OR
: PICO is one option, there are other frameworks you can use too! |
Use the interactive PICO worksheet to get started with your question, or you can download the worksheet document.
Here are some different frameworks you may want to use:
opulation ( atient), ntervention, omparison ( ontrol) and utcome. Add a imeframe if required. Used particularly for treatment type questions. | |
A variation of PICO where = xposure and = imeframe if required. | |
Developed in the context of practice guideline adaptation. Includes = rofessionals/ atients, = utcome and = ealthcare Setting. | |
= etting (where), = erspective (for whom), = ntervention (what), = omparison (compared with what), = valuation (Booth 2006). | |
= ample, = henomenon of interest, = esign, = valuation, = esearch type. Useful for qualitative or mixed method studies (Cooke, Smith and Booth 2012). | |
= Expectations, = lient group, = ocation, = Impact, = rofession, = ervice (Wildridge & Bell 2002). | |
= Political, = Economic, = ocial, = echnological, = nvironmental, = egal (CIPD 2010). |
There are a number of PICO variations which can be used for different types of questions, such as qualitative, and background and foreground questions. Visit the Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) Guide to learn more:
The text within this Guide is licensed CC BY 4.0 . Image licenses can be found within the image attributions document on the last page of the Guide. Ask the Library for information about reuse rights for other content within this Guide.
What is a nursing research paper.
Writing a research paper is a massive task that involves careful organization, critical analysis, and a lot of time. Some nursing students are natural writers, while others struggle to select a nursing research topic, let alone write about it.
If you're a nursing student who dreads writing research papers, this article may help ease your anxiety. We'll cover everything you need to know about writing nursing school research papers and the top topics for nursing research.
Continue reading to make your paper-writing jitters a thing of the past.
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A nursing research paper is a work of academic writing composed by a nurse or nursing student. The paper may present information on a specific topic or answer a question.
During LPN/LVN and RN programs, most papers you write focus on learning to use research databases, evaluate appropriate resources, and format your writing with APA style. You'll then synthesize your research information to answer a question or analyze a topic.
BSN , MSN , Ph.D., and DNP programs also write nursing research papers. Students in these programs may also participate in conducting original research studies.
Writing papers during your academic program improves and develops many skills, including the ability to:
When do nursing students write research papers.
You may need to write a research paper for any of the nursing courses you take. Research papers help develop critical thinking and communication skills. They allow you to learn how to conduct research and critically review publications.
That said, not every class will require in-depth, 10-20-page papers. The more advanced your degree path, the more you can expect to write and conduct research. If you're in an associate or bachelor's program, you'll probably write a few papers each semester or term.
Most of the time, you won't be designing, conducting, and evaluating new research. Instead, your projects will focus on learning the research process and the scientific method. You'll achieve these objectives by evaluating existing nursing literature and sources and defending a thesis.
However, many nursing faculty members do conduct original research. So, you may get opportunities to participate in, and publish, research articles.
In your maternal child nursing class, the professor assigns the class a research paper regarding developmentally appropriate nursing interventions for the pediatric population. While that may sound specific, you have almost endless opportunities to narrow down the focus of your writing.
You could choose pain intervention measures in toddlers. Conversely, you can research the effects of prolonged hospitalization on adolescents' social-emotional development.
Your professor should provide a thorough guideline of the scope of the paper. In general, an undergraduate nursing research paper will consist of:
Introduction : A brief overview of the research question/thesis statement your paper will discuss. You can include why the topic is relevant.
Body : This section presents your research findings and allows you to synthesize the information and data you collected. You'll have a chance to articulate your evaluation and answer your research question. The length of this section depends on your assignment.
Conclusion : A brief review of the information and analysis you presented throughout the body of the paper. This section is a recap of your paper and another chance to reassert your thesis.
The best advice is to follow your instructor's rubric and guidelines. Remember to ask for help whenever needed, and avoid overcomplicating the assignment!
The sheer volume of prospective nursing research topics can become overwhelming for students. Additionally, you may get the misconception that all the 'good' research ideas are exhausted. However, a personal approach may help you narrow down a research topic and find a unique angle.
Writing your research paper about a topic you value or connect with makes the task easier. Additionally, you should consider the material's breadth. Topics with plenty of existing literature will make developing a research question and thesis smoother.
Finally, feel free to shift gears if necessary, especially if you're still early in the research process. If you start down one path and have trouble finding published information, ask your professor if you can choose another topic.
You have endless subject choices for nursing research papers. This non-exhaustive list just scratches the surface of some of the best nursing research topics.
The best nursing research advice we can provide is to follow your professor's rubric and instructions. However, here are a few study tips for nursing students to make paper writing less painful:
Avoid procrastination: Everyone says it, but few follow this advice. You can significantly lower your stress levels if you avoid procrastinating and start working on your project immediately.
Plan Ahead: Break down the writing process into smaller sections, especially if it seems overwhelming. Give yourself time for each step in the process.
Research: Use your resources and ask for help from the librarian or instructor. The rest should come together quickly once you find high-quality studies to analyze.
Outline: Create an outline to help you organize your thoughts. Then, you can plug in information throughout the research process.
Clear Language: Use plain language as much as possible to get your point across. Jargon is inevitable when writing academic nursing papers, but keep it to a minimum.
Cite Properly: Accurately cite all sources using the appropriate citation style. Nursing research papers will almost always implement APA style. Check out the resources below for some excellent reference management options.
Revise and Edit: Once you finish your first draft, put it away for one to two hours or, preferably, a whole day. Once you've placed some space between you and your paper, read through and edit for clarity, coherence, and grammatical errors. Reading your essay out loud is an excellent way to check for the 'flow' of the paper.
Purdue OWL (Online writing lab) has a robust APA guide covering everything you need about APA style and rules.
Grammarly helps you edit grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Upgrading to a paid plan will get you plagiarism detection, formatting, and engagement suggestions. This tool is excellent to help you simplify complicated sentences.
Mendeley is a free reference management software. It stores, organizes, and cites references. It has a Microsoft plug-in that inserts and correctly formats APA citations.
Don't let nursing research papers scare you away from starting nursing school or furthering your education. Their purpose is to develop skills you'll need to be an effective nurse: critical thinking, communication, and the ability to review published information critically.
Choose a great topic and follow your teacher's instructions; you'll finish that paper in no time.
Joleen Sams is a certified Family Nurse Practitioner based in the Kansas City metro area. During her 10-year RN career, Joleen worked in NICU, inpatient pediatrics, and regulatory compliance. Since graduating with her MSN-FNP in 2019, she has worked in urgent care and nursing administration. Connect with Joleen on LinkedIn or see more of her writing on her website.
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Exposed to the golden wind in awakening there is limitless life, liberation, and love in holy harmony, health, and happiness, writing a nursing research question – undergraduate nursing.
Most undergraduate BSN students take a Research and Evidence-Based Practice course. Students are often assigned a small research project or review paper. The assignment begins with writing either a research question, or a clinical question. Usually, the student is given a range of topics, but let’s assume the student is starting from scratch. A good research question is essential to good research and not only answering a question but filling the gaps. I suggest you start my thinking of a research paper as a “who done it” story. Who killed X. What is your method going to be for figuring out who the killer is. Then you apply methods to the facts. Next you identify the killer using for example fingerprints, interrogations, and ballistic testing of the bullet. After you have the evidence, your results, you discuss the results. Finally, discuss the effectiveness of the methods. You conclude by saying in the future you can use these methods to do X, Y, and Z.
Before you start thinking about writing a research question it is good to review the difference between independent and dependent variables.
You will also need an operational definition, so it is possible to measure and manipulate the variable. The operational definition is essentially your measure.
What is your research problem? It should be an area of concern where there is a gap in knowledge necessary for good nursing practice.
Even if a broad area is given, you still need to narrow the topic. Some ways to do that include:
The FINER criteria are one way to write a good question (Hulley et al., 2007).
Ratan et al. (2019) add to FINER in their research question guide. They suggested the purpose of your paper and should be feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, relevant, manageable, appropriate, have potential value and publishability, and be systematic (Read more: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6322175/ ).
Draft your research question based on what you hope to achieve. You can have primary and secondary research questions but remember that more questions generally mean more time and resources. McCombes (2019) suggest the table below as a way to consider drafting your research question.
