dissertation meaning medicine

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• Indian J Anaesth
• v.66(1); 2022 Jan

Dissertation writing in post graduate medical education

Department of Anaesthesiology, Dr. B R Ambedkar Medical College, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Mridul M Panditrao

1 Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Adesh Institute of Medical Sciences and Research (AIMSR), Bathinda, Punjab, India

2 Department of Anaesthesiology, Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India

Sukhminder Jit Singh Bajwa

3 Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Gian Sagar Medical College and Hospital, Patiala, Punjab, India

Nishant Sahay

4 Department of Anaesthesiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, Bihar, India

Thrivikrama Padur Tantry

5 Department of Anaesthesiology, A J Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Kuntikana, Mangalore, Karnataka, India

Associated Data

A dissertation is a practical exercise that educates students about basics of research methodology, promotes scientific writing and encourages critical thinking. The National Medical Commission (India) regulations make assessment of a dissertation by a minimum of three examiners mandatory. The candidate can appear for the final examination only after acceptance of the dissertation. An important role in a dissertation is that of the guide who has to guide his protégés through the process. This manuscript aims to assist students and guides on the basics of conduct of a dissertation and writing the dissertation. For students who will ultimately become researchers, a dissertation serves as an early exercise. Even for people who may never do research after their degree, a dissertation will help them discern the merits of new treatment options available in literature for the benefit of their patients.

INTRODUCTION

The zenith of clinical residency is the completion of the Master's Dissertation, a document formulating the result of research conducted by the student under the guidance of a guide and presenting and publishing the research work. Writing a proper dissertation is most important to present the research findings in an acceptable format. It is also reviewed by the examiners to determine a part of the criteria for the candidate to pass the Masters’ Degree Examination.

The predominant role in a dissertation is that of the guide who has to mentor his protégés through the process by educating them on research methodology, by: (i) identifying a pertinent and topical research question, (ii) formulating the “type” of study and the study design, (iii) selecting the sample population, (iv) collecting and collating the research data accurately, (v) analysing the data, (vi) concluding the research by distilling the outcome, and last but not the least (vii) make the findings known by publication in an acceptable, peer-reviewed journal.[ 1 ] The co-guide could be a co-investigator from another department related to the study topic, and she/he will play an equivalent role in guiding the student.

Research is a creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge.[ 2 ] This work, known as a study may be broadly classified into two groups in a clinical setting:

• Trials: Here the researcher intervenes to either prevent a disease or to treat it.
• Observational studies: Wherein the investigator makes no active intervention and merely observes the patients or subjects allocated the treatment based on clinical decisions.[ 3 ]

The research which is described in a dissertation needs to be presented under the following headings: Introduction, Aim of the Study, Description of devices if any or pharmacology of drugs, Review of Literature, Material and Methods, Observations and Results, Discussion, Conclusions, Limitations of the study, Bibliography, Proforma, Master chart. Some necessary certificates from the guide and the institute are a requirement in certain universities. The students often add an acknowledgement page before the details of their dissertation proper. It is their expression of gratitude to all of those who they feel have been directly or indirectly helpful in conduct of the study, data analysis, and finally construction of the dissertation.

Framing the research question (RQ)

It is the duty of the teacher to suggest suitable research topics to the residents, based on resources available, feasibility and ease of conduct at the centre. Using the FINER criteria, the acronym for feasibility, topical interest, novelty, ethicality and relevance would be an excellent way to create a correct RQ.[ 4 ]

The PICOT method which describes the patient, intervention, comparison, outcome and time, would help us narrow down to a specific and well-formulated RQ.[ 5 , 6 ] A good RQ leads to the derivation of a research hypothesis, which is an assumption or prediction of the outcome that will be tested by the research. The research topic could be chosen from among the routine clinical work regarding clinical management, use of drugs e.g., vasopressors to prevent hypotension or equipment such as high flow nasal oxygen to avoid ventilation.

Review of literature

To gather this information may be a difficult task for a fresh trainee however, a good review of the available literature is a tool to identify and narrow down a good RQ and generate a hypothesis. Literature sources could be primary (clinical trials, case reports), secondary (reviews, meta-analyses) or tertiary (e.g., reference books, compilations). Methods of searching literature could be manual (journals) or electronic (online databases), by looking up references or listed citations in existing articles. Electronic database searches are made through the various search engines available online e.g., scholar.google.com, National Library of Medicine (NLM) website, clinical key app and many more. Advanced searches options may help narrow down the search results to those that are relevant for the student. This could be based on synthesising keywords from the RQ, or by searching for phrases, Boolean operators, or utilising filters.

After choosing the topic, an apt and accurate title has to be chosen. This should be guided by the use of Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terminology from the NLM, which is used for indexing, cataloguing, and searching of biomedical and health-related information.[ 7 ] The dissertation requires a detailed title which may include the objective of the study, key words and even the PICOT components. One may add the study design in the title e.g. “a randomised cross over study” or “an observational analytical study” etc.

