thesis of antigone

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Essays on Antigone

Hook examples for "antigone" essays, the tragic heroine hook.

Introduce the character of Antigone as the tragic heroine of the play. Discuss her noble qualities, her determination to uphold her beliefs, and the tragic consequences of her actions.

The Conflict of Divine and Human Law Hook

Explore the central conflict in "Antigone" between divine law and human law. Discuss how Antigone's defiance of King Creon's decree highlights the clash between moral duty and political authority.

The Power and Pride of Creon Hook

Focus on the character of Creon as a symbol of political power and pride. Discuss how his decisions and hubris lead to tragedy within the play and explore the lessons it conveys.

The Feminist Interpretation Hook

Analyze "Antigone" from a feminist perspective, highlighting the role of gender and the defiance of traditional gender roles in the play. Discuss how Antigone's actions challenge societal norms.

The Chorus as a Moral Compass Hook

Examine the role of the Chorus in "Antigone" as a moral compass and commentator on the events of the play. Discuss how the Chorus adds depth to the themes and characters.

The Tragedy of Ismene Hook

Explore the character of Ismene, Antigone's sister, and her role in the tragedy. Discuss her internal conflict and her ultimate fate as a foil to Antigone.

The Ancient Greek Context Hook

Provide historical and cultural context for "Antigone" by discussing ancient Greek beliefs and values, including the significance of burial rituals and the influence of Greek tragedy.

The Universal Themes Hook

Highlight the enduring themes of "Antigone," such as the consequences of moral choices, the conflict between individual and state, and the nature of justice. Discuss how these themes resonate with audiences today.

The Tragedy's Relevance in Modern Society Hook

Discuss the relevance of "Antigone" in contemporary society, drawing parallels to issues of civil disobedience, government authority, and individual conscience. Emphasize the enduring impact of the play's themes.

The Lessons of "Antigone" Hook

End your essay by summarizing the lessons and insights that "Antigone" offers to readers and audiences. Reflect on the enduring importance of this classic Greek tragedy.

List of Interesting Antigone Essay Topics

• The Role of Fate vs. Free Will in Sophocles' "Antigone"
• Moral Conflict and the Law: Analyzing Antigone and Creon's Dilemmas
• Gender Roles and Resistance in "Antigone"
• The Complexities of Morality and Duty in Sophocles' Antigone
• The Concept of Divine Law vs. Human Law in "Antigone"
• Antigone and Creon: A Study of Foil Characters in Sophocles' Tragedy
• The Influence of Greek Chorus in Shaping the Narrative of "Antigone"
• "Antigone" and the Politics of Rebellion: Insights into Authority and Obedience
• The Theme of Family Loyalty vs. Civic Duty in "Antigone"

Foreshadowing in Antigone

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Justice in Antigone: Divine Law Versus Human Authority

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Pride Comes before a Fall: Creon's Tragedy in Antigone

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How Egos Compete in Antigone

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441 BC, Sophocles

Play; Tragedy

Antigone, Ismene, Creon, Eurydice, Haemon, Tiresias, Sentry, Leader of the Chorus

In ancient Thebes, after the death of King Oedipus, his two sons, Eteocles and Polynices, vie for the throne. However, a conflict arises as Eteocles assumes power and denies Polynices a proper burial, condemning him to be left unburied on the battlefield. Antigone, the sister of the two brothers, defies the decree and resolves to give Polynices a burial, honoring the sacred duty to her family and the gods. Antigone's act of defiance pits her against King Creon, who has proclaimed the decree. Despite Antigone's pleas and the counsel of his son Haemon, Creon remains steadfast in his decision, believing it necessary to maintain order and authority. As the tension escalates, the chorus, representing the voice of the people, questions the morality of Creon's actions. Tragedy unfolds as Antigone is sentenced to death and her actions set off a chain of events leading to a series of tragic outcomes. The play explores themes of duty, loyalty, and the clash between personal beliefs and the laws of the state. In the end, the consequences of Creon's stubbornness and Antigone's steadfastness bring about profound sorrow and self-reflection.

The ancient Greek tragedy "Antigone is set in the city of Thebes. The play takes place in a time of political turmoil and upheaval following the events of the mythological story of Oedipus. Thebes is portrayed as a city plagued by a curse due to the sins of Oedipus and his family. The specific locations within the setting include the royal palace, where King Creon resides and makes his decrees, and the battlefield where the two brothers, Eteocles and Polynices, have fought and died. The city streets and public spaces serve as the backdrop for the interactions between the characters and the chorus.

One of the main themes is the clash between individual conscience and state authority. Antigone, the protagonist, defies the decree of King Creon by burying her brother Polyneices, despite it being forbidden. This conflict raises questions about the limits of governmental power and the importance of personal ethics. Another prominent theme is the nature of divine law versus human law. Antigone's actions are motivated by her belief in honoring the divine laws and giving proper burial rites to her brother, highlighting the tension between religious and civil obligations. The theme of fate versus free will also emerges as characters grapple with their predetermined destinies and the choices they make. Antigone and Creon are both victims of their own tragic flaws, facing the consequences of their decisions. Other themes include the nature of power and its corrupting influence, the roles of gender and patriarchy, and the consequences of pride and hubris.

Dramatic irony (the audience knows that Antigone's defiance will lead to her downfall, while the characters remain unaware of their impending fate), symbolism (the burial of Polyneices), imagery (vivid descriptions of suffering, death, and familial bonds), dramatic dialogue and monologues.

Sophocles' tragedy "Antigone" has had a profound influence on literature, theater, and even broader aspects of society throughout history. One significant influence of "Antigone" is its exploration of moral and ethical dilemmas. The play raises questions about the clash between individual conscience and societal norms, highlighting the importance of standing up for one's beliefs. This theme resonates with audiences across time, inspiring discussions on topics such as civil disobedience, justice, and the limits of authority. "Antigone" has also left a lasting impact on dramatic techniques. Sophocles' masterful use of dialogue, monologues, and dramatic irony has influenced playwrights for centuries, shaping the development of tragedy as a genre. The play's emphasis on complex characters and their inner struggles has provided a template for character development in theater and literature. Furthermore, "Antigone" has influenced political and social movements. Its themes of rebellion against oppressive regimes and the pursuit of justice have served as rallying cries for activists throughout history. The play's examination of power dynamics, loyalty, and the consequences of unchecked authority continues to resonate in discussions of human rights, democracy, and social justice.