Describing or exploring | What are the characteristics of X? How has X changed over time? What are the main factors in X? How does X experience Y? How has X dealt with Y? |
Explaining and testing | What is the relationship between X and Y? What is the role of X in Y? What is the impact of X on Y? How does X influence Y? What are the causes of X? |
Evaluating and acting | What are the advantages and disadvantages of X? How effective is X? How can X be achieved? What are the most effective strategies to improve X? How can X be used in Y? |
Many nurses use the PICOT framework to construct research questions. If you prefer the PICOT format then follow this format.
Focused, clear, feasible, specific, and researchable.
Criteria | Explanation |
Answerable within practical constraints | Be clear by providing enough specifics that the audience can understand the purpose of the research without needing more explanation. Ensure you have enough time and resources to do the research required to answer the question. If you think you might struggle to gain access to enough data or articles, consider revising the question to be more specific. |
Uses specific, well-defined concepts | The research question should flow from the research problem and all the terms you use in the research question should have precise meanings. Avoid vague language and broad ideas, and be clear about what, who, where, and when your question addresses. The question clearly states what you as the researcher/writer want to do. What effect does health education have on people’s ability to manage their own health? What effect does nurse-provided health education have on the ability of people over 60-year-old being able to manage their medications? |
Does not ask for a value judgment, conclusive solution, policy, or course of action | Ask open-ended how and why questions about your general topic or using value laden words (good, bad). Research informs. One way to consider the “so what” of your questions. Why does it matter to you and others? Even if your project focuses on a practical problem, it should aim to improve understanding and suggest possibilities rather than asking for a ready-made solution. What should healthcare do about bad vaccination rates? What are the most effective communication strategies for increasing vaccination rates among nurses under 30 years old? |
Criteria | Explanation |
The question should be complex, not simple | Closed yes/no questions are too simple — they don’t provide enough scope for investigation and discussion. As nurses you are taught how to ask open ended question with patients. Apply that same concept to your research question. Has there been an increase in medication errors in rural hospitals in the past ten years? How have nurse staffing and hours of work affected patterns of medication errors in rural hospitals in the U.S. over the past ten years? |
Cannot be answered with easily found facts and figures | It is probably not complex enough if you can answer the question through a Google search or through reading a single book or article. A good research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources, interpretations, and arguments to provide an answer. At a minimum search CINHAL and PubMed. |
Provides scope for debate and deliberation | The answer to the question should not just be a simple statement of fact: there needs to be space for you to discuss and interpret what you found. This is especially important in an essay or research paper, where the answer to your question often takes the form of an argumentative thesis statement. |
Hypothesize | Ask yourself why your argument matters and how others might challenge your argument? What is the “so what”? |
Criteria | Explanation |
Addresses a problem relevant to nursing | Develop the research question based on initial reading around your topic. The research question should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing nursing knowledge. |
Contributes to a topical social or academic debate relevant to nursing | The question should contribute to an existing debate — ideally one that is current in nursing or in society at large and has a link to nursing. It should produce knowledge that future nurse researchers or nurses can build on. |
Has not already been answered | An original idea is not required. In one semester it is not possible to do groundbreaking research. Still the question should have some aspect of originality (for example, by focusing on a specific location, a different population, or a different theoretical approach. |
Is the question clear | Be clear and focused. The research question needs to be specific enough for the time available for the work. For most undergraduate students, this is one semester. |
Burns, N. and Grove, S.K. (2001) The Practice of Nursing Research: Conduct, Critique, and Utilization, 5 th ed. Elsevier Saunders.
Hulley, S.B., Summings, S.R., Browner, W.S., Grady, D.G., Newman, T.B. (2007) Desiging Clinical Research. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Kerlinger, F.N. (1979) Behavioral Research: A Conceptual Approach. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
McCombes, S. (2021) Developing strong research questions. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-questions/
Polit, D. and Beck. C.T. (2022) Essential of Nursing Research: Appraising Evidence for Nursing Practice, 10 th Ed. Wolters Kluwer.
Ratan, S. K., Anand, T., & Ratan, J. (2019). Formulation of Research Question – Stepwise Approach. Journal of Indian Association of Pediatric Surgeons , 24 (1), 15–20. https://doi.org/10.4103/jiaps.JIAPS_76_18 .
‘Nursing Times wants to ensure that the voices of nurses and midwives are heard’
STEVE FORD, EDITOR
25 January, 2016
Successful clinical research depends on a properly constructed research question on a topic that is relevant for study. Discover the best process of developing one
Research is vital to improving nursing practice and patient outcomes, and therefore a key aspect of nursing degree programmes. All student nurses must show they can undertake an independent learning project before they can graduate and become registered nurses. This article outlines processes that can be followed to select a research area and narrow it down to generate a specific research question. Methodologies and models can then be used to compile a list of search terms that can be used to get the research underway.
Citation: Khodabux R (2015) Identifying and defining research questions. Nursing Times ; 112: 3/4, 16-19
Author: Raouf Khodabux is senior lecturer, module leader for Approaches to Health and Social Care Research, Middlesex University, London.
In 2011, pre-registration education in England became an all-degree programme (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2010), so student nurses in their final year must carry out an independent learning project. In addition, many qualified nurses are returning to university to do their dissertation and complete their degree (Aveyard, 2014). These projects vary in scope and nature, from literature reviews or extended essays to small research projects.
For many students, the dissertation is a “nightmare” they have to endure to gain a degree (Lundgren and Halvarsson, 2009). This module can be challenging for a number of reasons such as:
However, perhaps the biggest challenge is the fact that this is an independent module in which a lot depends on students’ motivation and willingness – they have to determine the focus and direction of their work. This is usually carried out on an individual basis, although some tutor support, supervision and direction is provided.
The module is also demanding because there is typically a substantial research component to the project requiring primary data to be collected and secondary or existing data to be analysed. Furthermore, students are expected to have a more prolonged engagement with the chosen subject than they do with standard coursework, such as essays or reports; the work is consequently required to be more in-depth than students are accustomed to (Todd et al, 2004).
Many students struggle to start their project because they simply do not know where to begin. The most critical question for many is “What should I study?” Deciding between a research project and a literature review depends on the type of degree course being undertaken. However, for most undergraduate nursing courses, students are required to carry out a literature review.
Pole and Lampard (2002) stated that curiosity is, or at least should be, the driving force behind the conduct of any research. Research questions are an attempt to “tame” curiosity, so they are not asked in a haphazard manner but in relation to what is already known about the topic of interest (White 2013). The process of framing, developing and refining these questions allows researchers to make connections with existing theories and previous empirical findings; this helps avoid unnecessary repetition of, or overlap with, previous work (White, 2009). In the final analysis, a researchable question is an uncertainty about a problem that can be challenged, examined and analysed to provide useful information (Ellis, 2013). A clearly defined research problem is the fuel that drives the scientific process, and is the foundation of any research method and experimental design, from true experiment to case study (Shuttleworth 2008).
Formulation of a research-focused question underpins any type of literature review, whether it is for a:
A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. It is an objective, thorough summary and critical analysis of the relevant available research and non-research literature on the topic being studied (Hart 2012).
Conducting a literature review can be a daunting and confusing prospect. Wakefield (2015) identifies seven steps in the process (Box 1), at the top of which is formulating a research question. Aveyard (2010) argued that in order to write a robust evaluative literature review, it is essential to start with a sound research question. Even in the context of the research process, Gelling (2015) identified the development of a research question as the first stage, while Offredy and Vickers (2010) said the first step in writing a research proposal is to choose a topic and then to develop research questions.
Ionesco (1969) stated that it is not the answer that enlightens, but the question. According to Graziano and Raulin (2004): “Questions are everywhere; all you have to do is observe and be curious”.
To carry out a literature review, it is necessary to:
It is well documented that student nurses tend to disengage with the research module (Ax and Kincade, 2001). Undergraduates find research boring, and may have difficulty understanding the language and experience cognitive shutdown (Porter et al, 2006); this may come back to haunt them in the final year when they attempt the literature review for their dissertation. Since the literature review is an integral part of the research process, it is crucial for students to engage with the research module.
Box 1. Conducting a literature review
There are seven steps to follow when conducting a literature review:
Source: Wakefield (2015)
The starting point for any research project begins with the choice of topic. This should be a subject the student finds interesting, stimulating and worthwhile, as this will make the process more enjoyable and, ultimately, more rewarding. While the initial topic selected may be broad, it must be narrowed down to a focused question (Playle, 2000).