Aim and the objectives

The Aims and the Objectives of the research study have to be listed clearly, before initiating the study.[ 8 ] “Gaps” or deficiencies in existing knowledge should be clearly cited. The Aim by definition is a statement of the expected outcome, while the Objectives (which might be further classed into primary and secondary based on importance) should be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic or relevant, time-bound and challenging; in short, “SMART!” To simplify, the aim is a statement of intent, in terms of what we hope to achieve at the end of the project. Objectives are specific, positive statements of measurable outcomes, and are a list of steps that will be taken to achieve the outcome.[ 9 ] Aim of a dissertation, for example, could be to know which of two nerve block techniques is better. To realise this aim, comparing the duration of postoperative analgesia after administration of the block by any measurable criteria, could be an objective, such as the time to use of first rescue analgesic drug. Similarly, total postoperative analgesic drug consumption may form a secondary outcome variable as it is also measurable. These will generate data that may be used for analysis to realise the main aim of the study.

Inclusion and exclusions

The important aspect to consider after detailing when and how the objectives will be measured is documenting the eligibility criteria for inclusion of participants. The exclusion criteria must be from among the included population/patients only. e.g., If only American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) I and II are included, then ASA III and IV cannot be considered as exclusion criteria, since they were never a part of the study. The protocol must also delineate the setting of the study, locations where data would be collected, and specify duration of conduct of the dissertation. A written informed consent after explaining the aim, objectives and methodology of the study is legally mandatory before embarking upon any human study. The study should explicitly clarify whether it is a retrospective or a prospective study, where the study is conducted and the duration of the study.

Sample size: The sample subjects in the study should be representative of the population upon whom the inference has to be drawn. Sampling is the process of selecting a group of representative people from a larger population and subjecting them for the research.[ 10 ] The sample size represents a number, beyond which the addition of population is unlikely to change the conclusion of the study. The sample size is calculated taking into consideration the primary outcome criteria, confidence interval (CI), power of the study, and the effect size the researcher wishes to observe in the primary objective of the study. Hence a typical sample size statement can be - “Assuming a duration of analgesia of 150 min and standard deviation (SD) of 15 min in first group, keeping power at 80% and CIs at 95% (alpha error at 0.05), a sample of 26 patients would be required to detect a minimum difference (effect size) of 30% in the duration of analgesia between the two groups. Information regarding the different sampling methods and sample size calculations may be found in the Supplementary file 1 .

Any one research question may be answered using a number of research designs.[ 11 ] Research designs are often described as either observational or experimental. The various research designs may be depicted graphically as shown in Figure 1 .

Graphical description of available research designs

The observational studies lack “the three cornerstones of experimentation” – controls, randomisation, and replication. In an experimental study on the other hand, in order to assess the effect of treatment intervention on a participant, it is important to compare it with subjects similar to each other but who have not been given the studied treatment. This group, also called the control group, may help distinguish the effect of the chosen intervention on outcomes from effects caused by other factors, such as the natural history of disease, placebo effects, or observer or patient expectations.

All the proposed dissertations must be submitted to the scientific committee for any suggestion regarding the correct methodology to be followed, before seeking ethical committee approval.

Ethical considerations

Ethical concerns are an important part of the research project, right from selection of the topic to the dissertation writing. It must be remembered, that the purpose of a dissertation given to a post-graduate student is to guide him/her through the process by educating them on the very basics of research methodology. It is therefore not imperative that the protégés undertake a complicated or risky project. If research involves human or animal subjects, drugs or procedures, research ethics guidelines as well as drug control approvals have to be obtained before tabling the proposal to the Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC). The roles, responsibilities and composition of the Ethics Committee has been specified by the Directorate General of Health Services, Government of India. Documented approval of the Ethics committee is mandatory before any subject can be enroled for any dissertation in India. Even retrospective studies require approval from the IEC. Details of this document is available at: https://cdsco.gov.in/opencms/resources/UploadCDSCOWeb/2018/UploadEthicsRegistration/Applmhrcrr.pdf .

The candidate and the guide are called to present their proposal before the committee. The ethical implications, risks and management, subjects’ rights and responsibilities, informed consent, monetary aspects, the research and analysis methods are all discussed. The patient safety is a topmost priority and any doubts of the ethical committee members should be explained in medically layman's terms. The dissertation topics should be listed as “Academic clinical trials” and must involve only those drugs which are already approved by the Drugs Controller General of India. More commonly, the Committee suggests rectifications, and then the researchers have to resubmit the modified proposal after incorporating the suggestions, at the next sitting of the committee or seek online approval, as required. At the conclusion of the research project, the ethics committee has to be updated with the findings and conclusions, as well as when it is submitted for publication. Any deviation from the approved timeline, as well as the research parameters has to be brought to the attention of the IEC immediately, and re-approval sought.