"Nobody likes the man who brings bad news." "I have no love for a friend who loves in words alone." "You are always defying the world, but you're only a girl, after all." "It is the dead, not the living, who make the longest demands." "We have only a little time to please the living.

1. According to accounts, Sophocles is said to have passed away while reciting a part of his play Antigone. 2. In 1944, the French playwright and screenwriter Jean Anouilh released a play titled Antigone, which garnered significant attention despite being staged in Paris under German occupation. 3. Sigmund Freud, the influential figure in psychoanalysis, chose to name his daughter Anna Antigone.

Antigone, the timeless Greek tragedy written by Sophocles, holds immense significance as a topic for essay writing. This profound play explores complex themes that resonate with the human experience across different cultures and time periods. The enduring relevance of Antigone lies in its exploration of fundamental moral dilemmas, the clash between personal convictions and societal norms, and the consequences of individual actions. It delves into themes of justice, loyalty, defiance, and the struggle for autonomy. Antigone's relevance extends beyond its original context, making it a captivating subject for analysis. The play prompts discussions on topics such as civil disobedience, the abuse of power, gender roles, and the role of religion in society. Its multidimensional characters, including the fearless Antigone, the conflicted Creon, and the wise Tiresias, provide rich material for character analysis and interpretation. Furthermore, Antigone's literary and dramatic elements, such as its use of dramatic irony, tragic flaw, and catharsis, make it a compelling work to study. By examining Antigone's themes, characters, and literary techniques, one can gain valuable insights into human nature, ethics, and the complexities of societal structures.

1. Murnaghan, S. (1986). Antigone 904-920 and the Institution of Marriage. The American Journal of Philology, 107(2), 192-207. (https://www.jstor.org/stable/294602) 2. Honig, B. (2009). Antigone's laments, Creon's grief: Mourning, membership, and the politics of exception. Political Theory, 37(1), 5-43. (https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0090591708326645) 3. Rouse, W. H. D. (1911). The two burials in Antigone. The Classical Review, 25(2), 40-42. (https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/classical-review/article/abs/two-burials-in-antigone/5F435DF66023E724D84BE90BCA655AAA) 4. Meltzer, F. (2011). Theories of desire: Antigone again. Critical Inquiry, 37(2), 169-186. (https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/657289?journalCode=ci) 5. de Fátima Silva, M. (2017). Antigone. In Brill's Companion to the Reception of Sophocles (pp. 391-474). Brill. (https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004300941/B9789004300941_007.xml) 6. Davis, C. (1995). The Abject: Kristeva and the Antigone. Paroles gelées, 13(1). (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8qt465qh#main) 7. Margon, J. S. (1970). The Death of Antigone. California Studies in Classical Antiquity, 3, 177-183. (https://online.ucpress.edu/ca/article-abstract/doi/10.2307/25010605/33738/The-Death-of-Antigone?redirectedFrom=PDF) 8. Marini, F. (1992). The uses of literature in the exploration of public administration ethics: The example of Antigone. Public Administration Review, 420-426. (https://www.jstor.org/stable/976801) 9. Benardete, S. (2014). Sacred Transgressions: A Reading of Sophocles' Antigone. (https://philpapers.org/rec/BENSTA-7)

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Department of Greek & Latin

Antigone Study Guide

Sophocles (c. 497/6- 406/5 BC) is, along with Aeschylus and Euripides, one of the three ancient Greek tragic playwrights by whom complete plays survive. He won at least twenty victories in the tragic competitions, and never came third (last), a feat which suggests that he was the most successful of the three. Seven complete plays of his survive, of which Antigone and Oedipus Tyrannus are the most well-known and frequently performed. The following three essays explore the play's themes and context.

Sophocles' Antigone in Context by Professor Chris Carey

Greek tragedy is a remarkable fictional creation. We are used to a theatre which can embrace past and present, fictitious and historical, bizarre fantasy and mundane reality. The Athenian theatre was far more limited than this. Like virtually all Greek poetry at all periods in antiquity, its subject matter was heroic myth. Invented plots with fictitious people and events were very few (and not found before the late fifth century). Historical tragedy (the staple of theatre from Shakespeare to the present) again was very rare. With very few exceptions, tragedy was about heroes. For Greeks at any period, the world of the heroes meant the world which they met in epic poetry, and especially Homer, the ultimate Greek classic.  

Because we are so used to Greek tragedy, we don't usually stop to notice how strange all this is. The heroes are members of a superior elite. And the epic world is always ruled by kings. It has assemblies, and they matter; but they don't have power. Hereditary monarchy had become a rarity in Greece long before the rise of tragedy. So the epic world was politically remote. In fact, of all Greek states in the classical period, Athens was probably the furthest removed from the political world of epic. In democratic Athens public policy and legislation were in the hands of the mass assembly. Yet for two hundred years and more mass audiences sat in the theatre of Dionysus and watched plays about kings sponsored by the democratic state.

The issue is of course more complicated than this. Firstly, the world of the epic was a very familiar world to the Athenian audience. Epic poetry was performed every year at the civic festivals, which meant that the heroic age was a shared possession for the vast audience in the Athenian theatre, not just the property of an educated elite. Secondly, the world inside the plays and the world in which the audience lived were engaged in a complex and shifting relationship. In any attempt to represent or even to understand the past, the present acts as frame which shapes presentation or perception; we may or may not be aware of it, but it is always there. Literature which deals with the past therefore has a foot in two worlds. This includes Greek tragedy. Tragedy is riddled with anachronisms, on politics, gender, ethnicity, status, even technology (people in tragedy write letters and suicide notes, for instance, while in the epic world writing is completely absent except for one very mysterious passage in Homer's Iliad ). The effect is to make the tragic world a middle space where heroic past and present meet.

This makes the tragic stage an ideal space to explore political issues of interest to democratic Athens. Not all tragedy is political and not all of the political questions are unique either to Athens or to democracy. But Athens (with rare exceptions) was unusual among the classical Greek states in its openness to dispute and dissent and Athenian drama is almost unique in Greek literature in its ability to explore areas of actual or potential political tension.

