [ 2 ]. Oftentimes, research focuses on better understanding the phenomenon of procrastination and finding out why someone procrastinates in order to be able to intervene. Similarly, the internet is filled with self-help guides that promise a way to overcome procrastination. But why do people seek help for their procrastination? Until now, not much research has been conducted on the negative consequences procrastination could have on health and well-being. Therefore, in the following article we examine the effect of procrastination on mental health over time and stress as a possible facilitator of this relationship on the basis of the procrastination-health model by Sirois et al. [ 3 ].

Procrastination and its negative consequences

Procrastination can be defined as the tendency to voluntarily and irrationally delay intended activities despite expecting negative consequences as a result of the delay [ 4 , 5 ]. It has been observed in a variety of groups across the lifespan, such as students, teachers, and workers [ 1 ]. For example, some students tend to regularly delay preparing for exams and writing essays until the last minute, even if this results in time pressure or lower grades. Procrastination must be distinguished from strategic delay [ 4 , 6 ]. Delaying a task is considered strategic when other tasks are more important or when more resources are needed before the task can be completed. While strategic delay is viewed as functional and adaptive, procrastination is classified as dysfunctional. Procrastination is predominantly viewed as the result of a self-regulatory failure [ 7 ]. It can be understood as a trait, that is, as a cross-situational and time-stable behavioral disposition [ 8 ]. Thus, it is assumed that procrastinators chronically delay tasks that they experience as unpleasant or difficult [ 9 ]. Approximately 20 to 30% of adults have been found to procrastinate chronically [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Prevalence estimates for students are similar [ 13 ]. It is believed that students do not procrastinate more often than other groups. However, it is easy to examine procrastination in students because working on study tasks requires a high degree of self-organization and time management [ 14 ].

It is generally assumed that procrastination leads to negative consequences [ 4 ]. Negative consequences are even part of the definition of procrastination. Research indicates that procrastination is linked to lower academic performance [ 15 ], health impairment (e.g., stress [ 16 ], physical symptoms [ 17 ], depression and anxiety symptoms [ 18 ]), and poor health-related behavior (e.g., heavier alcohol consumption [ 19 ]). However, most studies targeting consequences of procrastination are cross-sectional [ 4 ]. For that reason, it often remains unclear whether an examined outcome is a consequence or an antecedent of procrastination, or whether a reciprocal relationship between procrastination and the examined outcome can be assumed. Additionally, regarding negative consequences of procrastination on health, it is still largely unknown by which mechanisms they are mediated. Uncovering such mediators would be helpful in developing interventions that can prevent negative health consequences of procrastination.

The procrastination-health model

The first and only model that exclusively focuses on the effect of procrastination on health and the mediators of this effect is the procrastination-health model [ 3 , 9 , 17 ]. Sirois [ 9 ] postulates three pathways: An immediate effect of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease and two mediated pathways (see Fig. 1 ).

Adopted from the procrastination-health model by Sirois [ 9 ]

The immediate effect is not further explained. Research suggests that procrastination creates negative feelings, such as shame, guilt, regret, and anger [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. The described feelings could have a detrimental effect on mental health [ 23 , 24 , 25 ].

The first mediated pathway leads from trait procrastination to (chronic) disease via (chronic) stress. Sirois [ 9 ] assumes that procrastination creates stress because procrastinators are constantly aware of the fact that they still have many tasks to complete. Stress activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system, increases autonomic nervous system arousal, and weakens the immune system, which in turn contributes to the development of diseases. Sirois [ 9 ] distinguishes between short-term and long-term effects of procrastination on health mediated by stress. She believes that, in the short term, single incidents of procrastination cause acute stress, which leads to acute health problems, such as infections or headaches. In the long term, chronic procrastination, as you would expect with trait procrastination, causes chronic stress, which leads to chronic diseases over time. There is some evidence in support of the stress-related pathway, particularly regarding short-term effects [ 3 , 17 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. However, as we mentioned above, most of these studies are cross-sectional. Therefore, the causal direction of these effects remains unclear. To our knowledge, long-term effects of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease mediated by (chronic) stress have not yet been investigated.

The second mediated pathway leads from trait procrastination to (chronic) disease via poor health-related behavior. According to Sirois [ 9 ], procrastinators form lower intentions to carry out health-promoting behavior or to refrain from health-damaging behavior because they have a low self-efficacy of being able to care for their own health. In addition, they lack the far-sighted view that the effects of health-related behavior only become apparent in the long term. For the same reason, Sirois [ 9 ] believes that there are no short-term, but only long-term effects of procrastination on health mediated by poor health-related behavior. For example, an unhealthy diet leads to diabetes over time. The findings of studies examining the behavioral pathway are inconclusive [ 3 , 17 , 26 , 28 ]. Furthermore, since most of these studies are cross-sectional, they are not suitable for uncovering long-term effects of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease mediated by poor health-related behavior.