Clinical trial registration

Clinical Trial Registry of India (CTRI) is a free online searchable system for prospective registration of all clinical studies conducted in India. It is owned and managed by the National Institute of Medical Statistics, a division of Indian Council of Medical Research, Government of India. Registration of clinical trials will ensure transparency, accountability and accessibility of trials and their results to all potential beneficiaries.

After the dissertation proposal is passed by the scientific committee and IEC, it may be submitted for approval of trial registration to the CTRI. The student has to create a login at the CTRI website, and submit all the required data with the help of the guides. After submission, CTRI may ask for corrections, clarifications or changes. Subject enrolment and the actual trial should begin only after the CTRI approval.

Randomisation

In an experimental study design, the method of randomisation gives every subject an equal chance to get selected in any group by preventing bias. Primarily, three basic types employed in post-graduate medical dissertations are simple randomisation, block randomisation and stratified randomisation. Simple randomisation is based upon a single sequence of random assignments such as flipping a coin, rolling of dice (above 3 or below 3), shuffling of cards (odd or even) to allocate into two groups. Some students use a random number table found in books or use computer-generated random numbers. There are many random number generators, randomisation programs as well as randomisation services available online too. ( https://www-users.york.ac.uk/~mb55/guide/randsery.htm ).

There are many applications which generate random number sequences and a research student may use such computer-generated random numbers [ Figure 2 ]. Simple randomisation has higher chances of unequal distribution into the two groups, especially when sample sizes are low (<100) and thus block randomisation may be preferred. Details of how to do randomisation along with methods of allocation concealment may be found in Supplementary file 2 .

Figure depicting how to do block randomisation using online resources. (a) generation of a random list (b) transfer of the list to an MS excel file

Allocation concealment

If it is important in a study to generate a random sequence of intervention, it is also important for this sequence to be concealed from all stake-holders to prevent any scope of bias.[ 12 ] Allocation concealment refers to the technique used to implement a random sequence for allocation of intervention, and not to generate it.[ 13 ] In an Indian post-graduate dissertation, the sequentially numbered, opaque, sealed envelopes (SNOSE) technique is commonly used [ Supplementary file 2 ].

To minimise the chances of differential treatment allocation or assessments of outcomes, it is important to blind as many individuals as possible in the trial. Blinding is not an all-or-none phenomenon. Thus, it is very desirable to explicitly state in the dissertation, which individuals were blinded, how they achieved blinding and whether they tested the success of blinding.

Commonly used terms for blinding are

• Single blinding: Masks the participants from knowing which intervention has been given.
• Double blinding: Blinds both the participants as well as researchers to the treatment allocation.
• Triple blinding: By withholding allocation information from the subjects, researchers, as well as data analysts. The specific roles of researchers involved in randomisation, allocation concealment and blinding should be stated clearly in the dissertation.

Data which can be measured as numbers are called quantitative data [ Table 1 ]. Studies which emphasise objective measurements to generate numerical data and then apply statistical and mathematical analysis constitute quantitative research. Qualitative research on the other hand focuses on understanding people's beliefs, experiences, attitudes, behaviours and thus these generate non-numerical data called qualitative data, also known as categorical data, descriptive data or frequency counts. Importance of differentiating data into qualitative and quantitative lies in the fact that statistical analysis as well as the graphical representation may be very different.

Data collection types

In order to obtain data from the outcome variable for the purpose of analysis, we need to design a study which would give us the most valid information. A valid data or measurement tool, is the degree to which the tool measures what it claims to measure. For example, appearance of end tidal carbon dioxide waveform is a more valid measurement to assess correct endotracheal tube placement than auscultation of breath sounds on chest inflation.

The compilation of all data in a ‘Master Chart’ is a necessary step for planning, facilitating and appropriate preparation and processing of the data for analysis. It is a complete set of raw research data arranged in a systematic manner forming a well-structured and formatted, computable data matrix/database of the research to facilitate data analysis. The master chart is prepared as a Microsoft Excel sheet with the appropriate number of columns depicting the variable parameters for each individual subjects/respondents enlisted in the rows.

Statistical analysis

The detailed statistical methodology applied to analyse the data must be stated in the text under the subheading of statistical analysis in the Methods section. The statistician should be involved in the study during the initial planning stage itself. Following four steps have to be addressed while planning, performing and text writing of the statistical analysis part in this section.

Step 1. How many study groups are present? Whether analysis is for an unpaired or paired situation? Whether the recorded data contains repeated measurements? Unpaired or paired situations decide again on the choice of a test. The latter describes before and after situations for collected data (e.g. Heart rate data ‘before’ and ‘after’ spinal anaesthesia for a single group). Further, data should be checked to find out whether they are from repeated measurements (e.g., Mean blood pressure at 0, 1 st , 2 nd , 5 th , 10 th minutes and so on) for a group. Different types of data are commonly encountered in a dissertation [ Supplementary file 3A ].