The topic should already have been researched by others so it is possible to search for relevant literature to review. The most interesting topic in the world will not create a successful literature review if nothing has previously been written about it. Sometimes it is a good idea to come up with a few alternative ideas and carry out some preliminary research on each – that way, if there has only been limited exploration of the first choice, there is an alternative to fall back on.
Most research projects start with an idea that arises from clinical practice (Gelling, 2015). However, it is generally agreed that research topics narrowed into focused questions arise from three basic sources:
Sometimes studies raise far more questions than they answer so, when reading the literature on a particular topic, you may find new ideas are recommended for further investigation. For example, there may be observational studies that explain what is happening but not necessarily why. When reading the literature it is useful to bear in mind that:
Theoretical concepts that may be tested in practice are the second major source of research questions. Theories such as the promotion of continence and self-care as a framework for nursing or mentorship, and student nurses’ performance, can be tested in practice. An example of a theory is: “Promotion of continence will result in better quality of life for patients”. Like many other theories in nursing, this can be investigated inductively or deductively. A quantitative experimental design uses deductive reasoning to arrive at a testable hypothesis. According to Coates (2011), this approach focuses on replicability, objectivity, prediction and control; the distinguishing feature is a collection of numerical data that can be subjected to statistical analysis. Qualitative research designs use inductive reasoning to propose a research statement about how people interpret and structure their lives. This kind of research is used to explore, understand and interpret experiences, feelings and beliefs (Gelling, 2015).
Research ideas can also stem from experience in clinical areas where nurses observe practice that may be a source of concern or simply “interest”. The research question need not be about something that is “wrong” but something that could be done better or has not been thought about before. Student nurses are taught critical analysis to encourage them to ask:
These are important ways to explore more about nursing inductively as they stem from the real world of nursing.
From a clinical practice perspective, when a research question is carefully composed it aims to close the gaps between what is known and what needs to be known about nursing care, and resolve the discrepancy between the way things are and how they ought to be to result in better patient care. However, research does not always lead to definitive answers.
Deciding on the research question is challenging, but is one of the most critical aspects of the research process. A carefully constructed research question helps to guide the project to hit its scholarly target. Research is only as good as the question and plan on which it is based; this is relevant to healthcare research because new knowledge comes from having asked answerable questions (Haynes, 2006).
Beitz (2006) defined research questions as “an explicit query about a problem or issue that can be challenged, examined and analysed, and that will yield useful new information”.
The question is the fundamental core of a research project, study or literature review. It focuses the study, determines the methodology and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis and reporting. It also acts as an aide memoire, and helps keep the researcher focused on the specific area of enquiry, which is particularly helpful when searching the literature (Lahlafi, 2007).
Blaikie (2007) argued that the use of research questions in the design and conduct of research is often neglected. The key to defining a research question is focus. If it is too broad (for example, “Does regular exercise prevent heart disease in adult men?”), the search strategy will become unstructured and many important articles may be overlooked (Wakefield, 2015). The end product should be a specific query that is explicit in what it is looking for. However, Denney and Tewksbury (2013) have also argued against having a research question that is too narrow (for example, “Do daily 30-minute exercise sessions reduce the incidence of myocardial infarction in 40-60-year-old Asian men?”) as it can limit the search strategy. An appropriate question on the topic in the examples above might be, “Does daily exercise reduce the incidence of myocardial infarction in men over 40 years of age?”
The development of the research question is important as it sets the parameters of the research. It provides opportunities for a wide range of research methodologies as well as a structure and direction for the student. Hanson (2006) argued that there are three important phases of developing a study question destined for success:
Similarly, Lipowski (2008) proposed three steps in the formulation of a great research question:
There are three types of research question:
Table 1 (attached) indicates some broad research topics and specific research questions; students should be able to identify which type of question each one is. Research questions should be:
Having selected a broad topic, the next step is to narrow it down. There are several frameworks that can be used to structure a sound research question in a strategic manner (Bettany-Saltikov, 2010); two models are PICO and SPICE (Box 2). Offredy and Vickers (2010) mentioned four stages in the research question formulation process, illustrating the process of narrowing the topic by focusing on surgery.
In the fourth stage, when the focused topic area is converted into a research question, PICO or SPICE is used. According to Ellis (2013), PICO is useful when generating quantitative questions, whereas SPICE is most commonly applied to research aimed at exploring qualitative phenomena. However, not all components may be relevant when formulating a question.
Box 2. Framing models for research questions
P – Population I – Intervention C – Comparison O – Outcome
S – Setting P – Perspective I – Intervention C – Comparison E – Evaluation
Once the question has been composed, it is essential to generate several key search terms or words, from which synonyms are identified, that can be entered into one or more databases. These key terms are combined using Boolean Operators such as “OR”, “AND” and “NOT”.
Fig 1 (attached) indicates the process by which search terms have been generated from the research question using the PICO model. These terms are entered in the databases for a comprehensive literature search and a number of articles will be found. Wakefield (2014) suggests that establishing and adhering to inclusion and exclusion criteria will ensure the most appropriate literature is selected, which addresses the research question.
Clinical practice is the main arena from which nurses can seek ideas for research, but those ideas can stem from experience, theories and the literature. With the advent of the internet and the increasing volume of articles being published, students can spend a lot of time sifting through the resources. Developing a research question, therefore, is an important systematic activity that provides a “road map” for a successful literature search.
Tools such as PICO or SPICE can be used to structure a sound research question. Not only is valuable time saved but the most appropriate articles are selected for review. Formulating a focused question is a disciplined method to beginning a research project.
270116_identifying-and-defining-research-questions.pdf, table 1 research question types.pdf, fig 1 generating search terms from a research question.pdf.
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Sometimes the most difficult part of the research process is choosing a topic. Here are some tips for selecting a research question that you will enjoy learning about and will ultimately lead to a good grade.
The links below are great places to start in developing a research question. Browsing current events and hot topics can spark your interest and inspire a topic.
Below is a list of subjects that often relate to nursing issues . Considering these subject terms can help you develop a topic or focus your search .
P opulation/patients
I ntervention/indicator
C omparator/control
Try asking yourself these questions to help develop a research question:
Topic: Obesity
Who? teenagers
What? consumption of high fat foods
Where? school cafeterias
Question : How does the consumption of high fat foods in school cafeterias contribute to teenager obesity?
Topic: Smoke Exposure
Who? children exposed to smoke
What? developmental abilities
Question : How does smoke exposure alter the developmental abilities of children?
Below is worksheet which will help illustrate how a research question develops from a broad topic to a focused question. This could be a helpful resource for you during the process of creating your research question.
The PICOT question format is a consistent "formula" for developing answerable, researchable questions.
Note: Not every question will have an intervention (as in a meaning question) or time (when it is implied in another part of the question) component.
Template for Asking PICOT Questions
For an intervention/therapy:
In _______(P), what is the effect of _______(I) on ______(O) compared with _______(C) within ________ (T)?
For etiology:
Are ____ (P) who have _______ (I) at ___ (Increased/decreased) risk for/of_______ (O) compared with ______ (P) with/without ______ (C) over _____ (T)?
Diagnosis or diagnostic test:
Are (is) _________ (I) more accurate in diagnosing ________ (P) compared with ______ (C) for _______ (O)?
Prevention:
For ________ (P) does the use of ______ (I) reduce the future risk of ________ (O) compared with _________ (C)?
Prognosis/Predictions
Does __________ (I) influence ________ (O) in patients who have _______ (P) over ______ (T)?
How do ________ (P) diagnosed with _______ (I) perceive ______ (O) during _____ (T)?
Melnyk B., & Fineout-Overholt E. (2010). Evidence-based practice in nursing & healthcare. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
The PICO(T) Question
A clinical question that is composed using the PICO or PICOT format will help you to focus your search and help you to develop your research skills which are essential in finding the best available evidence.
The most common PICO(T) elements are:
P - Population
I - Intervention
C - Comparison (if applicable)
O - Outcome
(T) - Time (if applicable)
In order be successful in using Evidence Based Practice (EBP) you will need to learn how to develop well-composed clinical questions. By formatting your research question in a PICO(T) format you can gather evidence relevant to your patient's problem. Well-composed PICO(T) questions generally contain up to four components each represented in the acronym " PICO(T)" P=Patient or Population and Problem; I=Intervention or Indicator; C=Comparison or Control (not part of all questions); O=Outcome; T=Time or Type.