In summary, previous research on the two mediated pathways of the procrastination-health model mainly found support for the role of (chronic) stress in the relationship between trait procrastination and (chronic) disease. However, only short-term effects have been investigated so far. Moreover, longitudinal studies are needed to be able to assess the causal direction of the relationship between trait procrastination, (chronic) stress, and (chronic) disease. Consequently, our study is the first to examine long-term effects of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease mediated by (chronic) stress, using a longitudinal design. (Chronic) disease could be measured by a variety of different indicators (e.g., physical symptoms, diabetes, or coronary heart disease). We choose depression and anxiety symptoms as indicators for (chronic) disease because they signal mental health complaints before they manifest as (chronic) diseases. Additionally, depression and anxiety symptoms are two of the most common mental health complaints among students [ 29 , 30 ] and procrastination has been shown to be a significant predictor of depression and anxiety symptoms [ 18 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. Until now, the stress-related pathway of the procrastination-health model with depression and anxiety symptoms as the health outcome has only been analyzed in one cross-sectional study that confirmed the predictions of the model [ 35 ].

The aim of our study is to evaluate some of the key assumptions of the procrastination-health model, particularly the relationships between trait procrastination, (chronic) stress, and (chronic) disease over time, surveyed in the following analysis using depression and anxiety symptoms.

In line with the key assumptions of the procrastination-health model, we postulate (see Fig. 2 ):

Procrastination leads to perceived stress over time.

Perceived stress leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time.

Procrastination leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time, mediated by perceived stress.

The section of the procrastination-health model we examined

Materials and methods

Our study was part of a health monitoring at a large German university Footnote 1 . Ethical approval for our study was granted by the Ethics Committee of the university’s Department of Education and Psychology. We collected the initial data in 2019. Two occasions followed, each at an interval of six months. In January 2019, we sent out 33,267 invitations to student e-mail addresses. Before beginning the survey, students provided their written informed consent to participate in our study. 3,420 students took part at the first occasion (T1; 10% response rate). Of these, 862 participated at the second (T2) and 392 at the third occasion (T3). In order to test whether dropout was selective, we compared sociodemographic and study specific characteristics (age, gender, academic semester, number of assessments/exams) as well as behavior and health-related variables (procrastination, perceived stress, depression and anxiety symptoms) between the participants of the first wave ( n = 3,420) and those who participated three times ( n = 392). Results from independent-samples t-tests and chi-square analysis showed no significant differences regarding sociodemographic and study specific characteristics (see Additional file 1: Table S1 and S2 ). Regarding behavior and health-related variables, independent-samples t-tests revealed a significant difference in procrastination between the two groups ( t (3,409) = 2.08, p < .05). The mean score of procrastination was lower in the group that participated in all three waves.

The mean age of the longitudinal respondents was 24.1 years ( SD = 5.5 years), the youngest participants were 17 years old, the oldest one was 59 years old. The majority of participants was female (74.0%), 7 participants identified neither as male nor as female (1.8%). The respondents were on average enrolled in the third year of studying ( M = 3.9; SD = 2.3). On average, the students worked about 31.2 h ( SD = 14.1) per week for their studies, and an additional 8.5 h ( SD = 8.5) for their (part-time) jobs. The average income was €851 ( SD = 406), and 4.9% of the students had at least one child. The students were mostly enrolled in philosophy and humanities (16.5%), education and psychology (15.8%), biology, chemistry, and pharmacy (12.5%), political and social sciences (10.6%), veterinary medicine (8.9%), and mathematics and computer science (7.7%).

We only used established and well evaluated instruments for our analyses.

Procrastination

We adopted the short form of the Procrastination Questionnaire for Students (PFS-4) [ 36 ] to measure procrastination. The PFS-4 assesses procrastination at university as a largely stable behavioral disposition across situations, that is, as a trait. The questionnaire consists of four items (e.g., I put off starting tasks until the last moment.). Each item was rated on a 5-point scale ((almost) never = 1 to (almost) always = 5) for the last two weeks. All items were averaged, with higher scores indicating a greater tendency to procrastinate. The PFS-4 has been proven to be reliable and valid, showing very high correlations with other established trait procrastination scales, for example, with the German short form of the General Procrastination Scale [ 37 , 38 ]. We also proved the scale to be one-dimensional in a factor analysis, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.90.

Perceived stress

The Heidelberger Stress Index (HEI-STRESS) [ 39 ] is a three-item measure of current perceived stress due to studying as well as in life in general. For the first item, respondents enter a number between 0 (not stressed at all) and 100 (completely stressed) to indicate how stressed their studies have made them feel over the last four weeks. For the second and third item, respondents rate on a 5-point scale how often they feel “stressed and tense” and as how stressful they would describe their life at the moment. We transformed the second and third item to match the range of the first item before we averaged all items into a single score with higher values indicating greater perceived stress. We proved the scale to be one-dimensional and Cronbach’s alpha for our study was 0.86.