Step 2. Does the data follow a normal distribution?[ 14 ]

Each study group as well as every parameter has to be checked for distribution analysis. This step will confirm whether the data of a particular group is normally distributed (parametric data) or does not follow the normal distribution (non-parametric data); subsequent statistical test selection mainly depends on the results of the distribution analysis. For example, one may choose the Student's’ test instead of the ‘Mann-Whitney U’ for non-parametric data, which may be incorrect. Each study group as well as every parameter has to be checked for distribution analysis [ Supplementary File 3B ].

Step 3. Calculation of measures of central tendency and measures of variability.

Measures of central tendency mainly include mean, median and mode whereas measures of variability include range, interquartile range (IQR), SD or variance not standard error of mean. Depending on Step 2 findings, one needs to make the appropriate choice. Mean and SD/variance are more often for normally distributed and median with IQR are the best measure for not normal (skewed) distribution. Proportions are used to describe the data whenever the sample size is ≥100. For a small sample size, especially when it is approximately 25-30, describe the data as 5/25 instead of 20%. Software used for statistical analysis automatically calculates the listed step 3 measures and thus makes the job easy.

Step 4. Which statistical test do I choose for necessary analysis?

Choosing a particular test [ Figure 3 ] is based on orderly placed questions which are addressed in the dissertation.[ 15 ]

Chosing a statistical test, (a). to find a difference between the groups of unpaired situations, (b). to find a difference between the groups of paired situations, (c). to find any association between the variables, (d). to find any agreement between the assessment techniques. ANOVA: Analysis of Variance. Reproduced with permission from Editor of Indian Journal of Ophthalmology, and the author, Dr Barun Nayak[ 15 ]

• Is there a difference between the groups of unpaired situations?
• Is there a difference between the groups of paired situations?
• Is there any association between the variables?
• Is there any agreement between the assessment techniques?

Perform necessary analysis using user-friendly software such as GraphPad Prism, Minitab or MedCalc,etc. Once the analysis is complete, appropriate writing in the text form is equally essential. Specific test names used to examine each part of the results have to be described. Simple listing of series of tests should not be done. A typical write-up can be seen in the subsequent sections of the supplementary files [Supplementary files 3C – E ]. One needs to state the level of significance and software details also.

Role of a statistician in dissertation and data analysis

Involving a statistician before planning a study design, prior to data collection, after data have been collected, and while data are analysed is desirable when conducting a dissertation. On the contrary, it is also true that self-learning of statistical analysis reduces the need for statisticians’ help and will improve the quality of research. A statistician is best compared to a mechanic of a car which we drive; he knows each element of the car, but it is we who have to drive it. Sometimes the statisticians may not be available for a student in an institute. Self-learning software tools, user-friendly statistical software for basic statistical analysis thus gain importance for students as well as guides. The statistician will design processes for data collection, gather numerical data, collect, analyse, and interpret data, identify the trends and relationships in data, perform statistical analysis and its interpretation, and finally assist in final conclusion writing.

Results are an important component of the dissertation and should follow clearly from the study objectives. Results (sometimes described as observations that are made by the researcher) should be presented after correct analysis of data, in an appropriate combination of text, charts, tables, graphs or diagrams. Decision has to be taken on each outcome; which outcome has to be presented in what format, at the beginning of writing itself. These should be statistically interpreted, but statistics should not surpass the dissertation results. The observations should always be described accurately and with factual or realistic values in results section, but should not be interpreted in the results section.

While writing, classification and reporting of the Results has to be done under five section paragraphs- population data, data distribution analysis, results of the primary outcome, results of secondary outcomes, any additional observations made such as a rare adverse event or a side effect (intended or unintended) or of any additional analysis that may have been done, such as subgroup analysis.

At each level, one may either encounter qualitative (n/N and %) or quantitative data (mean [SD], median [IQR] and so on.

In the first paragraph of Results while describing the population data, one has to write about included and excluded patients. One needs to cite the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) flow chart to the text, at this stage. Subsequently, highlighting of age, sex, height, body mass index (BMI) and other study characteristics referring to the first table of ‘patients data’ should be considered. It is not desirable to detail all values and their comparison P values in the text again in population data as long as they are presented in a cited table. An example of this pattern can be seen in Supplementary file 3D .

In the second paragraph, one needs to explain how the data is distributed. It should be noted that, this is not a comparison between the study groups but represents data distribution for the individual study groups (Group A or Group B, separately)[ Supplementary file 3E ].