Two types of clinical questions, what is pico anyway, picott alternatives and additions, pico process in action, using pico to form the research question, tips and tricks.
To begin to develop and narrow a clinical research question it is advisable to craft an answerable question that begins and ends with a patient, population, or problem. These are the beginnings of not only developing an answerable EBP question, but also using the PICO process for developing well-built searchable and answerable clinical questions.
There are many elements to developing a good clinical question. Clinical questions can be further divided into two major areas: Background Questions and Foreground Questions .
Background Questions refer to general knowledge and facts. The majority of the information that can be used to inform answers to background questions are found in reference resources like Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Textbooks, Atlases, Almanacs, Government Publications & Statistical Information, and Indexes.
Foreground Questions are generally more precise and usually revolve around patient/s, populations, or a specific problem. Crafting an appropriate EBP question will not only inform your search strategy which you will apply to the medical literature but will also create a framework for how to maintain and develop your investigative process.
Patient, population, problem | |
Intervention, exposure, or prognosis factor | |
Comparison or comparator | |
Outcome |
Type of question | |
Timeframe |
What are some examples of P ?
What are some examples of I ?
What are some examples of C ?
What are some examples of O ?
Using the example from the bottom-center we can start forming a research question:
Is Chlorpropamide (intevention) more efficient than Metformin (comparator) in managing Diabetes Mellitus Type 2 (problem) for obese elderly patients (population)?
*Note: It is not necessary to use every element in PICO or to have both a problem and population in your question. PICO is a tool that helps researchers frame an answerable EBP question.
Synonyms can very helpful throughout your investigative and research process. Using synonyms with boolean operators can potentially expand your search. Databases with subject headings or controlled vocabularies like MeSH in PubMed often have a thesaurus that can match you with appropriate terms.
Elderly | Geriatrics, Aged |
Heart Attack | Myocardial Infarction |
Boolean operators allow you to manipulate your search.
Use AND to narrow your search
eg. elderly AND diabetes
Use OR to broaden your search
eg. myocardial infarction OR heart attack
Use NOT to exclude terms from your search
eg. children NOT infants
Developing a project.
The researchable question.
The first step in doing evidence-based practice research is forming a researchable question. Questions that are too broad or too narrow can make your research difficult, if not impossible.
PICOT is a mnemonic that helps you remember the key components of a well-focused question. It stands for:
Intervention/therapy
In _______(P), what is the effect of _______(I) on ______(O) compared with _______(C) within ________ (T)?
In the aged population, what is the effect of exercise programs on accidental falls, as compared with no exercise?
Are ____ (P) who have _______ (I) at ___ (Increased/decreased) risk for/of_______ (O) compared with ______ (P) with/without ______ (C) over _____ (T)?
Are adult smokers with a history of childhood asthma at increased risk of COPD compared to adult smokers with no history of asthma?
Diagnosis or diagnostic test
Are (is) _________ (I) more accurate in diagnosing ________ (P) compared with ______ (C) for _______ (O)?
Is the Hemoglobin A1C test more accurate in diagnosing diabetes as compared with fasting blood sugar levels?
For ________ (P) does the use of ______ (I) reduce the future risk of ________ (O) compared with _________ (C)?
For people with type 2 diabetes, does zinc supplementation reduce the future risk of foot ulcers compared with placebo?
Prognosis/Predictions
Does __________ (I) influence ________ (O) in patients who have _______ (P) over ______ (T)?
In adults with osteoarthritis, does low vitamin D levels in the bloodstream predict the rate of future hip fractures?
Meaning
How do ________ (P) diagnosed with _______ (I) perceive ______ (O) during _____ (T)?
How do cancer patients diagnosed with alopecia perceive their self-esteem during and after chemotherapy?
PICO(T) is commonly used to formulate research questions, sometimes referred to as ‘PI/ECO’ (Population/participants, Intervention/Exposure, Comparison, Outcome). The PI/ECO structure can be readily amended for different question types ( NHMRC Guidelines, 2019 ). A simple example might be:
Once you've developed your question, it's time to find keywords or search terms that you can use in the Library databases to find articles relevant to your question. Remember that each article does not necessarily need to address ALL the aspects of your question.
To learn more about selecting and combining appropriate search terms, please see our guides:
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Pico examples, asking different types of questions, pico resources & worksheet.
Evidence based practice requires that clinicians make use of the best research they can find to help them in decision-making. To find that research efficiently, the clinician must ask a well-designed clinical question with all the elements that will lead to finding relevant research literature.
The first step in doing this is to determine the type of question: background or foreground. The type of question helps to determine the resource to access to answer the question.
Background questions ask for general knowledge about a condition or thing.
The background question is usually asked because of the need for basic information. It is not normally asked because of a need to make a clinical decision about a specific patient.
Foreground questions ask for specific knowledge to inform clinical decisions or actions.
PICO is a mnemonic used to describe the four elements of a good clinical foreground question:
P = Population/Patient/Problem - How would I describe the problem or a group of patients similar to mine?
I = Intervention - What main intervention, prognostic factor or exposure am I considering?
C = Comparison - Is there an alternative to compare with the intervention?
O = Outcome - What do I hope to accomplish, measure, improve or affect?
Describe as accurately as possible the patient or group of patients of interest. |
What is the main intervention or therapy you wish to consider? |
Is there an alternative treatment to compare? |
What is the clinical outcome, including a time horizon if relevant? | |
In patients with acute bronchitis, | do antibiotics | none | reduce sputum production, cough or days off? | |
In children with cancer | what are the current treatments | in the management of fever and infection? | ||
Among family-members of patients undergoing diagnostic procedures | does standard care, | listening to tranquil music, or audio taped comedy routines | make a difference in the reduction of reported anxiety. |
Fill in the blanks with information from your clinical scenario: THERAPY In_______________, what is the effect of ________________on _______________ compared with _________________?
PREVENTION For ___________ does the use of _________________ reduce the future risk of ____________ compared with ______________? DIAGNOSIS OR DIAGNOSTIC TEST Are (Is) ________________ more accurate in diagnosing _______________ compared with ____________? PROGNOSIS Does ____________ influence ______________ in patients who have _____________? ETIOLOGY Are ______________ who have _______________ at ______________ risk for/of ____________ compared with _____________ with/without______________? MEANING How do _______________ diagnosed with _______________ perceive __________________? Melnyk, B. M., & Fineout-Overholt, E. (2011). Evidence-based practice in nursing & healthcare: A guide to best practice . Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
These questions are general in nature and provide foundational information on a single concept. Background questions cover:
What is the pathology of asthma ?
What drugs are used to treat hypertension ?
How do I perform a psychological assessment ?
What education resources exist for patients with gestational diabetes ?
How is hepatitis b diagnosed?
What does a normal heartbeat sound like?
These questions are best answered using the resources found in the Background Info page of this guide.
These questions bring together multiple concepts related to a specific clinical situation or research topic. They may be divided into two broad categories:
These questions are best answered using the resources found in the 6S/Foreground Info page of this guide.
Building an effective foreground question can be challenging. The following models will help:
Qualitative Questions: The PS Model
P - Patient/Population
S - Situation
How do/does ___ [P] ____ experience _____ [S] _____?
What is the experience of ____ [P] ___ [S] ____?
Ex. How do caregiver- spouses of Alzheimer patients experience placing their spouse in a nursing home ?
___________________________________________________________________________
Quantitative Questions: The PICO(T) Model
A quantitative approach can answer many different types of questions, but all can be formatted by following the PICO(T) Model outlined below:
In ___ [ P ]___, do/does ___[ I ]___ result in ___[ O ]____ when compared with ___[ C ]___ over ___[ T ]____?
E.g.) In nursing home residents with osteoporosis , do hip protectors result in fewer injuries from slips, trips, and falls when compared with standard osteoporosis drug therapy over the course of their stay ?
Are ___[ P ]___ with ___[ I ]___ over ____[ T ]____ more likely to ___[ O ]____ when compared with ___[ C ]___ ?
E.g.) Are female non-smokers with daily exposure to second-hand smoke over a period of ten years or greater more likely to develop breast cancer when compared with female non-smokers without daily exposure to second-hand smoke ?
Is/are ___[ I ]___ performed on ___[ P ]___ more effective than ___[ C ]___ over ___[ T ]____in ___[ O ]____?