Depression and anxiety symptoms

We used the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) [ 40 ], a short form of the Patient Health Questionnaire [ 41 ] with four items, to measure depression and anxiety symptoms. The PHQ-4 contains two items from the Patient Health Questionnaire-2 (PHQ-2) [ 42 ] and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-2 (GAD-2) [ 43 ], respectively. It is a well-established screening scale designed to assess the core criteria of major depressive disorder (PHQ-2) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD-2) according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). However, it was shown that the GAD-2 is also appropriate for screening other anxiety disorders. According to Kroenke et al. [ 40 ], the PHQ-4 can be used to assess a person’s symptom burden and impairment. We asked the participants to rate how often they have been bothered over the last two weeks by problems, such as “Little interest or pleasure in doing things”. Response options were 0 = not at all, 1 = several days, 2 = more than half the days, and 3 = nearly every day. Calculated as the sum of the four items, the total scores range from 0 to 12 with higher scores indicating more frequent depression and anxiety symptoms. The total scores can be categorized as none-to-minimal (0–2), mild (3–5), moderate (6–8), and severe (9–12) depression and anxiety symptoms. The PHQ-4 was shown to be reliable and valid [ 40 , 44 , 45 ]. We also proved the scale to be one-dimensional in a factor analysis, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.86.

Data analysis

To test our hypotheses, we performed structural equation modelling (SEM) using R (Version 4.1.1) with the package lavaan. All items were standardized ( M = 0, SD = 1). Due to the non-normality of some study variables and a sufficiently large sample size of N near to 400 [ 46 ], we used robust maximum likelihood estimation (MLR) for all model estimations. As recommended by Hu and Bentler [ 47 ], we assessed the models’ goodness of fit by chi-square test statistic, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), and comparative fit index (CFI). A non-significant chi-square indicates good model fit. Since chi-square is sensitive to sample size, we also evaluated fit indices less sensitive to the number of observations. RMSEA and SRMR values of 0.05 or lower as well as TLI and CFI values of 0.97 or higher indicate good model fit. RMSEA values of 0.08 or lower, SRMR values of 0.10 or lower, as well as TLI and CFI values of 0.95 or higher indicate acceptable model fit [ 48 , 49 ]. First, we conducted confirmatory factor analysis for the first occasion, defining three factors that correspond to the measures of procrastination, perceived stress, and depression and anxiety symptoms. Next, we tested for measurements invariance over time and specified the measurement model, before testing our hypotheses.

Measurement invariance over time

To test for measurement invariance over time, we defined one latent variable for each of the three occasions, corresponding to the measures of procrastination, perceived stress, and depression and anxiety symptoms, respectively. As recommended by Geiser and colleagues [ 50 ], the links between indicators and factors (i.e., factor loadings and intercepts) should be equal over measurement occasions; therefore, we added indicator specific factors. A first and least stringent step of testing measurement invariance is configural invariance (M CI ). It was examined whether the included constructs (procrastination, perceived stress, depression and anxiety symptoms) have the same pattern of free and fixed loadings over time. This means that the assignment of the indicators to the three latent factors over time is supported by the underlying data. If configural invariance was supported, restrictions for the next step of testing measurement invariance (metric or weak invariance; M MI ) were added. This means that each item contributes to the latent construct to a similar degree over time. Metric invariance was tested by constraining the factor loadings of the constructs over time. The next step of testing measurement invariance (scalar or strong invariance; M SI ) consisted of checking whether mean differences in the latent construct capture all mean differences in the shared variance of the items. Scalar invariance was tested by constraining the item intercepts over time. The constraints applied in the metric invariance model were retained [ 51 ]. For the last step of testing measurement invariance (residual or strict invariance; M RI ), the residual variables were also set equal over time. If residual invariance is supported, differences in the observed variables can exclusively be attributed to differences in the variances of the latent variables.

We used the Satorra-Bentler chi-square difference test to evaluate the superiority of a more stringent model [ 52 ]. We assumed the model with the largest number of invariance restrictions – which still has an acceptable fit and no substantial deterioration of the chi-square value – to be the final model [ 53 ]. Following previous recommendations, we considered a decrease in CFI of 0.01 and an increase in RMSEA of 0.015 as unacceptable to establish measurement invariance [ 54 ]. If a more stringent model had a significant worse chi-square value, but the model fit was still acceptable and the deterioration in model fit fell within the change criteria recommended for CFI and RMSEA values, we still considered the more stringent model to be superior.

Hypotheses testing

As recommended by Dormann et al. [ 55 ], we applied autoregressive time-lagged panel models to test our hypotheses. In the first step, we specified a model (M 0 ) that only included the stabilities of the three variables (procrastination, perceived stress, depression and anxiety symptoms) over time. In the next step (M 1 ), we added the time-lagged effects from procrastination (T1) to perceived stress (T2) and from procrastination (T2) to perceived stress (T3) as well as from perceived stress (T1) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T2) and from perceived stress (T2) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T3). Additionally, we included a direct path from procrastination (T1) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T3). If this path becomes significant, we can assume a partial mediation [ 55 ]. Otherwise, we can assume a full mediation. We compared these nested models using the Satorra-Bentler chi-square difference test and the Akaike information criterion (AIC). The chi-square difference value should either be non-significant, indicating that the proposed model including our hypotheses (M 1 ) does not have a significant worse model fit than the model including only stabilities (M 0 ), or, if significant, it should be in the direction that M 1 fits the data better than M 0 . Regarding the AIC, M 1 should have a lower value than M 0 .

Table 1 displays the means, standard deviations, internal consistencies (Cronbach’s alpha), and stabilities (correlations) of all study variables. The alpha values of procrastination, perceived stress, and depression and anxiety symptoms are classified as good (> 0.80) [ 56 ]. The correlation matrix of the manifest variables used for the analyses can be found in the Additional file 1: Table S3 .