In the subsequent paragraph of Results , focused writing on results of the primary outcomes is very important. It should be attempted to mention most of the data outputs related to the primary outcomes as the study is concluded based on the results of this outcome analysis. The measures of central tendency and dispersion (Mean or median and SD or IQR etc., respectively), alongside the CIs, sample number and P values need to be mentioned. It should be noted that the CIs can be for the mean as well as for the mean difference and should not be interchanged. An example of this pattern can be seen in Supplementary file 3F .

A large number of the dissertations are guided for single primary outcome analysis, and also the results of multiple secondary outcomes are needed to be written. The primary outcome should be presented in detail, and secondary outcomes can be presented in tables or graphs only. This will help in avoiding a possible evaluator's fatigue. An example of this pattern can be seen in Supplementary file 3G .

In the last paragraph of the Results, mention any additional observations, such as a rare adverse event or side effect or describe the unexpected results. The results of any additional analysis (subgroup analysis) then need to be described too. An example of this pattern can be seen in Supplementary file 3H .

The most common error observed in the Results text is duplication of the data and analytical outputs. While using the text for summarising the results, at each level, it should not be forgotten to cite the table or graph but the information presented in a table should not be repeated in the text. Further, results should not be given to a greater degree of accuracy than that of the measurement. For example, mean (SD) age need to be presented as 34.5 (11.3) years instead of 34.5634 (11.349). The latter does not carry any additional information and is unnecessary. The actual P values need to be mentioned. The P value should not be simply stated as ‘ P < 0.05’; P value should be written with the actual numbers, such as ‘ P = 0.021’. The symbol ‘<’ should be used only when actual P value is <0.001 or <0.0001. One should try avoiding % calculations for a small sample especially when n < 100. The sample size calculation is a part of the methodology and should not be mentioned in the Results section.

The use of tables will help present actual data values especially when in large numbers. The data and their relationships can be easily understood by an appropriate table and one should avoid overwriting of results in the text format. All values of sample size, central tendency, dispersions, CIs and P value are to be presented in appropriate columns and rows. Preparing a dummy table for all outcomes on a rough paper before proceeding to Microsoft Excel may be contemplated. Appropriate title heading (e.g., Table 1 . Study Characteristics), Column Headings (e.g., Parameter studied, P values) should be presented. A footnote should be added whenever necessary. For outputs, where statistically significant P values are recorded, the same should be highlighted using an asterisk (*) symbol and the same *symbol should be cited in the footnote describing its value (e.g., * P < 0.001) which is self-explanatory for statistically significance. One should not use abbreviations such as ‘NS’ or ‘Sig’ for describing (non-) significance. Abbreviations should be described for all presented tables. A typical example of a table can be seen in Figure 4 .

Example of presenting a table

Graphical images

Similar to tables, the graphs and diagrams give a bird's-eye view of the entire data and therefore may easily be understood. bar diagrams (simple, multiple or component), pie charts, line diagrams, pictograms and spot maps suit qualitative data more whereas the histograms, frequency polygons, cumulative frequency, polygon scatter diagram, box and whisker plots and correlation diagrams are used to depict quantitative data. Too much presentation of graphs and images, selection of inappropriate or interchanging of graphs, unnecessary representation of three-dimensional graph for one-dimensional graphs, disproportionate sizes of length and width and incorrect scale and labelling of an axis should be avoided. All graphs should contain legends, abbreviation descriptions and a footnote. Appropriate labelling of the x - and the y -axis is also essential. Priori decided scale for axis data should be considered. The ‘error bar’ represents SDs or IQRs in the graphs and should be used irrespective of whether they are bar charts or line graphs. Not showing error bars in a graphical image is a gross mistake. An error bar can be shown on only one side of the line graph to keep it simple. A typical example of a graphical image can be seen in Figure 5 . The number of subjects (sample) is to be mentioned for each time point on the x -axis. An asterisk (*) needs to be put for data comparisons having statistically significant P value in the graph itself and they are self-explanatory with a ‘stand-alone’ graph.

Example of an incorrect (a) and correct (b) image

Once the results have been adequately analysed and described, the next step is to draw conclusions from the data and study. The main goal is to defend the work by staging a constructive debate with the literature.[ 16 ] Generally, the length of the ‘ Discussion ’ section should not exceed the sum of other sections (introduction, material and methods, and results).[ 17 ] Here the interpretation, importance/implications, relevance, limitations of the results are elaborated and should end in recommendations.

It is advisable to start by mentioning the RQ precisely, summarising the main findings without repeating the entire data or results again. The emphasis should be on how the results correlate with the RQ and the implications of these results, with the relevant review of literature (ROL). Do the results coincide with and add anything to the prevalent knowledge? If not, why not? It should justify the differences with plausible explanation. Ultimately it should be made clear, if the study has been successful in making some contribution to the existing evidence. The new results should not be introduced and any exaggerated deductions which cannot be corroborated by the outcomes should not be made.