E.g.) Are self-reporting interviews and parent reports performed on children aged 5-10 more effective than parent reports alone over a four-week consultation process in diagnosing depression ?
In ___[ P ]___, do/does ___[ I ]___ result in ___[ O ]____ when compared with ___[ C ]___ over ___[ T ]____?
E.g.) In emergency room visitors , do hand sanitizing stations result in fewer in-hospital infections when compared with no hand sanitizing stations over a year-long pilot period ?
Do/does ___[ I ]___ performed on ___[ P ]___ lead to ___[ O ]___ over ___[ T ]____compared with ___[ C ]____?
E.g.) Do regular text message reminders performed on patients recently diagnosed with diabetes lead to a lower occurrence of forgotten insulin doses over the first six months of treatment compared with no reminders ?
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John j. riva.
† Department of Family Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario.
¶ Graduate Student, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario.
‡ Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College, Toronto, Ontario.
£ Senior Policy Analyst, Ontario Chiropractic Association, Toronto, Ontario.
§ Institute for Work & Health, Toronto, Ontario.
* Department of Clinical Epidemiology & Biostatistics, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario.
Clinicians often witness impressive treatment results in practice and may wish to pursue research to formally explore their anecdotal experiences. The potential to further new knowledge both within the profession and to the greater healthcare system is compelling. An obvious next step for a practitioner considering research is to connect with experienced researchers to convey their idea for a study, who may in turn ask, “What is your research question?” With limited understanding of how to respond, this interaction may result in the first and last experience these clinicians will have with the research community.
It has been estimated that between 1% and 7% of the chiropractic profession in Canada is engaged in research. 1 , 2 Arguably, this low engagement could be the result of practitioners’ perceived importance of research and levels of research literacy and capacity. However, increasing demands for evidence-based approaches across the health system puts pressure on all clinicians to base their decisions on the best available scientific evidence. Lack of clinician representation in research has the probable effect of limiting growth and new developments for the profession. Furthermore, lack of clinician involvement in research complicates the transfer of study findings into practical settings.
The Canadian Institutes of Health Research describes integrated knowledge translation as a process that involves collaboration between researchers and knowledge users at all stages of a research project. 3 This necessitates involvement of clinicians to help in forming a research question, interpreting the results, and moving research findings into practice. This shared effort between clinicians and researchers increases the likelihood that research initiatives will be relevant to practice. 3 Conversely, it has been reported that there is a growing communication gap between clinicians and academics in chiropractic. 4 Clinicians have important practice-related questions to ask, but many may lack the ability to map out their research strategy, specifically in communicating their question in a manner required to develop a research protocol.
David L. Sackett, Officer of the Order of Canada and the founding Chair of Canada’s first Department of Clinical Epidemiology & Biostatistics at McMaster University, highlights the importance of mapping one’s research strategy in exploration of the research question: “one-third of a trial’s time between the germ of your idea and its publication in the New England Journal of Medicine should be spent fighting about the research question.” (personal communication, November 30, 2011) We describe a randomized controlled trial (RCT) example to highlight how clinicians may use existing literature and the PICOT format to formulate a research question on treatment efficacy.
The PICOT format is a helpful approach for summarizing research questions that explore the effect of therapy: 5
Dosage effects of spinal manipulative therapy for chronic neck pain.
Neck pain is second in frequency only to low back pain among musculoskeletal complaints reported in the general population and among those presenting to manual therapy providers. 8 , 9 Chronic neck pain (i.e. neck pain lasting longer than 90 days) is a common reason for presenting to a chiropractor’s office, and such patients often receive spinal manipulation or mobilization. 10 Recent systematic reviews of RCTs and prior observational studies have shown increases in cervical range of motion, 11 , 12 and decreases in self-rated neck pain 13 , 14 following cervical spine manipulation. In 2010, the Cochrane systematic review concluded, “Optimal technique and dose need to be determined.” 14
Despite evidence of benefit, there is a limited understanding of the optimal dose for neck manipulation; as such, frequency and duration of this treatment varies greatly between clinicians. Although patient characteristics and clinicians’ beliefs likely account for some of this variation, it seems likely that many cases of mechanical neck pain will require a minimal number of spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) treatments to derive benefit and that no further benefit will result after a certain upper threshold is reached. To properly examine the dose effects of manipulation for neck pain, it is necessary to consider three treatment factors:
A factorial design RCT allows investigators to consider more than one treatment factor at a time and examine possible interactions between them. This trial design allows for determination of, not only, the effects of frequency and duration, but also whether it is more effective to provide a certain number of manipulations over shorter or longer durations (i.e. an interaction between the two factors). Considering a 3x4 factorial design, patients would attend 1, 2, or 3 sessions per week (i.e. the first ’factor’ of frequency) with manipulation provided over a duration of 2 weeks, 4 weeks, 6 weeks, or not at all (i.e. the second ‘factor’ of duration). To improve generalizability of findings, neck manipulation could be performed using standard rotary or lateral break diversified technique, which is the most common manually applied neck manipulation in chiropractic practice. Pain relief is a common concern among patients presenting with neck pain and detection of a resulting difference of 13 mm on the 100mm Visual Analog Scale (VAS) line is considered a clinically important change in intensity for patients with chronic pain. 15
Research Question: In adults with chronic neck pain, what is the minimum dose of manipulation necessary to produce a clinically important improvement in neck pain compared to supervised exercise at 6 weeks?
Frequency and Duration of SMT
0 | 0 | 0 | |
2 | 4 | 6 | |
4 | 8 | 12 | |
6 | 12 | 18 |
Clinician input, assuming expertise in the ‘gold standard’ standard rotary or lateral break diversified technique and an ability to teach it, would be helpful during the planning of patient recruitment. Specifically, in leading training initiatives to calibrate each treating chiropractor to deliver his/her manipulation in a similar way (i.e. load, force, angle) and to assist in normalizing communication with study subjects. This standardization, through structured training sessions for those rendering treatment, will help ensure no additional interventions were inadvertently applied (i.e. education, extra advice).
The PICOT format example described above represents a factorial RCT methodology that has been informed by the existing literature. While a well-conducted RCT is appropriate for answering many questions on treatment efficacy, they are typically costly, time-consuming and challenging to conduct. Not all research questions that clinicians wish answered are feasible using this research methodology and the use of a PICOT format is also applicable to other study designs.
The clinical research question being asked ideally determines the best research design for a study. A prospective or retrospective cohort design may be an easier methodology to administer in comparison to a RCT; but study results can by affected by confounding due to the comparison of non-randomized groups. Another methodology, used to look for associations between respondent characteristics and outcomes of interest, is a cross-sectional survey. This methodology is faster and less expensive to do in comparison to a RCT since it considers one time-point of individuals in various spectrums of the variables of interest. However, this design can also can be prone to recall problems by respondents who self-report information if investigators ask about events in the past. A case-control study is most appropriate when attempting to identify associations between patient characteristics and outcomes that take a long time to occur or are very rare. For example, the study by Cassidy et al. (2008) looking at risk of vertibrobasilar artery stroke following chiropractic care, whilst more complex in the design approach, used aspects of a case-control methodology. 16
While these study designs are common in clinical research today, they are not exhaustive of all designs available. Systematic reviews will be familiar to most as a study design aimed at summarizing bodies of studies; but other less familiar individual patient focus designs, such as N-of-1 RCT, 17 also exist which are amenable to the PICOT format depending on the research question that is being posed.
Many considerations need to be contemplated in the PICOT formulation: How detailed should the literature search be in breadth and quality level? What study design best fits the research question? Should the patient population include very similar types of patients or will there be more of a real-world wide variety of participants? Will the intervention be very specific and rendered by a clinical expert or will there be a combination of tailored interventions rendered by a non-clinician with a more general skill set? Will the comparison be against usual care (i.e. ‘gold standard’) or a sham placebo procedure? Will the outcomes measured be from validated instruments on a form or more from direct patient verbal communication and will these results be presented in a way most important to clinicians, patients or policy-makers? And if so, what amount of difference and how many patients would be required to both statistically and clinically conclude the intervention was effective? Will measurement of outcomes occur at multiple times or once at 5 days, 6 months or 10 years?