We observed the highest test-retest reliabilities for procrastination ( r ≥ .74). The test-retest reliabilities for depression and anxiety symptoms ( r ≥ .64) and for perceived stress ( r ≥ .54) were a bit lower (see Table 1 ). The pattern of correlations shows a medium to large but positive relationship between procrastination and depression and anxiety symptoms [ 57 , 58 ]. The association between procrastination and perceived stress was small, the one between perceived stress and depression and anxiety symptoms very large (see Table 1 ).

Confirmatory factor analysis showed an acceptable to good fit (x 2 (41) = 118.618, p < .001; SRMR = 0.042; RMSEA = 0.071; TLI = 0.95; CFI = 0.97). When testing for measurement invariance over time for each construct, the residual invariance models with indicator specific factors provided good fit to the data (M RI ; see Table 2 ), suggesting that differences in the observed variables can exclusively be attributed to differences of the latent variables. We then specified and tested the measurement model of the latent constructs prior to model testing based on the items of procrastination, perceived stress, and depression and anxiety symptoms. The measurement model fitted the data well (M M ; see Table 3 ). All items loaded solidly on their respective factors (0.791 ≤ β ≤ 0.987; p < .001).

To test our hypotheses, we analyzed the two models described in the methods section.

The fit of the stability model (M 0 ) was acceptable (see Table 3 ). Procrastination was stable over time, with stabilities above 0.82. The stabilities of perceived stress as well as depression and anxiety symptoms were somewhat lower, ranging from 0.559 (T1 -> T2) to 0.696 (T2 -> T3) for perceived stress and from 0.713 (T2 -> T3) to 0.770 (T1 -> T2) for depression and anxiety symptoms, respectively.

The autoregressive mediation model (M 1 ) fitted the data significantly better than M 0 . The direct path from procrastination (T1) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T3) was significant (β = 0.16; p < .001), however, none of the mediated paths (from procrastination (T1) to perceived stress (T2) and from perceived stress (T2) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T3)) proved to be substantial. Also, the time-lagged paths from perceived stress (T1) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T2) and from procrastination (T2) to perceived stress (T3) were not substantial either (see Fig. 3 ).

To examine whether the hypothesized effects would occur over a one-year period rather than a six-months period, we specified an additional model with paths from procrastination (T1) to perceived stress (T3) and from perceived stress (T1) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T3), also including the stabilities of the three constructs as in the stability model M 0 . The model showed an acceptable fit (χ 2 (486) = 831.281, p < .001; RMSEA = 0.048; SRMR = 0.091; TLI = 0.95; CFI = 0.95), but neither of the two paths were significant.

Therefore, our hypotheses, that procrastination leads to perceived stress over time (H1) and that perceived stress leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time (H2) must be rejected. We could only partially confirm our third hypothesis, that procrastination leads to depression and anxiety over time, mediated by perceived stress (H3), since procrastination did lead to depression and anxiety symptoms over time. However, this effect was not mediated by perceived stress.

Results of the estimated model including all hypotheses (M 1 ). Note Non-significant paths are dotted. T1 = time 1; T2 = time 2; T3 = time 3. *** p < .001

To sum up, we tried to examine the harmful consequences of procrastination on students’ stress and mental health. Hence, we selected the procrastination-health model by Sirois [ 9 ] as a theoretical foundation and tried to evaluate some of its key assumptions in a temporal perspective. The author assumes that trait procrastination leads to (chronic) disease via (chronic) stress. We chose depression and anxiety symptoms as indicators for (chronic) disease and postulated, in line with the key assumptions of the procrastination-health model, that procrastination leads to perceived stress over time (H1), that perceived stress leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time (H2), and that procrastination leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time, mediated by perceived stress (H3). To examine these relationships properly, we collected longitudinal data from students at three occasions over a one-year period and analyzed the data using autoregressive time-lagged panel models. Our first and second hypotheses had to be rejected: Procrastination did not lead to perceived stress over time, and perceived stress did not lead to depression and anxiety symptoms over time. However, procrastination did lead to depression and anxiety symptoms over time – which is in line with our third hypothesis – but perceived stress was not a mediator of this effect. Therefore, we could only partially confirm our third hypothesis.

Our results contradict previous studies on the stress-related pathway of the procrastination-health model, which consistently found support for the role of (chronic) stress in the relationship between trait procrastination and (chronic) disease. Since most of these studies were cross-sectional, though, the causal direction of these effects remained uncertain. There are two longitudinal studies that confirm the stress-related pathway of the procrastination-health model [ 27 , 28 ], but both studies examined short-term effects (≤ 3 months), whereas we focused on more long-term effects. Therefore, the divergent findings may indicate that there are short-term, but no long-term effects of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease mediated by (chronic) stress.