This is true in the case of Antigone . Anyone in the audience listening to the newly appointed regent Creon might well catch echoes of contemporary sentiments about loyalty to the city. The rhetoric of devotion to the city above all else and at any cost which Sophocles puts in his mouth sounds very like the rhetoric of the democratic statesman Pericles in the historian Thucydides (Pericles even goes so far as to claim that we should all be lovers of the city). The sentiment has a powerful appeal. This was a world of citizen soldiers and a citizen was expected to fight and if necessary die for the city. As Creon says: 'This land - our land - is the ship that preserves us and it is on this ship that we sail straight and as she prospers, so will we.' But his insistence on loyalty to the state to the exclusion of all other allegiance prolongs into the present the rifts of the past and proves disastrous for the next generation of the family and robs him of his family.

The issue of burial which forms the focus for conflict in this play had political echoes. Burial was a vitally important aspect both of family and of civic life. For the city it was a means both of honouring devotion and also of punishing disloyalty. The world of this play is not just postwar but post-civil-war. The dead Polynices came with a foreign army to take his home city by force and died in the attempt. In Sophocles' Athens anyone executed for treason could not be buried in Attica. So some features of the play probably sounded very familiar. Democratic Athens demanded a lot of its citizens and at the probable date of Antigone this was visible especially in the treatment of the dead. As far as we know Athens monopolized its war dead to a degree unmatched by any other Greek state. Where most Greek states simply buried their dead on the battlefield, Athenian practice was to collect and burn the dead and bring the bones home. They then held a state funeral and buried the war dead in communal state graves (excavations for the new Athens metro unearthed one such burial just a decade ago) with no designation of family, just the name of their tribe. The war dead are now the property of the city. At the same time private grave memorials almost disappear. It looks as though only public burials, and specifically those for the dead warriors, matter. But by tradition the family not only buried its dead but also made offerings every year at the family tombs; and the job of preparing the dead and the lead in mourning fell to the women. By the late fifth century the private memorials, including memorials for those who died in war, become more common, and it looks as though the tensions between the demands of the state and the needs of the family have been resolved. But tensions there probably were and death and burial was one of the key areas. Issues such as family or individual versus state are Greek issues as well as Athenian issues. But they were probably present in Athens to an unusual degree and were at their most visible at the time Antigone was performed in the late 440s.

Antigone is not about Athens' burial of the war dead. And it is not about contemporary democratic ideology. It is a story about a clash of wills, a clash of principles and a clash of loyalties. About power and its limits and legitimacy. About commitment, tenacity and integrity. And it is not a sermon. It throws up more questions than it answers. It could play in any theatre of the Greek world, as it has played in countless theatres in many languages since. But for its Athenian audience the echoes of contemporary areas of tension gave it an added intensity.

Questions and Activities:

• How would the experiences of ancient Greek theatrical audiences have differed from those of modern ones? How might that affect our appreciation of Sophocles' Antigone ?
• If you were to translate the basic story of the play into modern Britain, what aspects would you change, what would you retain, and why?
• What difference would it make if Antigone were staged in a contemporary setting, rather than the distant past? 

Antigone and Creon in Conflict by Dr. Dimitra Kokkini

Antigone is a play full of intensity. Audience (and scholarly) responses have always been conflicted when it comes to analysing both characters' arguments. For some, secular law and rationality, as expressed by Creon, are right, while Antigone's religious approach is to be rejected as irrational. For others, Antigone's argument is the only one with validity. The remaining views recognise various degrees of legitimacy in both arguments, eventually proving the impossibility of the task in discerning right from wrong in this conflict.

Despite the fact that this explosive clash highlights the vast differences between Creon and Antigone in terms of world views and loyalties, it also brings to the fore their similarities in terms of characterisation. Creon continuously asserts his power, both in terms of social and gender status; he is the ruler of the city, in fact, its defender in what is seen an unlawful attack by Polyneices against his own fatherland (the gravest of sins in civic terms). Moreover, he is a man, faced with an insubordinate, stubborn, powerless female who is also a member of his own family and under his jurisdiction and protection. Antigone, on the other hand, continuously asserts the validity on her argument in religious and moral terms, being, at the same time, constantly aware of her limitations due to her gender and position in the city and her own family. Yet, although they both take pains to highlight the unbridgeable gap between them, contrasting civic/rational (Creon) and family/religious (Antigone) duty, they are remarkably similar in the way they approach and respond to one another. Both are characterised by unyielding stubbornness, a deep belief in the rightness of their own value system, and complete failure in identifying any validity whatsoever in each other's argument. Both insist on upholding their respective values with obstinate determination to the end: Antigone dies unchanged, whereas Creon's change of heart comes too late having first caused the destruction of his entire family.

More importantly, neither of them are easily relatable - or indeed sympathetic - characters. Antigone is often too self-righteous, obsessed with honouring Polyneices at all costs. She is dismissive of Ismene, almost indifferent to her betrothed, Haemon. Creon is equally obsessed with administering what he perceives as justice, as well as upholding his law and punishing the offender, he is cruel and dismissive towards his son. It is easier for us, the audience, to identify with Ismene, Eurydice or Haemon. Ismene, a foil for Antigone and her exact opposite, is arguably less determined and daring than her sister; but she is also much closer to an everyday person, aware of her limitations and hesitant to challenge authority and the laws imposed by a ruler. Antigone may be admirable for her bravery and resolution, but she is also extraordinarily distant to ordinary human beings. Although she presents herself as a weak woman and speaks of all the typical female experiences she will be missing with her untimely death, she functions more like a symbol - some say she is almost genderless. Ismene, however, appears to be more human, displaying a more conventional kind of femininity, which renders her pitiful but also more relatable as a character.

In a similar way, we feel more pity and sympathy for Haemon than we do for the two protagonists. His attachment to her is evident in a rare tragic instance of a young man being in love, but it is hardly reciprocated. Antigone's fixation on honouring Polyneices leaves little room for the development of any other relationship. Haemon fights, unsuccessfully, with his father in an attempt to save his betrothed and, when this fails due to Creon's refusal to repeal his decision, his response is rash and emotional. This is a young man in love, who is denied his chance to be with his beloved and, on seeing her dead decides to take his own life out of grief. In contrast with Antigone, whose suicide is consistent with her characterisation throughout the play and is directly related to her immovable value system, Haemon's suicide is full of pathos and his motivation feels more easily understandable in terms of personal relationships and youthful desperation. His death functions as the trigger for Eurydice's suicide, the culmination of Creon's catastrophic decisions and Antigone's unyielding position. Her appearance on stage is limited to one scene, with her uttering one single question to the Messenger before departing in silence, ominously, after the death of her son is confirmed, never to reappear on stage.