The discussion should terminate with limitations of the study,[ 17 ] mentioned magnanimously. Indicating limitations of the study reflects objectivity of the authors. It should not enlist any errors, but should acknowledge the constraints and choices in designing, planning methodology or unanticipated challenges that may have cropped up during the actual conduct of the study. However, after listing the limitations, the validity of results pertaining to the RQ may be emphasised again.

This section should convey the precise and concise message as the take home message. The work carried out should be summarised and the answer found to the RQ should be succinctly highlighted. One should not start dwelling on the specific results but mention the overall gain or insights from the observations, especially, whether it fills the gap in the existing knowledge if any. The impact, it may have on the existing knowledge and practices needs to be reiterated.

What to do when we get a negative result?

Sometimes, despite the best research framework, the results obtained are inconclusive or may even challenge a few accepted assumptions.[ 18 ] These are frequently, but inappropriately, termed as negative results and the data as negative data. Students must believe that if the study design is robust and valid, if the confounders have been carefully neutralised and the outcome parameters measure what they are intended to, then no result is a negative result. In fact, such results force us to critically re-evaluate our current understanding of concepts and knowledge thereby helping in better decision making. Studies showing lack of prolongation of the apnoea desaturation safety periods at lower oxygen flows strengthened belief in the difficult airway guidelines which recommend nasal insufflations with at least 15 L/min oxygen.[ 19 , 20 , 21 ]

Publishing the dissertation work

There are many reporting guidelines based upon the design of research. These are a checklist, flow diagram, or structured text to guide authors in reporting a specific type of research, developed using explicit methodology. The CONSORT[ 22 ] and Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) initiatives,[ 23 ] both included in the Enhancing the Quality and Transparency of Health Research (EQUATOR) international network, have elaborated appropriate suggestions to improve the transparency, clarity and completeness of scientific literature [ Figure 6 ].

Equator publishing tree

All authors are advised to follow the CONSORT/STROBE checklist attached as Supplementary file 4 , when writing and reporting their dissertation.

For most dissertations in Anaesthesiology, the CONSORT, STROBE, Standards for Reporting Diagnostic accuracy studies (STARD) or REporting recommendations for tumour MARKer prognostic studies (REMARK) guidelines would suffice.

Abstract and Summary

These two are the essential sections of a dissertation.

It should be at the beginning of the manuscript, after the title page and acknowledgments, but before the table of contents. The preparation varies as per the University guidelines, but generally ranges between 150 to 300 words. Although it comes at the very beginning of the thesis, it is the last part one writes. It must not be a ‘copy-paste job’ from the main manuscript, but well thought out miniaturisation, giving the overview of the entire text. As a rule, there should be no citation of references here.

Logically, it would have four components starting with aims, methods, results, and conclusion. One should begin the abstract with the research question/objectives precisely, avoiding excessive background information. Adjectives like, evaluate, investigate, test, compare raise the curiosity quotient of the reader. This is followed by a brief methodology highlighting only the core steps used. There is no need of mentioning the challenges, corrections, or modifications, if any. Finally, important results, which may be restricted to fulfilment (or not), of the primary objective should be mentioned. Abstracts end with the main conclusion stating whether a specific answer to the RQ was found/not found. Then recommendations as a policy statement or utility may be made taking care that it is implementable.

Keywords may be included in the abstract, as per the recommendations of the concerned university. The keywords are primarily useful as markers for future searches. Lastly, the random reader using any search engine may use these, and the identifiability is increased.

The summary most often, is either the last part of the Discussion or commonly, associated with the conclusions (Summary and Conclusions). Repetition of introduction, whole methodology, and all the results should be avoided. Summary, if individually written, should not be more than 150 to 300 words. It highlights the research question, methods used to investigate it, the outcomes/fallouts of these, and then the conclusion part may start.

References/bibliography

Writing References serves mainly two purposes. It is the tacit acknowledgement of the fact that someone else's written words or their ideas or their intellectual property (IP) are used, in part or in toto , to avoid any blame of plagiarism. It is to emphasise the circumspective and thorough literature search that has been carried out in preparation of the work.

Vancouver style for referencing is commonly used in biomedical dissertation writing. A reference list contains details of the works cited in the text of the document. (e.g. book, journal article, pamphlet, government reports, conference material, internet site). These details must include sufficient details so that others may locate and access those references.[ 24 ]

How much older the references can be cited, depends upon the university protocol. Conventionally accepted rule is anywhere between 5-10 years. About 85% of references should be dispersed in this time range. Remaining 15%, which may include older ones if they deal with theories, historical aspects, and any other factual content. Rather than citing an entire book, it is prudent to concentrate on the chapter or subsection of the text. There are subjective variations between universities on this matter. But, by and large, these are quoted as and when deemed necessary and with correct citation.