Our results especially raise the question whether trait procrastination leads to (chronic) stress in the long term. Looking at previous longitudinal studies on the effect of procrastination on stress, the following stands out: At shorter study periods of two weeks [ 27 ] and four weeks [ 28 ], the effect of procrastination on stress appears to be present. At longer study periods of seven weeks [ 59 ], three months [ 28 ], six months, and twelve months, as in our study, the effect of procrastination on stress does not appear to be present. There is one longitudinal study in which procrastination was a significant predictor of stress symptoms nine months later [ 34 ]. The results of this study should be interpreted with caution, though, because the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic fell within the study period, which could have contributed to increased stress symptoms [ 60 ]. Unfortunately, Johansson et al. [ 34 ] did not report whether average stress symptoms increased during their study. In one of the two studies conducted by Fincham and May [ 59 ], the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak also fell within their seven-week study period. However, they reported that in their study, average stress symptoms did not increase from baseline to follow-up. Taken together, the findings suggest that procrastination can cause acute stress in the short term, for example during times when many tasks need to be completed, such as at the end of a semester, but that procrastination does not lead to chronic stress over time. It seems possible that students are able to recover during the semester from the stress their procrastination caused at the end of the previous semester. Because of their procrastination, they may also have more time to engage in relaxing activities, which could further mitigate the effect of procrastination on stress. Our conclusions are supported by an early and well-known longitudinal study by Tice and Baumeister [ 61 ], which compared procrastinating and non-procrastinating students with regard to their health. They found that procrastinators experienced less stress than their non-procrastinating peers at the beginning of the semester, but more at the end of the semester. Additionally, our conclusions are in line with an interview study in which university students were asked about the consequences of their procrastination [ 62 ]. The students reported that, due to their procrastination, they experience high levels of stress during periods with heavy workloads (e.g., before deadlines or exams). However, the stress does not last, instead, it is relieved immediately after these periods.

Even though research indicates, in line with the assumptions of the procrastination-health model, that stress is a risk factor for physical and mental disorders [ 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 ], perceived stress did not have a significant effect on depression and anxiety symptoms in our study. The relationship between stress and mental health is complex, as people respond to stress in many different ways. While some develop stress-related mental disorders, others experience mild psychological symptoms or no symptoms at all [ 67 ]. This can be explained with the help of vulnerability-stress models. According to vulnerability-stress models, mental illnesses emerge from an interaction of vulnerabilities (e.g., genetic factors, difficult family backgrounds, or weak coping abilities) and stress (e.g., minor or major life events or daily hassles) [ 68 , 69 ]. The stress perceived by the students in our sample may not be sufficient enough on its own, without the presence of other risk factors, to cause depression and anxiety symptoms. However, since we did not assess individual vulnerability and stress factors in our study, these considerations are mere speculation.

In our study, procrastination led to depression and anxiety symptoms over time, which is consistent with the procrastination-health model as well as previous cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence [ 18 , 21 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. However, it is still unclear by which mechanisms this effect is mediated, as perceived stress did not prove to be a substantial mediator in our study. One possible mechanism would be that procrastination impairs affective well-being [ 70 ] and creates negative feelings, such as shame, guilt, regret, and anger [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 62 , 71 ], which in turn could lead to depression and anxiety symptoms [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. Other potential mediators of the relationship between procrastination and depression and anxiety symptoms emerge from the behavioral pathway of the procrastination-health model, suggesting that poor health-related behaviors mediate the effect of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease. Although evidence for this is still scarce, the results of one cross-sectional study, for example, indicate that poor sleep quality might mediate the effect of procrastination on depression and anxiety symptoms [ 35 ].

In summary, we found that procrastination leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time and that perceived stress is not a mediator of this effect. We could not show that procrastination leads to perceived stress over time, nor that perceived stress leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time. For the most part, the relationships between procrastination, perceived stress, and depression and anxiety symptoms did not match the relationships between trait procrastination, (chronic) stress, and (chronic) disease as assumed in the procrastination-health model. Explanations for this could be that procrastination might only lead to perceived stress in the short term, for example, during preparations for end-of-semester exams, and that perceived stress may not be sufficient enough on its own, without the presence of other risk factors, to cause depression and anxiety symptoms. In conclusion, we could not confirm long-term effects of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease mediated by (chronic) stress, as assumed for the stress-related pathway of the procrastination-health model.

Limitations and suggestions for future research

In our study, we tried to draw causal conclusions about the harmful consequences of procrastination on students’ stress and mental health. However, since procrastination is a trait that cannot be manipulated experimentally, we have conducted an observational rather than an experimental study, which makes causal inferences more difficult. Nonetheless, a major strength of our study is that we used a longitudinal design with three waves. This made it possible to draw conclusions about the causal direction of the effects, as in hardly any other study targeting consequences of procrastination on health before [ 4 , 28 , 55 ]. Therefore, we strongly recommend using a similar longitudinal design in future studies on the procrastination-health model or on consequences of procrastination on health in general.

We chose a time lag of six months between each of the three measurement occasions to examine long-term effects of procrastination on depression and anxiety symptoms mediated by perceived stress. However, more than six months may be necessary for the hypothesized effects to occur [ 72 ]. The fact that the temporal stabilities of the examined constructs were moderate or high (0.559 ≤ β ≤ 0.854) [ 73 , 74 ] also suggests that the time lags may have been too short. The larger the time lag, the lower the temporal stabilities, as shown for depression and anxiety symptoms, for example [ 75 ]. High temporal stabilities make it more difficult to detect an effect that actually exists [ 76 ]. Nonetheless, Dormann and Griffin [ 77 ] recommend using shorter time lags of less than one year, even with high stabilities, because of other influential factors, such as unmeasured third variables. Therefore, our time lags of six months seem appropriate.