Antigone and Creon are caught in an impossible circle of stubbornness, miscommunication and destruction. Together, they manage to cause utter grief and ruin for their family caught in a conflict of ever-increasing intensity as they pull further and further apart. Antigone's death and Creon's remorse cause pity and reveal the utter futility of their conflict at the end of the tragedy; but the fate of the other characters, the innocent bystanders entangled in this mighty clash of wills, beg for our sympathy and compassion as much as the protagonists, if not more.

1. Which character from the play do you sympathise with the most and why?

2. 'Creon and Antigone are more similar than different to one another'. To what extent do you agree with this claim?

3. To what extent must tragedy always depend on conflict?

Conflict and Contrast in Sophocles' Antigone by Dr. Tom Mackenzie

Perhaps more than any other Greek tragedy, Sophocles' Antigone has captured the interests of philosophers, ranging from Aristotle (fourth century BC) to Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) and beyond. Most famously, the German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel (1770-1831) saw the tragedy as depicting, at its core, a conflict between the abstract principles of the household (the oikos) and the state (the polis), embodied in the characters of Antigone and Creon respectively. When we come to watch the play, it is not hard to see why this interpretation has proven immensely influential. On a purely formal level, the two characters dominate the action more than any of the others. It is their decisions - Creon's to impose the sanction against burying Polyneices, and Antigone's to bury him nonetheless - that cause the events of the narrative. Antigone is the eponymous heroine whose initial speech opens the play, whilst Creon receives more lines than any other character and is the exclusive focus of our attention after Antigone's departure in the latter part of the tragedy. The two characters thus bookend the action onstage, a structuring device that seems to illustrate the contrast between them. It is sometimes claimed that Greek tragedy typically focusses on a single character, but if that is the case, then Antigone is an exception to this tendency, for Creon and Antigone appear to be of equal concern.

Many aspects of the play can be taken to suggest that the two characters are indeed representative of certain contrasting principles. Perhaps the most obvious contrast is that between male and female: Ismene initially opposes Antigone's act of defiance partly on the grounds that they are women, and so 'cannot fight against men'. Creon further emphasizes the gender division in claiming that Antigone will be 'the man' and not him, if she is to challenge his authority with impunity. Several other statements of his also betray this anxiety. Antigone's defiance of her uncle, her closest living male relative, markedly transcends the normal behaviour expected of women in fifth-century Athens, a notoriously patriarchal society with severe restrictions on the freedom of women. The contrast in genders also evokes wider political and cosmic polarities: women's influence was supposed to be restricted to the oikos, whilst Athenian politics was exclusively a male activity: the welfare of the city was thought to be the responsibility of free males alone. Antigone's act is one of loyalty towards a close relative, a member of her oikos - but it is seen by Creon as an act against the interests of the state. His edict was pronounced in order to protect Thebes, and he explicitly criticises anyone who 'values a loved one greater than his city', a statement which inevitably recalls Antigone's defiance. Indeed, part of this initial speech was quoted by the fourth-century Athenian orator Demosthenes as a positive, patriotic sentiment, a fact which may suggest that Creon, at least at this point in the play, could be taken to embody civic values.

Yet Antigone herself does not see the conflict as one between the oikos and the polis so much as one between the man-made laws of the city, and the unwritten, permanent laws of the the gods. It is to these unwritten laws that she appeals in justifying her actions against Creon's proclamations. The Greek word for 'laws', nomoi, has a broader scope than the English term conveys - it can be translated as 'conventions' or 'customs' and can cover the religious duties such as burial of the dead. There is nothing metaphorical about such 'unwritten' nomoi: Aristotle even quotes Antigone in recommending lawyers to appeal to unwritten laws when the written laws are against them. For Antigone, there is a conflict between these unwritten laws, and those pronounced by Creon.

Accordingly, the two characters have different conceptions of justice and the just. The Greek word for justice, dikē, and its related adjectives, occur frequently throughout the play. Both Creon and his opponents, Antigone and Haimon, appeal to dikē to support their decisions. Creon seems to identify justice with the will of the ruling party, whilst for Antigone and Haimon, it is a super-human concept that is independent of the arbitrary decisions of any mortal ruler. This dispute reflects contemporary debates surrounding the nature of justice: Plato, writing in the first half of the fourth century BC, depicts the fifth-century thinker Socrates as arguing that justice is natural and objective, against opponents who argue that justice is simply the will of the more powerful. In Sophocles' play, there is little doubt that Creon's conception of justice is proven inadequate. That the downfall of his family and his personal suffering come as a direct result of his actions is assumed by all remaining characters at the end of the play. His folly reveals a central predicament in Sophoclean drama and in Greek theology: there is a divine, cosmic system of justice, but it is one that is usually impossible for mortals to understand until it is too late. The motif of 'learning too late' is commonplace in Greek tragedy, and Creon conforms to this literary convention, as the chorus' statements at the end of the play make clear. Only a select few mortals - notably the blind prophet Teiresias - can have a privileged, albeit still limited, understanding of this system before the catastrophes unfold.

'Justice', or rather dikē, in this sense of 'divine order' was taken by some early Greek philosophers as a governing principle, not only of ethical behaviour, but also of the rules of physics. Anaximander (early 6th century BC) saw the universe as composed fundamentally from opposite qualities - such as the hot and the cold, the dry and the wet - that give each other 'justice and reparation' for injustices committed, as a result of which some balance is maintained in the universe. Similarly, Heraclitus (late 6th century BC) saw 'justice' as keeping the Sun within its established limits. Viewed in this context, we can see Creon's actions as violations of this cosmic order: the deceased Polyneices ought to be buried, but Creon prevents that from happening; conversely, he orders Antigone to be entombed whilst still alive. After his punishment, he himself becomes, in the words of the messenger, a 'living corpse'. The balance is thus settled for Creon's blurring of the distinction between the living and the dead by refusing Polyneices' burial.