Bibliography is a separate list from the reference list and should be arranged alphabetically by writing name of the ‘author or title’ (where no author name is given) in the Vancouver style.

There are different aspects of writing the references.[ 24 ]

Citing the reference in the form of a number in the text. The work of other authors referred in the manuscript should be given a unique number and quoted. This is done in the order of their appearance in the text in chronological order by using Arabic numerals. The multiple publications of same author shall be written individually. If a reference article has more than six authors, all six names should be written, followed by “ et al .” to be used in lieu of other author names. It is desirable to write the names of the journals in abbreviations as per the NLM catalogue. Examples of writing references from the various sources may be found in the Supplementary file 5 .

Both the guide and the student have to work closely while searching the topic initially and also while finalising the submission of the dissertation. But the role of the guide in perusing the document in detail, and guiding the candidate through the required corrections by periodic updates and discussions cannot be over-emphasised.

Assessment of dissertations

Rarely, examiners might reject a dissertation for failure to choose a contemporary topic, a poor review of literature, defective methodology, biased analysis or incorrect conclusions. If these cannot be corrected satisfactorily, it will then be back to the drawing board for the researchers, who would have to start from scratch to redesign the study, keeping the deficiencies in mind this time.

Before submission, dissertation has to be run through “plagiarism detector” software, such as Turnitin or Grammarly to ensure that plagiarism does not happen even unwittingly. Informal guidelines state that the percentage plagiarism picked up by these tools should be <10%.

No work of art is devoid of mistakes/errors. Logically, a dissertation, being no exception, may also have errors. Our aim, is to minimise them.

The dissertation is an integral part in the professional journey of any medical post-graduate student. It is also an important responsibility for a guide to educate his protégé, the basics of research methodology through the process. Searching for a gap in literature and identification of a pertinent research question is the initial step. Careful planning of the study design is a vitally important aspect. After the conduct of study, writing the dissertation is an art for which the student often needs guidance. A good dissertation is a good description of a meticulously conducted study under the different headings described, utilising the various reporting guidelines. By avoiding some common errors as discussed in this manuscript, a good dissertation can result in a very fruitful addition to medical literature.

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Writing A Medicine Dissertation: Tips And Tricks

Writing a dissertation can be an intimidating and challenging task for those in the medical field. It requires careful planning, research and dedication to ensure that the paper meets all of the required criteria.

This article provides tips and tricks to help make the process easier by providing guidance on topics such as structure, content, research methods and sources of reference materials.

The writing process can be daunting but with the right approach it can be a rewarding experience. By following the advice provided in this article, medical students can take steps to ensure they are successful in completing their dissertation.

With this information at hand, students will have a better understanding of what is expected of them and how to go about writing a quality dissertation.

A dissertation is a long-form piece of writing that requires extensive research on a particular topic. In the field of medicine, dissertations typically focus on an area of medical research or discuss ethical issues related to patient care, clinical trials, and drug development.

All dissertations must follow a specific format and include a literature review, methodology section, findings section, and conclusion.

When writing a medical dissertation, it is important to consider medical ethics when discussing controversial topics such as patient autonomy or informed consent. Students should also ensure they are following the guidelines of their university or institution when conducting research and writing their dissertation. Additionally, it is essential to cite any sources used throughout the paper in order to avoid plagiarism.

Creating an outline can help break up the dissertation into manageable sections and ensure that all relevant information is included. It is also beneficial to establish a timeline for each section and commit to completing certain tasks each day until the project is completed.

Finally, students should take advantage of available resources such as online tutorials or peer review groups to help them stay on track and complete their dissertation in time for their deadline.

Choosing A Topic

When writing a medicine dissertation, choosing the right topic is essential. It is important to consider the ethics considerations and ethical implications of any topic you decide to pursue. Additionally, you should think about the data gathering methods and variety of sources available for your research. When selecting your dissertation topic, it is also important to identify any research limitations that you may encounter.

It can be helpful to consult with an academic advisor or mentor when choosing your dissertation topic. They can provide guidance in narrowing down potential topics and can help you develop a clear research plan for your project. Additionally, they can point out resources that could be beneficial for data collection or further investigation into a chosen topic.

In addition to consulting with an advisor, it is important to do independent research on potential dissertation topics. Review journal articles and other literature related to the field of study in which you are interested; look at what has already been done in order to identify areas where more research is needed.

Consider if there are any practical applications or implications of researching a particular topic; ask yourself if this knowledge could lead to improvements in current health care practices or treatments?

Finally, consider how passionate you are about the subject matter before making a final decision on your dissertation topic. Writing a lengthy thesis requires dedication and hard work; if you have enthusiasm for the material, it will make the process much smoother and more enjoyable!