It should be discussed, though, whether it is possible to detect long-term effects of the stress-related pathway of the procrastination-health model within a total study period of one year. Sirois [ 9 ] distinguishes between short-term and long-term effects of procrastination on health mediated by stress, but does not address how long it might take for long-term effects to occur or when effects can be considered long-term instead of short-term. The fact that an effect of procrastination on stress is evident at shorter study periods of four weeks or less but in most cases not at longer study periods of seven weeks or more, as we mentioned earlier, could indicate that short-term effects occur within the time frame of one to three months, considering the entire stress-related pathway. Hence, it seems appropriate to assume that we have examined rather long-term effects, given our study period of six and twelve months. Nevertheless, it would be beneficial to use varying study periods in future studies, in order to be able to determine when effects can be considered long-term.

Concerning long-term effects of the stress-related pathway, Sirois [ 9 ] assumes that chronic procrastination causes chronic stress, which leads to chronic diseases over time. The term “chronic stress” refers to prolonged stress episodes associated with permanent tension. The instrument we used captures perceived stress over the last four weeks. Even though the perceived stress of the students in our sample was relatively stable (0.559 ≤ β ≤ 0.696), we do not know how much fluctuation occurred between each of the three occasions. However, there is some evidence suggesting that perceived stress is strongly associated with chronic stress [ 78 ]. Thus, it seems acceptable that we used perceived stress as an indicator for chronic stress in our study. For future studies, we still suggest the use of an instrument that can more accurately reflect chronic stress, for example, the Trier Inventory for Chronic Stress (TICS) [ 79 ].

It is also possible that the occasions were inconveniently chosen, as they all took place in a critical academic period near the end of the semester, just before the examination period began. We chose a similar period in the semester for each occasion for the sake of comparability. However, it is possible that, during this preparation periods, stress levels peaked and procrastinators procrastinated less because they had to catch up after delaying their work. This could have introduced bias to the data. Therefore, in future studies, investigation periods should be chosen that are closer to the beginning or in the middle of a semester.

Furthermore, Sirois [ 9 ] did not really explain her understanding of “chronic disease”. However, it seems clear that physical illnesses, such as diabetes or cardiovascular diseases, are meant. Depression and anxiety symptoms, which we chose as indicators for chronic disease, represent mental health complaints that do not have to be at the level of a major depressive disorder or an anxiety disorder, in terms of their quantity, intensity, or duration [ 40 ]. But they can be viewed as precursors to a major depressive disorder or an anxiety disorder. Therefore, given our study period of one year, it seems appropriate to use depression and anxiety symptoms as indicators for chronic disease. At longer study periods, we would expect these mental health complaints to manifest as mental disorders. Moreover, the procrastination-health model was originally designed to be applied to physical diseases [ 3 ]. Perhaps, the model assumptions are more applicable to physical diseases than to mental disorders. By applying parts of the model to mental health complaints, we have taken an important step towards finding out whether the model is applicable to mental disorders as well. Future studies should examine additional long-term health outcomes, both physical and psychological. This would help to determine whether trait procrastination has varying effects on different diseases over time. Furthermore, we suggest including individual vulnerability and stress factors in future studies in order to be able to analyze the effect of (chronic) stress on (chronic) diseases in a more differentiated way.

Regarding our sample, 3,420 students took part at the first occasion, but only 392 participated three times, which results in a dropout rate of 88.5%. At the second and third occasion, invitation e-mails were only sent to participants who had indicated at the previous occasion that they would be willing to participate in a repeat survey and provided their e-mail address. This is probably one of the main reasons for our high dropout rate. Other reasons could be that the students did not receive any incentives for participating in our study and that some may have graduated between the occasions. Selective dropout analysis revealed that the mean score of procrastination was lower in the group that participated in all three waves ( n = 392) compared to the group that participated in the first wave ( n = 3,420). One reason for this could be that those who have a higher tendency to procrastinate were more likely to procrastinate on filling out our survey at the second and third occasion. The findings of our dropout analysis should be kept in mind when interpreting our results, as lower levels of procrastination may have eliminated an effect on perceived stress or on depression and anxiety symptoms. Additionally, across all age groups in population-representative samples, the student age group reports having the best subjective health [ 80 ]. Therefore, it is possible that they are more resilient to stress and experience less impairment of well-being than other age groups. Hence, we recommend that future studies focus on other age groups as well.