This enactment of cosmic 'justice' might be taken to support the notion that Creon and Antigone embody contrary principles. Yet their actions can also be explained by recognisably human motivations: Antigone no longer fears death, and even expresses suicidal thoughts, because of the immense suffering that she has experienced in the form of her family's tribulations; Creon is a new ruler who is paranoid that his rule is not accepted - he refuses to back down as he fears it will undermine his authority. The characters appeal to general principles, which place their specific conflict in a wider cosmic context - it is perhaps this feature which has aroused such philosophical interest in the play - but they are not reducible to those principles alone. Creon is a flawed and inconsistent ruler, and Antigone's ultimately self-destructive act is detrimental to her household, for it prevents her from continuing the family line. The play thus presents conflicts of principle and of character, but offers no easy resolutions: Antigone's desire for Polyneices' burial may be vindicated by the course of the narrative, but the gods still allow her to perish. In developing the imagined consequences of these conflicts of both character and principle, Sophocles unsettlingly exemplifies one of the virtues that Aristotle identified in the plots of great tragedies: that the course of events seems inevitable, but only in retrospect.

Questions and activities:

1. Should you be more loyal towards your family or towards your country? Come up with reasons in support of both sides of the argument - how do your reasons compare with what is said by Antigone and Creon?

2. If we do not agree with traditional Greek beliefs about the the gods and justice, how does that affect our appreciation of the play?

3. Given that she knows that this action will lead to her death, is Antigone right to bury Polyneices? Explain your answer with reference to the text.

4. I've learned through my pain (Creon): What exactly has Creon learned? Does the play make this clear and does it matter?

Suggested Reading and Further Resources

An enormous amount has been written on Greek tragedy in general, and on Sophocles' Antigone  in particular. The following may be recommended as accessible introductions to the play and the genre:

• Brown, A.,  Sophocles' Antigone (Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1987) - an edition of the Greek text with translation and commentary.
• Cairns, D.,  Sophocles: Antigone (London: Bloomsbury, 2016) - a recent introduction to the play.
• Griffith, M., Sophocles: Antigone (Cambridge: CUP, 1999) - an edition and commentary of the Greek text, with an introduction that is accessible to the Greekless reader.
• Hall, E., Greek Tragedy: Suffering Under the Sun (Oxford: OUP, 2010) - a recent introduction to the genre, with specific discussion of Antigone on pp. 305-9.
• Scodel, R. An Introduction to Greek Tragedy  (Cambridge: CUP, 2010) - another recent introduction to the genre, with specific discussion of Antigone  on pp. 106-119.

The above works may be consulted for more advanced bibliography. 

• Short clips of professor Felix Budelmann (Oxford University) discussing Sophoclean drama, and Antigone in particular, are available  here .

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Blindness vs. Sight

In Oedipus Rex , Oedipus mocks the blindness of the seer Tiresias , who responds by telling Oedipus that he (Oedipus) is blind to the corruption in his own life, and soon will be literally blind, too. Issues of blindness and sight aren't quite as obvious in Antigone , but the same basic tension is there. Tiresias gives the current king, Creon , a warning, and the king is unable to see the wisdom of…

Natural Law

Creon , as head of state and lawgiver in Thebes, believes in obedience to man-made laws. But in defying Creon's command that no one bury Polynices, Antigone appeals to a different set of guidelines—what is often called "natural law." Whether its source is in nature or in divine order, natural law states that there are standards for right and wrong that are more fundamental and universal than the laws of any particular society.

Antigone believes…

Citizenship vs. Family Loyalty

The concept of citizenship and the duties that citizens owe to the state were subjects of huge importance and debate in fifth-century B.C.E. Athens, where Sophocles lived and where Antigone was first performed. Antigone and Creon represent the extreme opposite political views regarding where a citizen of a city should place his or her loyalties.

In the play, Creon has a strict definition of citizenship that calls for the state to come first: "…whoever places…

Civil Disobedience

Creon says that the laws enacted by the leader of the city "must be obeyed, large and small, / right and wrong." In other words, Creon is arguing that the law is the basis for justice, so there can be no such thing as an unjust law. Antigone , on the other hand, believes that there are unjust laws, and that she has a moral duty to disobey a law that contradicts what she thinks…

Fate vs. Free Will

The ancient Greeks believed that their gods could see the future, and that certain people could access this information. Independent prophets called "seers" saw visions of things to come. Oracles, priests who resided at the temples of gods—such as the oracle to Apollo at Delphi—were also believed to be able to interpret the gods' visions and give prophecies to people who sought to know the future. Oracles were an accepted part of Greek life—famous leaders…

Sir Richard C. Jebb, Commentary on Sophocles: Antigone

("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius")

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Introduction.

1 Salustius, in his Argument to this play (p. 5), notices that the fortunes of the sisters were differently related by other writers. Mimnermus (c. 620 B.C.) spoke of Ismene having been slain at Thebes by Tydeus, one of the Argive chiefs. Ion of Chios (c. 450 B.C.) said that both sisters were burned in the Theban temple of Hera by Laodamas, son of Eteocles, when Thebes was taken in the later war of the Epigoni. Here, then, we have an Ionian contemporary of Sophocles who did not know the legend of Antigone's deed,—another indication that the legend was of Attic growth.

2 Pind. Ol. 6.15 ; Nem. 9. 24 .

3 Paus. 9.18.3 .

4 With regard to this trilogy, see Introd. to the Oedipus Tyrannus , p. xvi.

5 See note on v. 1044 .

6 See note on v. 1115 .

7 i.e., an effigy. The deuteragonist, who had acted Haemon, had been on the stage, as Messenger, up to v. 1256, and had still to come on as Second Messenger at v. 1278 .

8 In his first, or friendly, speech to Creon ( 998-1032 ) Teiresias says not a word concerning Antigone. Possibly he may be conceived as thinking that the burial of Polyneices would imply, as a consequence, the release of Antigone; though it is obvious that, from Creon's point of view, such an inference would be illogical: Antigone was punished because she had broken the edict; not because the burying of Polyneices was intrinsically wrong.

9 This point might be illustrated by contrast with an able romance, of which the title is borrowed from this play of Sophocles. ‘The New Antigone’ declined the sanction of marriage, because she had been educated by a father who had taught her to regard that institution as wrongful. Such a case was not well suited to do dramatically what the Antigone of Sophocles does,—to raise the question of human law against private conscience in a general form,—because the institution concerned claims to be more than a human ordinance, and because, on the other hand, the New Antigone's opinion was essentially an accident of perverted conscience. The author of the work was fully alive to this, and has said ( Spectator , Nov. 5, 1887 ) that his choice of a title conveyed ‘a certain degree of irony.’