While these considerations are clearly complex and not inclusive of the entire process, to develop a strong research question framed in the PICOT format, it is an important basis to understand both the clinical area of investigation and the current literature that exists. As highlighted by the example above, it is necessary to review the type and quality of research that has already been performed in the area of interest to guide development of a question. When initially synthesizing the literature, some key entry questions to examine include:
In our example design, the literature search identified existing knowledge in the respective area. A recent high-quality Cochrane review reported on previously completed RCTs in the area, strengths and weaknesses of these studies and offered direction as to gaps in current understanding that would benefit from further research exploration. 14 As research is a time consuming and often costly endeavour, building on the best available existing knowledge rather than “re-inventing the wheel” is favourable.
Only after a thorough literature synthesis and investigation into these answers should a research question be formulated – in some instances a systematic review methodology may actually align best with the PICOT framework for your research question. Turning an idea into a good research question requires it to be feasible, interesting, novel, ethical and relevant. 18 This feasibility refers to, not only, resources (time and money), but also to whether there is agreement on the meaning of the research question and to whether everything that needs to be measured can be measured by the study design. The question should be of interest to many in the clinical area to drive both team momentum for the project and dissemination of the results. Generating new knowledge in large existing gaps of healthcare provides the opportunity to help large volumes of patients who previously may have had poorer clinical outcomes. Practically, ethical considerations have to be accounted for in related study designs to ensure subjects are not harmed by the study. Finally, reflection is required on how well the study design will apply to the real world.
A strong research question should always pass the ‘so what?’ test. Who will the research help? What is the benefit? There should be a definitive and strong rationale for the purpose of the research. A well-thought-out focused research question leads directly into hypotheses; the predictions about the nature and direction of the relationship between the variables under study. Hence, the question acts as the foundation of the study.
The importance of moving from studies to empirically supported treatments to evidence-based practices may very well rest on whether or not a clinician views the research as relevant to their daily practice. It is common for clinicians to express frustration that researchers are not asking questions that are of most relevance to practice. Similarly, researchers often find that clinicians have difficulty distilling the important concepts they would like investigated in a way that can be feasibly researched.
To support both clinical and academic interests, an important clinical research question should therefore be one that is developed in conjunction with a diverse team. This expertise should align with the best research methodology available and propose a project feasible to complete through study that will adequately answer the research question asked. In Canada, the Canadian Chiropractic Research Foundation has reported that there are currently 12 university-based research chairs, 15 PhD candidates and 14 Masters students. 19 An opportunity exists to engage these researchers, as well as those from chiropractic schools, in helping to formulate important clinical research questions.
Clinicians interested in research pursuits, related to patient care, should consider the use of a literature search and the PICOT format when engaging clinical researchers. This approach will provide clinicians and researchers an initial basis for mutual understanding, communication and direction to help answer clinical study questions of most relevance.
Funding: No funds were received for the preparation of this manuscript. Dr. Busse is funded by a New Investigator Award from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and Canadian Chiropractic Research Foundation. Dr. Riva is funded by an award from the NCMIC Foundation. Drs. Burnie, Busse, Malik and Riva are members of the McMaster Chiropractic Working Group, which receives in-kind support from the Canadian Chiropractic Association.
Competing Interests: None.
As a nursing student, you will spend much time researching, reading, and writing papers. Many students find the entire process of writing research papers challenging.
Imagine on top of spending many hours in clinical practice shifts only to find yourself sparing more time researching and writing, not to mention the overwhelming information condensed in a few hours of in-class lecture sessions. Working shifts and studying while having family duties and obligations worsens it, and when done in a rush, you end up with subpar papers and average grades.
Even though many student nurses find writing research papers tricky and daunting, you can write a perfect paper that ticks all the checkboxes your professor uses to mark them and be sure to get an A+ grade on your nursing paper.
Our expert nursing research writers, who have written thousands of BSN, MSN, DNP, and Ph.D. papers, have compiled this comprehensive guide to help you write a strong nursing research paper that leaves a lasting impression on your professor.
Having marked many papers and supervised many theses, capstone projects, and dissertations, you can trust that the information herein is valuable and timely in your pursuit of nursing career success.
A nursing research paper is a scholarly and thesis-driven paper that a nursing student (at ADN, BSN, MSN, DNP, or Ph.D. level) writes to comprehensively explore a specific nursing research topic either of their choice or one that the professor assigns.
To write a perfect research paper, the student has to provide concrete, reliable, and trustworthy evidence. In most cases, even professionals such as RNs undertaking clinical practice, nursing education training, clinical studies and evaluations, and nursing research can also write research papers published in journals or conferences to advance and disseminate nursing knowledge. The typical length of most nursing papers ranges from 5 pages to 20 pages, depending mainly on the complexity of the subject, the word count limits, and the requirements. Nurses and nursing students write research papers to share their insights as they learn more about nursing processes and practices. Nursing research papers are used to: document research, organize information, advance nursing scholarship, and improve the writing skills of nurses. Students in the USA, Australia, Japan, and Canada write their research papers in the American Psychological Association (APA) format, while those in Australia and the UK write them in Harvard formats. The research papers fall under three main categories:
A simple nursing research paper, especially an expository or informative type, can have 5 paragraphs, like a typical essay. However, longer research papers have additional sections.
Here is a breakdown of how a well-formatted and scientific nursing research paper should look like.
If you are writing a non-scientific nursing research paper, you will only have three sections as follows:
An excellent nursing research paper follows this structure as long as it is not research-based. The three-part approach is super recommended if you did not conduct any study. In most cases, when assigned to write those 5-12 pages of nursing school research papers, you will be using this format.
So, what are the steps for writing a good nursing research paper? Let’s find out in the next section.
Writing assignments are an essential training aspect for nursing students. No wonder professors will stress that you write essays, discussion posts, responses, or proposals well. They are doing so to prepare you for research roles somewhere in your nursing career.
According to our most successful research paper writers, writing a top-grade research paper involves decoding the instructions, selecting a good topic, planning, researching, writing, and polishing the paper.
Here is a breakdown of each step for clarity and deeper understanding.
You can only perfect what you know! Therefore, you can begin the research writing process by reading, analyzing, and understanding the instructions. It is an essential pre-writing stage process where you carefully read the instructions.
Although it sounds obvious, most nursing students who write off-topic and subpar research papers jump into writing without reading to understand the instructions.
You need to skim through the instructions on the first attempt, then read keenly and critically as you take note of the scope of the assignment, the topic, and other things you must fulfill in the paper. Take note of the:
If you need further clarification, ensure that you ask your peers, professor, or a professional writer in time.
Compared to average students, top nursing students always remember to select a research topic they are comfortable handling. When you are confident with a topic, you can develop it without procrastinating.
Sometimes you are given a list of nursing research paper topics, issues, and ideas to consider. Other times, you come up with the topic and consult your professor/educator for approval.
Choose topics related to patient safety, nursing processes, nurse staffing, nursing policies, nurse privileges, nursing legislations, nursing ethics, mental health, health promotion, chronic disease management, healthcare systems, health informatics, changes in healthcare, and working conditions.
Choose any nursing topic that resonates with your specialization interests. It should be manageable, relevant, and explorable.
Related Readings:
Create a thesis statement for your research paper if it is thesis-driven rather than study-based or scientific (experimental). After writing the thesis, like any of our nursing assignment slayers, write a good outline using Roman numbers and numbers.
List the ideas you wish to have in your paper in chronological order, starting with the introduction, body, and concluding paragraphs. As you outline, do some preliminary research so that you develop arguments the right way.
Include the in-text citations in your nursing research paper outline to simplify the writing process.
Doing in-depth research as you refine the draft would be appropriate because you know what you want the paper to look like. Use scholarly nursing databases for research and limit yourself to topic-related scholarly articles published within the last 5 years.
You can read the abstracts of the articles to determine if they are fit to use in your paper. If you find the best articles, list them using online citation management tools such as RefWorks, Zotero, EndNote, Citefast, or any of your choice.
Ensure to list them in the most appropriate formatting styles. Take notes and list the points and ideas in your outline. Do your research meticulously and ensure that you organize the process to avoid any confusion.
With the research, synthesis, and outline, you are now left with the chance to put rubber on the road. Use the Pomodoro technique, where you spend stretches of 25 minutes of focused work and have minor 5-minute breaks.
Ensure you cover as much ground in your research paper as possible before three-quarters of the deadline. When writing the paper, and considering that you have the outline, you can start chronologically from the introduction to the appendices.