It is generally assumed that procrastination leads to lower academic performance, health impairment, and poor health-related behavior. However, evidence for negative consequences of procrastination is still limited and it is also unclear by which mechanisms they are mediated. In consequence, the aim of our study was to examine the effect of procrastination on mental health over time and stress as a possible facilitator of this relationship. We selected the procrastination-health model as a theoretical foundation and used the stress-related pathway of the model, assuming that trait procrastination leads to (chronic) disease via (chronic) stress. We chose depression and anxiety symptoms as indicators for (chronic) disease and collected longitudinal data from students at three occasions over a one-year period. This allowed us to draw conclusions about the causal direction of the effects, as in hardly any other study examining consequences of procrastination on (mental) health before. Our results indicate that procrastination leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time and that perceived stress is not a mediator of this effect. We could not show that procrastination leads to perceived stress over time, nor that perceived stress leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time. Explanations for this could be that procrastination might only lead to perceived stress in the short term, for example, during preparations for end-of-semester exams, and that perceived stress may not be sufficient on its own, that is, without the presence of other risk factors, to cause depression and anxiety symptoms. Overall, we could not confirm long-term effects of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease mediated by (chronic) stress, as assumed for the stress-related pathway of the procrastination-health model. Our study emphasizes the importance of identifying the consequences procrastination can have on health and well-being and determining by which mechanisms they are mediated. Only then will it be possible to develop interventions that can prevent negative health consequences of procrastination. Further health outcomes and possible mediators should be explored in future studies, using a similar longitudinal design.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

University Health Report at Freie Universität Berlin.

Abbreviations

Comparative fit index

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition

Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-2

Heidelberger Stress Index

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical

Robust maximum likelihood estimation

Short form of the Procrastination Questionnaire for Students

Patient Health Questionnaire-2

Patient Health Questionnaire-4

Root mean square error of approximation

Structural equation modeling

Standardized root mean square residual

Tucker-Lewis index

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Conceptualization: A.J., B.G., T.L.; methodology: B.G., A.J.; validation: B.G.; formal analysis: A.J., B.G.; investigation: C.W., T.L., B.G.; data curation: C.W., T.L., B.G.; writing–original draft preparation: A.J., B.G.; writing–review and editing: A.J., T.L., B.G., C.W.; visualization: A.J., B.G.; supervision: B.G., T.L.; project administration: C.W., T.L., B.G.; All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

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Jochmann, A., Gusy, B., Lesener, T. et al. Procrastination, depression and anxiety symptoms in university students: a three-wave longitudinal study on the mediating role of perceived stress. BMC Psychol 12 , 276 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01761-2