10 Religionsphilosophie , II. 114.

11 El. 1487 ff.

12 Plut. Thes. 29.

13 Aelian Var. Hist. 12. 27.

14 Il. 24.411 ff.

15 Ai. 1332 ff.

16 Paus. 9.32.6 .

17 Mr Long's beautiful picture, ‘Diana or Christ,’ will be remembered by many,— and the more fitly, since it presents a counterpart, not only for Antigone, but also for Creon and for Haemon.

18 From the Niobe of Aeschylus (fr. 157): “ οἱ θεῶν ἀγχίσποροι , ι οἱ Ζηνὸς ἐγγύς : οἷς κατ᾽ ᾿Ιδαῖον πάγον ι Διὸς πατρῴου βωμός ἐστ᾽ ἐν αἰθέρι , ι κοὔπω νιν ἐξίτηλον αἶμα δαιμόνων ”.

19 v. 839 .

20 C. Taylor's translation.

21 Quoted by M. Patin in his Études sur les Tragiques grecs , vol. II., p. 271.

“ πάντας δ᾽ ἐλέγξας καὶ διεξελθὼν φίλους , πατέρα , γεραιάν θ᾽ ἥ σφ᾽ ἔτικτε μητέρα , οὐχ ηὗρε πλὴν γυναικὸς ὅστις ἤθελε θανεῖν πρὸ κείνου μηδ᾽ ἔτ᾽ εἰσορᾶν φάος . ” vv. 15 ff.

23 See especially the note on 1044 .

24 All that we know as to the plot is contained in the first Argument to this play: ‘The story has been used also by Euripides in his Antigone ; only there she is detected with Haemon, and is given in marriage, and bears a son Maion.’ In the scholia at the end of L we also read, ‘this play differs from the Antigone of Euripides in the fact that, there, she was detected through the love of Haemon, and was given in marriage; while here the issue is the contrary’ (i.e. her death). That this is the right rendering of the scholiast's words— “ φωραθεῖσα ἐκείνη διὰ τὸν Αἵμονος ἔρωτα ἐξεδόθη πρὸς γάμον ”—seems probable from a comparison with the statement in the Argument; though others have understood, ‘she was detected, and, owing to the love of Haemon, given in marriage.’ She was detected, not, as in the play of Sophocles, directly by Creon's guards, but (in some way not specified) through the fact that Haemon's love for her had drawn him to her side. Welcker ( Griech. Trag. II. pp. 563 ff.) has sought to identify the Antigone of Euripides with the plot sketched by Hyginus in Fab. 72 . Antigone having been detected, Haemon had been commissioned by Creon to slay her, but had saved her, conveying her to a shepherd's home. When Maion, the son of their secret marriage, had grown to man's estate, he visited Thebes at a festival. This was the moment (Welcker thinks) at which the Antigone of Euripides began. Creon noted in Maion a certain mark which all the offspring of the dragon's seed (“ σπαρτοί ”) bore on their bodies. Haemon's disobedience was thus revealed; Heracles vainly interceded with Creon; Haemon slew his wife Antigone and then himself. But surely both the author of the Argument and the scholiast clearly imply that the marriage of Antigone was contained in the play of Euripides, and formed its conclusion. I therefore agree with Heydemann ( Über eine nacheuripideische Antigone , Berlin, 1868 ) that Hyginus was epitomising some otherwise unknown play. M. Patin ( Études sur les Tragiques grecs , vol. II. p. 277 ) remarks that there is nothing to show whether the play of Euripides was produced before or after that of Sophocles. But he has overlooked a curious and decisive piece of evidence. Among the scanty fragments of the Euripidean Antigone are these lines ( Eur. fr. 165, Nauck ); —“ ἄκουσον : οὐ γὰρ οἱ κακῶς πεπραγότες ι σὺν ταῖς τύχαισι τοὺς λόγους ἀπώλεσαν ”. This evidently glances at the Antigone of Sophocles, vv. 563 f. , where Ismene says, “ οὐδ᾽ ὃς ἂν βλάστη μένει ι νοῦς τοῖς κακῶς πράσσουσιν , ἀλλ᾽ ἐξίσταται ”. (For similar instances of covert criticism, see n. on O. C. 1116 .)

25 Eur. fr. 160, 161, 162 (Nauck) . The most significant is fr. 161, probably spoken by Haemon:—“ ἤρων : τὸ μαίνεσθαι δ᾽ ἄρ᾽ ἦν ἔρως βροτοῖς ”.—Another very suggestive fragment is no. 176, where the speaker is evidently remonstrating with Creon:— ‘Who shall pain a rock by thrusting at it with a spear? And who can pain the dead by dishonour, if we grant that they have no sense of suffering?’ This is characteristic of the difference between the poets. Sophocles never urges the futility of Creon's vengeance, though he does touch upon its ignobleness ( v. 1030 ).

“ quantum ipse feroci Virtute exsuperas , tanto me impensius aecum est Consulere atque omnes metuentem expendere casus . ” Verg. Aen. 12. 19

“ iamiam nec maxima Iuno Nec Saturnius haec oculis pater aspicit aequis . ” Aen. 4. 371

27 Stat. Theb. 12. 679 .

28 Denkmäler , pp. 83 f.

29 From Gerhard, Ant. Bildw. Taf. 73.

30 Mon. Inst. X. 27.

31 Ann. Inst. 176, 1876.

32 See footnote above, p. xxxviii, note 1 (3rd paragraph).

33 “ Περὶ εἰκόνος Ἀντιγόνης κατὰ ἀρχαῖον ὄστρακον , μετὰ ἀπεικονίσματος ”. I am indebted to the kindness of Professor D'Ooge, late Director of the American School at Athens, for an opportunity of seeing this letter.

34 On March 25, 1845, Mendelssohn wrote to his sister:—‘See if you cannot find Punch for Jan. 18 [1845]. It contains an account of Antigone at Covent Garden, with illustrations,—especially a view of the Chorus which has made me laugh for three days.’ In his excellent article on Mendelssohn in the Dictionary of Music , Sir G. Grove has justly deemed this picture worthy of reproduction.