Most research paper writing pros prefer working on the body section and conclusion before writing the introduction and finalizing the abstract. Whatever works best for you, adopt it. When writing the first draft, focus on piecing together the information rather than perfection.
Ensure you research lightly as you write and assert your voice while giving the right in-text citations for every idea you paraphrase from a source to avoid plagiarism. Each body paragraph should only have one idea.
The final step towards completing your nursing research paper is ensuring everything is in its rightful place. A polished research paper scores 90% and above, which is an A. Begin by reading the paper aloud to identify areas that do not make sense.
If there is a need, do not hesitate to rewrite an entire section so that you have the right flow of information.
Check the grammatical, spelling, and syntax errors and make necessary corrections. You should also check the tenses used in the paper. If you feel like polishing the essay is too much work, you are better off hiring a nursing paper proofreader/editor.
When you receive feedback from your educator or professor, address the changes and resend the paper for grading.
Related Reading: How to write an evidence-based nursing paper.
Nursing schools and educators have their standards and guidelines for writing a research paper. Therefore, ensure that before everything else, you familiarize yourself and adhere to these instructions, which include word count and citation styles.
Do not assume anything when writing a paper. You should also access and understand suggestions from your school’s writing lab. Apart from these essential tips, also ensure that you follow the insights we give below:
When writing a research paper, adhere to the writing conventions. You should also read well and understand how to communicate through academic writing effectively. Your paper should document evidence that supports your arguments and topic.
Write concisely, coherently, and accurately. It is not all in vain; you are training for your future role as a nurse when you will write conference papers, white papers, essays, policy documents, letters, blog posts, and professional nursing articles.
Now that you have written your paper, you must align a few things to make it the best your professor will read. Most nursing classes, especially at the graduate levels (MSN, DNP, and Ph.D. levels), have small class sizes, and the professors spend time reading the papers from start to end. This means that you should leave nothing to chance.
Nursing research asserts professional identity, ensures accountability in nursing decision-making, and expands nursing practice. You have to be meticulous when writing a research paper in nursing.
A good research paper demonstrates a complete understanding of nursing knowledge, topic exploration, advanced organization, proper formatting, and mature academic writing skills. The following checklist enlists some main aspects to countercheck before hitting the submit button.
If your answer to all these questions is a resounding YES, you are sure it will fetch your professor a good grade. Our nursing writers, most of whom are alumni from top nursing universities and colleges such as Chamberlain, Capella, Herzing, Vanderbilt, SFU, Rutgers, Yale, Duke, NYU, UCLA, University of Pennsylvania, University of Toronto, McGill, Ottawa, Queens, and other best colleges in the USA, UK, Canada, and many other places. Besides, they are nursing educators in different capacities, and a couple are nursing professors with big titles; you can trust the checklist to guarantee you an excellent grade.
As a nursing student, writing a research paper is something you will most likely enjoy doing. However, unforeseen things happen, prompting you to search the internet for sites to help you do your nursing research paper. NurseMyGrade.com is one such place to pay a nursing writer to do your paper.
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In order to most appropriately choose an information resource and craft a search strategy, it is necessary to consider what kind of question you are asking: a specific, narrow "foreground" question, or a broader background question that will help give context to your research?
A "foreground" question in health research is one that is relatively specific, and is usually best addressed by locating primary research evidence.
Using a structured question framework can help you clearly define the concepts or variables that make up the specific research question.
Across most frameworks, you’ll often be considering:
PICO is the most common framework for developing a clinical research question, but multiple question frameworks exist.
Appropriate for : clinical questions, often addressing the effect of an intervention/therapy/treatment
Example : For adolescents with type II diabetes (P) does the use of telehealth consultations (I) compared to in-person consultations (C) improve blood sugar control (O)?
Element | Description | Example |
---|---|---|
opulation / problem | Who is the group of people being studied? | adolescents with T2D |
ntervention | What is the intervention being investigated? (independent variable) | telehealth consultations |
omparison | To what is the intervention being compared? | in person consultations |
utcome | What are the desired outcomes of the intervention? (dependent variable) | blood sugar control |
Different types of clinical questions are suited to different syntaxes and phrasings, but all will clearly define the PICO elements. The definitions and frames below may be helpful for organizing your question:
Intervention/Therapy
Questions addressing how a clinical issue, illness, or disability is treated.
"In__________________(P), how does__________________(I) compared to_________________(C) affect______________(O)?"
Questions that address the causes or origin of disease, the factors which produce or predispose toward a certain disease or disorder.
"Are_________________(P), who have_________________(I) compared with those without_________________(C) at_________________risk for/of_________________(O) over_________________(T)?"
Questions addressing the act or process of identifying or determining the nature and cause of a disease or injury through evaluation.
In_________________(P) are/is_________________(I) compared with_________________(C) more accurate in diagnosing_________________(O)?
Prognosis/Prediction:
Questions addressing the prediction of the course of a disease.
In_________________(P), how does_________________(I) compared to_________________ (C) influence_________________(O)?
Questions addressing how one experiences a phenomenon or why we need to approach practice differently.
"How do_________________(P) with_________________(I) perceive_________________(O)?"
Adapted from: Melnyk, B. M., & Fineout-Overholt, E. (2011). Evidence-based practice in nursing & healthcare: A guide to best practice. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
PICO is a useful framework for clinical research questions, but may not be appropriate for all kinds of reviews. Also consider:
Appropriate for : describing association between particular exposures/risk factors and outcomes
Example : How do preparation programs (E) influence the development of teaching competence (O) among novice nurse educators (P)?
Element | Description | Example |
---|---|---|
opulation | Who is the group of people being studied? | novice nurse educators |
xposure | What is the population being exposed to (independent variable)? | preparation programs |
utcome | What is the outcome that may be affected by the exposure (dependent variable)? | teaching competence |
Appropriate for : questions of experience or perspectives (questions that may be addressed by qualitative or mixed methods research)
Example : What are the experiences and perspectives (E) of undergraduate nursing students (S) in clinical placements within prison healthcare settings (PI)?
Element | Description | Example |
---|---|---|
ample | Who is the group of people being studied? | undergraduate nursing students |
henomenon of nterest | What are the reasons for behavior and decisions? | clinical placements in prison healthcare settings |
esign | How has the research been collected (e.g., interview, survey)? | interview and surveys |
valuation | What is the outcome being impacted? | attitudes, experiences and reflections on learning |
esearch type | What type of research? | qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods |
Appropriate for : evaluating the outcomes of a service, project, or intervention
Example : What are the impacts and best practices for workplace (S) transition support programs (I) for the retention (E) of newly-hired, new graduate nurses (P)?
Element | Description | Example |
---|---|---|
etting | What is the context for the question? (Where?) | nursing workplaces (healthcare settings) |
erspective | For whom is this intervention/program/service designed (users, potential users, stakeholders)? | new graduate nurses |
ntervention/Interest/Exposure | What action is taken for the users, potential users, or stakeholders? | long term transition support programs (residency/mentorship) |
omparison | What are the alternative interventions? | no or limited transition support / orientation |
valuation | What is the results of the intervention or service/how is success measured? | retention of newly hired nurses |
Appropriate for : broader (scoping) questions
Example : How do nursing schools (Context) teach, measure, and maintain nursing students ' (P) technological literacy (Concept))throughout their educational programs?
Element | Description | Example |
---|---|---|
What are the important characteristics of the participants, or the problem of focus? | nursing students | |
oncept | What is the core concept being examined by the review? | technological literacy |
ontext | What is the context for the question? (Could include geographic location, or details about the setting of interest)? | nursing schools |
To craft a strong and reasonable foreground research question, it is important to have a firm understanding of the concepts of interest. As such, it is often necessary to ask background questions, which ask for more general, foundational knowledge about a disorder, disease, patient population, policy issue, etc.
For example, consider the PICO question outlined above:
"For adolescents with type II diabetes does the use of telehealth consultations compared to in-person consultations improve blood sugar control ?
To best make sense of the literature that might address this PICO question, you would also need a deep understanding of background questions like:
Rachel andel rn, bsn.
Nursing research proposal topics can vary greatly, depending on the type of research you’re looking to conduct.
Whether you are interested in studying public health issues or improving patient care through innovative research methods, something on this list likely appeals to you.
Here’s a guide on writing a nursing research proposal and nursing research proposal topics , DNP research proposal topics, current nursing research proposal topics, and nursing research examples.