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COMMENTS

PhD Burnout: Managing Energy, Stress, Anxiety & Your Mental Health
It's things like this that can help you avoid excess stress in your final year. Take time off to recharge. All work and no play makes for an exhausted PhD student! Make the most of opportunities to get involved with extracurricular activities (often at a discount!). I wrote a whole post about making the most of opportunities during your PhD.
Dealing With PhD Stress The Right Way: Advice From 3 PhD Graduates
Advice From PhD Graduate #3. Now I am going to add to the advice listed above. Based on the emails/requests that I have received on how to deal with the stress during a PhD (especially during those final weeks), my short answer (as cliche as it sounds) is that you must take each day at a time, but by all means- DO WHATEVER WORKS FOR YOU.That is why you have 3 different people who have ...
The mental health of PhD researchers demands urgent attention
At that time, 29% of 5,700 respondents listed their mental health as an area of concern — and just under half of those had sought help for anxiety or depression caused by their PhD study. Things ...
Ten Simple Rules for Finishing Your PhD
Personal time management and stress resilience are competences that can be developed and honed during this final period of the PhD. ... As a final year PhD candidate, you are likely to have acquired high-level competencies comparable to those of a junior postdoctoral researcher, in which case your supervisor may offer you responsibility for new ...
'You have to suffer for your PhD': poor mental health among doctoral
More than 40% of PhD students met the criteria for moderate to severe depression or anxiety. In contrast, 32% of working professionals met these criteria for depression, and 26% for anxiety. The ...
How do you cope with PhD stress?
In these final months of my PhD I've had a wide and alarming variety of health issues, the latest of which is tonsillitis. It has been absolutely remarkable to see just how much of an impact stress can have on my body.
5 Ways to Combat PhD Stress
2. Take Care of Yourself. Once you understand why you're feeling overwhelmed, the next thing to consider is taking care of yourself physically. Stress from work, school, relationships etc., all contribute to poor health decisions such as skipping meals, engaging in unhealthy eating habits, drinking or smoking excessively, reducing sleep and ...
Advice to myself: Starting the final year of a PhD
Alicia Peel, EDIT Lab PhD student. 1. Never start from a blank page. Whether it's for an essay, an analysis plan, or a scientific paper, sitting down in front of a blank document is daunting. Something that has worked for me is to begin filling the document a day or two before I want to really get going on the writing.
New Year's resolutions of a final-year PhD student
New Year's resolutions of a final-year PhD student. Andrew Wood plans for a career-defining 12 months ahead, and what he needs to focus on. Credit: Getty. My PhD deadline is looming. By the last ...
Depression and anxiety 'the norm' for UK PhD students
In the same analysis, published in Scientific Reports in July 2021, 17% of more than 15,600 PhD students across 9 studies were estimated to have anxiety. Rates of anxiety and depression varied ...
Surviving the final year
Getting this done earlier in the year will greatly relieve your stress when writing the final discussion. So. To all of you who are in the final year of your PhD, or have a final year coming up: you are always moving forwards, even if it doesn't feel like it. You will soon leave the PhD-phase of your life. The bad days will happen, and they ...
Coping with PhD research stress
Coping with PhD research stress. September 2005: While queuing to sign the paperwork to register for the third year of my PhD, I was talking to a student from astronomy who mentioned seeing one of his fellow students struggling to get his thesis finished before the final deadline. It wasn't the usual case of being a bit stressed and tired in ...
Stress Management
As the spring quarter begins, we know that many of you will be experiencing anxiety over fulfilling requirements for your very first —or final — year in your grad program, planning your career trajectory beyond the UW, or managing your time to balance work, family, and graduate school. As the weeks go by, the work will seem to just pile up.
10 Ways to Deal with Final Year Stress
Budget your money from the get-go and identify your weekly allowance. I like to budget my finances in an Excel spreadsheet. Practice mindfulness. via GIPHY. Since stress is all to do with the mind, it's important to make sure you look after your mind. Ways to do this include yoga, art, exercise, reading and meditation.
7 Reasons Why Your PhD Is Causing Stress And Depression
2. Feeling hopeless, guilty, and worthless. Although at some point, many PhD students and postdocs will be made to feel like they are worthless, if this becomes a regular occurrence, it is time to take note. This may be combined with a feeling of guilt and worthlessness. It is important to remember your value as a PhD.
Any tips for the last year of PhD : r/PhD
Consistency is key. Better 4h a day than 8h one day and none the second. -Write first, edit later. -Do some exercise/extra activities. -eat healthy and try to get a consistent sleep schedule. -Prioritize thesis writing. The other manuscripts can be finished/polished after the thesis is submitted.
Ten Simple Rules for Finishing Your PhD
Personal time management and stress resilience are competences that can be developed and honed during this final period of the PhD. ... As a final year PhD candidate, you are likely to have acquired high-level competencies comparable to those of a junior postdoctoral researcher, in which case your supervisor may offer you responsibility for new ...
Final Year Uni Stress? Top Tips Reduce Academic Stress
Effective time management is fundamental during your final year. Develop a weekly schedule, allocating specific time slots for study, relaxation, exercise, and socialising. By having a structured timetable, you avoid cramming and last-minute stress, creating a balanced routine that fosters productivity without overwhelming you.
Final year of PhD : r/PhDStress
Final year of PhD . I am in the final year of my PhD and I have completely lost the interest in my own project. Also my motivation is at an all time low. I was very much busy with finishing my thesis the last weeks but I feel lazy and bad every day since I can no longer motivate myself to perform missing experiments. Have you experienced ...
Final year PhD. I think I'm being used by my advisor and can ...
Final year PhD. I think I'm being used by my advisor and can't resist the stress anymore. : r/PhD. Final year PhD. I think I'm being used by my advisor and can't resist the stress anymore. : r/PhD. r/PhD. r/PhD.
Examining perceptions of academic stress and its sources among
Stress among undergraduate and graduate students is multifactorial, arising from both academic and non-academic factors, including ... Nagesh K, et al. (2012) Perceived sources of stress amongst final year dental under graduate students in a dental teaching institution at Bangalore, India: A cross sectional study. Indian Journal of Dental ...
Career resources for PhD students
Stress and uncertainty drag down graduate students' satisfaction. ... New Year's resolutions of a final-year PhD student. Andrew Wood plans for a career-defining 12 months ahead, and what he ...
Final year
Final year - stress and mood swings. Final year - stress and mood swings. Back to threads Reply. T. Tulip 121 posts 10 years ago. ... The final year of the PhD is daunting for a variety of reasons. For some, it's the question of whether they'll make it in time/actually finish. For others like myself, it was the fear of the 'what now,' the ...
Procrastination, depression and anxiety symptoms in university students
To examine whether the hypothesized effects would occur over a one-year period rather than a six-months period, we specified an additional model with paths from procrastination (T1) to perceived stress (T3) and from perceived stress (T1) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T3), also including the stabilities of the three constructs as in the ...
Changes coming for 2025 PEBB benefits
The May 2024 edition of the For Your Benefit newsletter has been published and provides a heads up of what's to come for the 2025 Open Enrollment period and plan year. Although only a few changes for 2025 have been announced so far, we want to make sure you are aware of the following: The open
79-year-old graduates with a bachelor's degree
MONTGOMERY, Ala. (WSFA/Gray News) - A 79-year-old Alabama woman has been working for the past four years to graduate from college."I don't give myself any expiration dates on anything," said graduate Angerline Day. After retiring from her job at JCPenney, Day said she felt she had more life left to live and learn.
'Grown-ish' bids final farewell after a ground-breaking six seasons
LOS ANGELES -- After six iconic seasons, Freeform's hit television show, "Grown-ish", will air its final episode tonight. The Freeform network hosted an exclusive "Grown-ish" finale party at the ...

PhD Burnout: Managing Energy, Stress, Anxiety & Your Mental Health

What is PhD Burnout?

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Overcoming PhD Burnout

A side note on caffeine consumption: Do PhD students need caffeine to survive?

Maintaining energy throughout your whole PhD

Reduce Stress and Anxiety

Talk It Through

Top Tips for Avoiding PhD Burnout

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Ten Simple Rules for Finishing Your PhD

Introduction

Rule 1: Plan Your Last Year in Advance

Rule 2: Make Your Priorities Clear

Rule 3: “The Truth Can Wait”

Rule 4: Enlist Support

Rule 5: Get Familiar with the Software

Rule 6: Know Your University's Procedures and Regulations

Rule 7: Exploit Synergies

Rule 8: Pay Attention to Your Career