35 Mr George Wotherspoon, who has practically demonstrated the point by setting the Greek words to the music for the Parodos ( vv. 100-161 ). It is only in the last antistrophe, he observes, that the ‘phrasing’ becomes distinctly modern, and less attentive to the Greek rhythms than to harmonic effects.

36 The Greek life of Sophocles says that he served as general ‘in the war against the Anaeans’ (“ ἀναίους ”). Anaea was a place on the mainland, near Prienè. Boeckh supposes that the first expedition was known as ‘the Anaean war,’ and that Sophocles took part in it as well as in the second expedition. To me, I confess, there seems to be far more probability in the simple supposition that “ ἀναίους ” is a corruption of “ σαμίους ”.

37 p. 603 E. Miller, Frag. Hist. II. 46.

38 Arguments against the genuineness have been brought, indeed, by Ritter Fr.( Vorgebliche Strategie d. Sophokles gegen Samos: Rhein. Mus., 1843, pp. 187 ff. ). (1) Ion represents Sophocles as saying,—“ Περικλῆς ποιεῖν με ἔφη , στρατηγεῖν δ᾽ οὐκ ἐπίστασθαι ”. Sophocles (Ritter argues) would have said “ φησί ”, not “ ἔφη ”, if Pericles had been alive. The forger of the fragment intended it to refer to the revolt of Lesbos in 428 B.C.,—forgetting that Sophocles would then be 78. But we reply:—The tense, “ ἔφη ”, can obviously refer to the particular occasion on which the remark was made: ‘Pericles said so [when I was appointed, or when we were at Samos together].’ (2) Ion says of Sophocles, “ οὐ ῥεκτήριος ἦν ”. This (says Ritter) implies that Sophocles was dead; who, however, long survived Ion. [Ion was dead in 421 B.C., Aristoph. Pax 835 .] But here, again, the tense merely refers to the time at which the writer received the impression. We could say of a living person, ‘he was an agreeable man’—meaning that we found him so when we met him.

39 See Curtius, Hist. Gr. II. 472 (Eng. tr.).

40 This fragment of Androtion has been preserved by the schol. on Aristeides, vol. 3, p. 485 (Dind.). Müller, Frag. Hist. IV. 645. The names of two of the ten generals are wanting in the printed texts, but have since been restored, from the MS., by Wilamowitz, De Rhesi Scholiis , P. 13 (Greifswald, 1877). I have observed a remarkable fact in regard to Androtion's list, which ought to be mentioned, because it might be urged against the authenticity of the list, though (in my opinion) such an inference from it would be unfair. Androtion gives (1) the names, (2) the demes of the Generals, but not their tribes. The regular order of precedence for the ten Cleisthenean tribes was this:— 1. Erectheis. 2. Aegeis. 3. Pandionis. 4. Leontis. 5. Acamantis. 6. Oeneis. 7. Cecropis. 8. Hippothontis. 9. Aeantis. 10. Antiochis. Now take the demes named by Androtion. His list will be found to follow this order of the ten tribes,— with one exception, and it is in the case of Sophocles. His deme, Colonus, belonged to the Antiochis, and therefore his name ought to have come last. But Androtion puts it second. The explanation is simple. When the ten tribes were increased to twelve, by the addition of the Antigonis and Demetrias (in or about 307 B.C.), some of the demes were transferred from one tribe to another. Among these was the deme of Colonus. It was transferred from the Antiochis, the tenth on the roll, to the Aegeis, the second on the roll. Hence Androtion's order is correct for his own time (c. 280 B.C.), but not correct for 440 B.C. It is quite unnecessary, however, to infer that he invented or doctored the list. It is enough to suppose that he re-adjusted the order, so as to make it consistent in the eyes of his contemporaries.

41 The Argument to this play, and the “ Βίος Σοφοκλέους ”, have already been cited. See also (1) Strabo 14. p. 638 “ Ἀθηναῖοι δὲ ... πέμψαντες στρατηγὸν Περικλέα καὶ σὺν αὐτῷ Σοφοκλέα τὸν ποιητὴν κακῶς διέθηκαν ἀπειθοῦντας τοὺς Σαμίους ”. (2) Schol. on Aristoph. Pax 696 “ λέγεται δὲ ὅτι ἐκ τῆς στρατηγίας τῆς ἐν Σάμῳ ἠγυρίσατο ” (“ ὁ Σοφοκλῆς ”). (3) Suidas s.v. “ Μέλητος ” [but referring to the Samian “ Μέλισσος ”: cp. Diog. L. 9. 24 ] “ ὑπὲρ Σαμίων στρατηγήσας ἐναυμάχησε πρὸς Σοφοκλῆν τὸν τραγικόν , ὀλυμπιάδι πδ́ ” (Ol. 84 = 444-441 B.C.).—The theory that Sophocles the poet was confused with Sophocles son of Sostratides, strategus in 425 B.C. ( Thuc. 3.115 ), is quite incompatible with the ancient evidence.

42 See Introduction to the Oed. Col. , § 18, p. xli. J. S. III.3

43 Dem. or. 4 § 26 .

44 One of Aelian's anecdotes ( Var. Hist. 3. 8) is entitled, “ ὅτι ὁ Φρύνιχος διά τι ποίημα στρατηγὸς ᾑρέθη ”. Phrynichus, he says, ‘having composed suitable songs for the performers of the war-dance (“ πυρριχισταῖς ”) in a tragedy, so captivated and enraptured the (Athenian) spectators, that they immediately elected him to a military command.’ Nothing else is known concerning this alleged strategia. It is possible that Phrynichus, the tragic poet of c. 500 B.C., was confounded by some later anecdote-monger with the son of Stratonides, general in 412 B.C. ( Thuc. 8.25 ), and that the story was suggested by the authentic strategia of Sophocles. At any rate, the vague and dubious testimony of Aelian certainly does not warrant us in using the case of Phrynichus as an illustration.