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A nursing research proposal serves as a blueprint for conducting studies that address important clinical questions, explore innovative interventions, and contribute to the overall body of nursing knowledge.
To create a strong nursing research proposal, there are several key considerations that nursing students must take into account, which include;
When creating a nursing research proposal, including all the components contributing to a comprehensive and well-structured document is crucial.
Understanding these components will ensure that your proposal is clear and organized and addresses the necessary aspects of your research endeavor.
Introduction | An overview of the research topic and its significance |
Literature Review | Summary of existing literature and theoretical frameworks |
Research Question | A clear formulation of the main research question |
Study Design | Explanation of the chosen qualitative research methods and their appropriateness |
Data Collection | Details of how data will be collected, such as interviews or observations |
Data Analysis | Description of the thematic analysis process and data interpretation |
Ethical Considerations | Discussion of ethical principles to be followed in the research |
Limitations | Acknowledgement of potential limitations and how they will be addressed |
Conclusion | Summary of the study’s potential impact and future directions |
Some additional potential nursing research proposal topics include:
There are countless nursing research proposal topics that could be explored in a doctoral or post-doctoral program. Below is a list of some DNP Research proposal topics consider:
Check out the additional DNP Research proposal topics as suggested by a Nursing Instructor
The list of DNP Research proposal topics above should guide you in creating a Research proposal.
Nursing research proposal topics can vary greatly, depending on the type of research you’re looking to conduct. Some common topics include:
Nursing research proposal topics can vary greatly, so it’s important to select a topic that is of interest to you and that will help you to improve patient care .
When preparing your nursing research proposal, it’s important to keep the following tips in mind:
Planning and organizing your data will make your research proposal more concise and easier to read. Start by identifying the specific question you want to answer, and then list all the relevant sources that you consulted in order to reach your conclusions. Use headings and subheadings to help organize your information , and be sure to include detailed citations for all sources used.
To produce a well-written research proposal, use effective writing techniques such as strong thesis statements , clear language, and well-organized data. You should also make use of persuasive arguments, vivid descriptions, and concrete examples in order to make your case for the proposed study .
In order for your nursing research proposal to be accepted, it must include references from reliable sources that support your findings. Always cite the source where you obtained the data presented in your proposal, as well as any other sourcesthat you used in order to support your arguments.
Your nursing research proposal should be properly formatted and error-free in order to be accepted for review. Always use the correct style and grammar when writing, and make sure all data is properly referenced. avoid using excessive jargon or acronyms, and try to keep your presentation as concise as possible.
The sooner you submit your proposal, the better chance you have of being accepted for review. Make sure to follow the submission guidelines outlined by the journal you are submitting to, as well as the submission system specific to that journal .
In this article, we will provide you with some ideas for nursing research proposal topics that can be used in any discipline. Whether you are interested in studying public health issues or improving patient care through innovative research methods, there is likely something on this list that appeals to you. So get started on your Nursing Research Proposal now by placing an order with us.
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Phd in nursing science program, examples of broad clinical research questions include:.
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Step Five: Create a search for your topic in an appropriate database. After meeting with your librarian, you should have a good idea of what terms you might use and where you can search for your topic. Do a couple of searches to find the best results and mark the papers you want to keep by grabbing the permalink, citation, or by emailing it to ...
Developing a question helps you focus on an aspect of your topic, which will streamline your research and writing. To create a research question: Pick a topic you are interested in. Narrow the topic to a particular aspect. Brainstorm some questions around your topic aspect. Select a question to work with. Focus the question by making it more ...
A nursing research paper is a work of academic writing composed by a nurse or nursing student. The paper may present information on a specific topic or answer a question. During LPN/LVN and RN programs, most papers you write focus on learning to use research databases, evaluate appropriate resources, and format your writing with APA style.
STEP 3: Write Your Research Question. The FINER criteria are one way to write a good question (Hulley et al., 2007). The question should be feasible. Focus on one problem that can be accomplished within the semester and the time allotted for the assignment and is within your ability.
Formulate a research question. Identify a term/terms that will be used to search the literature. Create robust inclusion and exclusion criteria to select the most appropriate literature. Select the most relevant databases to interrogate the literature. Search the literature from a global perspective.
The word PICOT is a mnemonic derived from the elements of a clinical research question - patient, intervention, comparison, outcome and (sometimes) time. The PICOT process begins with a case scenario, and the question is phrased to elicit an answer. "The question needs to identify the patient or population we intend to study, the ...
Here are some tips for selecting a research question that you will enjoy learning about and will ultimately lead to a good grade. Read through your assignment. Professors design an assignment outline for a reason. Make sure your topic can and will adhere to their requirements and guidelines. Choose a topic you are interested in.
By formatting your research question in a PICO (T) format you can gather evidence relevant to your patient's problem. Well-composed PICO (T) questions generally contain up to four components each represented in the acronym "PICO (T)" P=Patient or Population and Problem; I=Intervention or Indicator; C=Comparison or Control (not part of all ...
There are many elements to developing a good clinical question. Clinical questions can be further divided into two major areas: Background Questions and Foreground Questions. Background Questions refer to general knowledge and facts. The majority of the information that can be used to inform answers to background questions are found in reference resources like Encyclopedias, Dictionaries ...
How to Develop a Question. The PICO Format. Simple tool to help focus your research question on a specific issue (from the Evidence Analysis Manual) Template for Asking PICO (T) Questions handout. This template can help you figure out how parts of your research question fit into the PICO (T) format. Tips for Writing a Good PICO.
The process of formulating a good research question can be challenging and frustrating. While a comprehensive literature review is compulsory, the researcher usually encounters methodological difficulties in the conduct of the study, particularly if the primary study question has not been adequately selected in accordance with the clinical dilemma that needs to be addressed.
The first step in doing evidence-based practice research is forming a researchable question. Questions that are too broad or too narrow can make your research difficult, if not impossible. Clinical example: Too broad: How do you control infection? This topic is so broad that you'd have difficulty wading through all of the results.
INTRODUCTION. Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses.1,2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results.3,4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the ...
applicability to nursing practice. Critiquing the research steps In critiquing the steps in the research process a number of questions need to be asked. However, these questions are seeking more than a simple 'yes' or 'no' answer. The questions are posed to stimulate the reviewer to consider the implications of what the researcher has done ...
The first step in doing this is to determine the type of question: background or foreground. The type of question helps to determine the resource to access to answer the question. Background questions ask for general knowledge about a condition or thing. Broaden the scope - "The Forest". Provides basics for a a greater grasp of concepts.
nursing practice. 2. Write an effective problem statement. 3. Discuss essential characteristics needed to pose a research question. 4. Identify the criteria for establishing research variables. 5. Contrast the various types of hypotheses. 6. Explain the differences between conceptual and operational definitions. 7.
Foreground Questions. These questions bring together multiple concepts related to a specific clinical situation or research topic. They may be divided into two broad categories: Qualitative Questions aim to discover meaning or gain an understanding of a phenomena or experience. They ask about an individual's or population's experience of ...
A good PICOT question possesses the following qualities: A clinical-based question addresses the nursing research areas or topics. It is specific, concise, and clear. Patient, problem, or population. Intervention. Comparison. Outcome. Includes medical, clinical, and nursing terms where necessary. It is not ambiguous.
Not all research questions that clinicians wish answered are feasible using this research methodology and the use of a PICOT format is also applicable to other study designs. The clinical research question being asked ideally determines the best research design for a study. A prospective or retrospective cohort design may be an easier ...
The introduction should have an attention-getter or a hook that can be a statement, statistic, or fact. It should be 10% of the entire word count. It also has background information that details the nursing issue or topic you are exploring. It also comprises a well-thought-out thesis statement related to the topic.
A "foreground" question in health research is one that is relatively specific, and is usually best addressed by locating primary research evidence. Using a structured question framework can help you clearly define the concepts or variables that make up the specific research question. Across most frameworks, you'll often be considering:
The research question forms the foundation of your nursing research proposal. It is a concise and focused statement that outlines the main objective of your research. Your research question should be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART), enabling you to address a particular problem or gap in the existing literature.
Examples of some general health services research questions are: Does the organization of renal transplant nurse coordinators' responsibilities influence live donor rates? What activities of nurse managers are associated with nurse turnover? 30 day readmission rates? What effect does the Nurse Faculty Loan program have on the nurse researcher ...