45 “ λέλεκται δὲ τὸ δρᾶμα τοῦτο τριακοστὸν δεύτερον ”. Bergk ( Hist. Gr. Lit. III. p. 414) proposes to read, “ δεδίδακται δὲ τὸ δρᾶμα τοῦτο τριακοστόν : δεύτερος ἦν ”. He assumes that Sophocles gained the second prize, because, according to the Parian Chronicle (60), the first prize was gained by Euripides in the archonship of Diphilus (442/1 B.C.). He adds that the word “ εὐδοκιμήσαντα ”, applied to Sophocles in the Argument, would suit the winner of the second prize,—as Aristophanes says of his own “ Δαιταλεῖς ”, which gained the second prize, “ ἄριστ᾽ ἠκουσάτην ” （ Nub. 529) . But two things are wanting to the probability of Bergk's conjecture, viz., (1) some independent reason for thinking that the Antigone was the 30th, rather than the 32nd, of its author's works; and (2) some better ground for assuming that it gained the second prize.

46 See Introd. to Oed. Col. p. xxi. § 3.

47 See Oed. Col. 1405-1413 , and 1770-1772 .

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Antigone Themes

Themes are overarching ideas, thoughts, and philosophical concepts that the writers present in their works. Antigone has themes that are not only universal but also applicable to this day. Sophocles has put a few intriguing themes in Antigone that display his understanding of those concepts and ideas of his time. Some of the major themes of Antigone by Sophocles have been analyzed below.

Themes in Antigone

Blindness in a real or metaphorical sense is the major theme of various Grecian plays. Creon ignores Tiresias’s warning and is unable to see the facts which are similar to that of Oedipus. The words of this seer echo as they show the clear path to Creon who is unwilling to compromise like Oedipus. He appears to have attributed the holy laws to himself ordering not to bury Polynices, Antigone’s brother who has rebelled against him. He does not rethink and changes his mind about his order to leave Polynices’ body to rot. As he does not see past his pride, he is blind. When the crisis spirals out of his control, he becomes level-headed again cursing himself that his blindness to the facts has caused the death of his near and dear ones. This is metaphorical blindness as opposed to Oedipus who suffered from both.

Natural Law

The debate of law as a natural element or man-made has been going on since time immemorial. Creon, as the king, has assumed the role of a lawgiver as was considered during those times. He believes in complete obedience of his subjects to the law that is also from the divine powers. His command of non-burial of Polynices, the brother of Antigone, invites silent wrath from the citizens but open rebellion from Antigone. She appeals to the natural laws that have come from the divine powers instead of Creon. She believes that it is from the gods that the dead should be given a proper burial. However, when Creon distorts this divine law, her sense of justice is outraged, and she openly rebels despite severe consequences. She performs his burial rights and defies the kingly law of Creon.

Political and Family Loyalty

Greeks were aware of the rights and duties of a citizen and the role of a family in a state. They were also aware of how a citizen should behave politically. Both of the characters of Sophocles, Antigone, and Creon represent political as well as family loyalties in the play .

Whereas Creon is a king and has kingly duties of issuing commands and implementing laws, Antigone is loyal to her family. For Creon, the issue is not whether a transgressor is a man or a woman. He doesn’t hesitate to punish her niece and nephew for breaking the law. While Antigone goes against his rule of having no proper burial for her brother, Polynices was on the rebels’ side in the civil war unlike his brother Eteocles. As a citizen, she is bound to abide by the law of the city. On the other hand, long family traditions and family loyalty permit her not to bow before man-made laws. When she stands up against Creon who does not see the happiness of his own son, Haemon, she shows that she has loyal to her family as well as god and both of them outweigh the disloyalty to the city and the ruler.

Pride or Arrogance

Arrogance or pride is despised by the Grecian gods as shown by Sophocles in his plays. When Creon says that he has the power to create a law and that he believes that divine will is at his back, it is a pride and arrogance. As humans are not supposed to be law creator law nor have the divine right. Therefore, when Tiresias warns Creon that he would suffer, Creon realizes that he has sinned. He accepts Tiresias only when it dawns upon him that he will have to suffer more. In other words, his pride has brought him to kneel before the Thebans for what he considers his just and right path sheer in his arrogance of being a wise ruler.

Feminine Elements

The very title of the play shows that it is about Oedipus’ daughter, Antigone. She has risen to prominence for being the sister who has refused to accept Creon’s command. She decides to go against him and give a proper burial to her brother, who rebelled against the state. As a woman, a second-class citizen of Thebes, Creon has not given her any importance. However, she refuses to accept his logic. On the other hand, Ismene submits to the patriarchal will and power.

Civil Disobedience

Civil disobedience is another major theme of the play. Creon argues his case that whatever he says is a law and that must be obeyed as it is the foundation of justice. He means that he cannot be wrong in dispensing justice as a ruler. However, Antigone, on the other hand, believes that Creon’s law is stressing upon is unjust as the dead has a right to burial. It is her moral duty to give a proper burial to her brother. She thinks that the law is contrary to the traditions and customs of the society in which they are living. Therefore, her decision to give a proper burial to her brother is a sort of civil disobedience.

Free Will and Fate

Even before the play, Oedipus was caught between free will and fate that the gods have decided for him. When Oedipus was about to die, he prophesied that his sons would kill each other and when Tiresias comes to Creon, he warns him about his wrong decision of not permitting burial. However, Tiresias has stated that now the fate has been sealed yet Creon has a free choice to redeem himself. On the other hand, Creon demonstrated the same obduracy that Oedipus did and faced a terrible fate.

Threat of Tyranny

The Greek city-states were inimical to the threat of tyranny. Citizens looked at such tendencies with a bit of antagonism. However, Creon seems to be crossing the line, due to which it also becomes one of its thematic strands. It is the abuse of power that he starts with issuing man-made laws to subdue what he calls rebellion. His noble intentions reach their point and stand exposed when he levels the same allegations against Antigone who sees Creon having crossed the line of landing into tyranny. When Tiresias comes to warn him about divine retribution, he does not pay heed and loses family.

Creon uses his power as a ruler to stop the rebellion and award death sentences . However, when it comes to natural or divine rights and prevalent morality, his power does not seem to override the moral framework. Although he tries his best to justify his action of preventing the burial of Polynices’ body and terrifying Antigone of consequences, he faces divine punishment in the shape of the devastation of his how family. This is what he has to face on account of the wrong use of power.

Feminine Rivalry

Antigone and Ismene are daughters of the doomed Oedipus. While Ismene seems reasonable and coward in the face of the mounting pressure, Antigone seems more confident than her sister. She has sensed that Creon’s legal thrust can be blunted with divine legitimacy and public morality. This rivalry, in the end, wins Antigone a good place as a heroic figure.

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