Research Planning

When it comes to researching for your dissertation, planning ahead can be a great advantage. It is important to familiarize yourself with the process of examining case studies, selecting research methods, avoiding plagiarism, citing sources and creating outlines. By doing so, you will gain a better understanding of the scope of your project and have an easier time organizing your thoughts.

When it comes to examining case studies, there are several things to consider. First, you should try to identify any potential biases in the study. This includes looking at the sample size and determining if there are any demographic patterns in the data. Additionally, you should also consider the research methods used in the study and determine whether they are suitable for your project or not.

Effective research requires that you properly cite all sources used in your dissertation. Not only does this help ensure accuracy, but it also helps show that you are taking ownership of your work by giving credit where credit is due.

Furthermore, it is important to avoid plagiarism when conducting research as this can lead to serious consequences such as being expelled from university or having your degree revoked.

Finally, creating an outline can be helpful for staying organized during research. This will allow you to easily organize all of your information into sections and subsections that make sense for the flow of your dissertation. Additionally, this will provide a roadmap for how your paper should progress throughout its entirety which can save valuable time in the long run by reducing the need for major revisions later on down the line.

Grammar & Style

Accurate grammar and style are integral parts of any academic writing, and they can make a big difference to the quality of your dissertation. When it comes to grammar, punctuation rules, academic conventions, and formatting styles should be followed.

This will ensure that the readers have an easier time understanding your writing which will help you communicate your ideas more effectively.

For improved writing clarity, it is important to make sure that paragraphs are well-structured, sentences are clear and concise, words are chosen carefully, and any jargon or technical language is explained.

Additionally, referencing guidelines should be followed accurately so as to avoid plagiarism. Here are some key points to keep in mind:

Ensure that all sources used in your work are properly cited with accurate references.

Double-check that all quotations have been accurately reproduced from the original source.

Make sure all references follow the accepted style set by your university or department.

It is also important to remember that good grammar and style not only helps you present your ideas more effectively but also adds value to them by showcasing your professionalism as a writer and researcher.

As such, take the time to review the content of your dissertation before submitting so that it meets all the requirements for accuracy and clarity of expression.

Literature Review

Selecting reliable sources is an important step to ensure the quality of the literature review. Evaluating existing research is necessary in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the topics being discussed in the literature review.

Selecting Reliable Sources

When conducting a literature review for a medicine dissertation, it is important to identify reliable sources.

This can be done by locating a wide range of sources, evaluating the accuracy of information provided and identifying any potential bias.

An online tutor can help you with this process; they will be able to provide guidance on how to locate sources from trusted academic journals or websites, evaluate whether the information is up-to-date and accurate and look out for any signs of bias in the research that has been conducted.

By taking these steps, you will be able to build an evidence base for your research that is both reliable and valid.

In conclusion, selecting reliable sources for your literature review requires careful consideration but with guidance from an online tutor, it is achievable.

Evaluating Existing Research

Once the sources have been identified, it is important to evaluate existing research to assess its effectiveness.

This involves considering ethical considerations, such as whether the research was conducted ethically and fairly, as well as looking for alternative methods that could be used in future studies.

When evaluating existing research, it is also important to consider any limitations or flaws in the study design.

An online tutor can provide guidance on how to analyse and interpret existing research in order to assess its accuracy and reliability.

With this knowledge, you will be able to make informed decisions about how best to use existing research within your dissertation.

Ultimately, assessing existing research is a key step in ensuring that your literature review provides a comprehensive evidence base for your dissertation.

Data Collection & Analysis

Accurate data collection and analysis is a crucial part of any successful dissertation, and can make or break the quality of your work. Gathering and analyzing data properly requires careful consideration of a variety of factors, including quantitative methods, data gathering techniques, data interpretation, ethical considerations, and academic integrity.

When it comes to quantitative methods, there are many approaches you can use to gather information for your dissertation. Common methods include surveys, interviews, experiments, or observational studies. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages; you should consider which method will best fit your research topic.

Data collection is only half the battle – you must also be able to properly interpret the collected data in order to draw meaningful conclusions from it. This requires an understanding of statistical analysis techniques as well as an ability to synthesize information effectively.

Additionally, when collecting and analyzing data for a dissertation project it’s important to take into consideration any ethical implications associated with the research process. Academic integrity must be maintained at all times; any deviation from this could result in serious consequences for both you and your work.

When done correctly, collecting and analyzing data can help provide valuable insight into the topic of your dissertation while ensuring that all aspects of academic integrity are upheld. Taking the time to properly consider every step of the process will help ensure your success in completing an effective dissertation project.

Structuring The Paper

After analyzing the data collected, the next step in writing a medicine dissertation is to structure the paper.

Constructing an outline is an important part of this process, as it helps to organize ideas and ensure that all necessary points are addressed.

Additionally, identifying resources for research papers such as books, journals, and other digital sources can be beneficial when writing a dissertation.

Once resources are identified and an outline is constructed, creating drafts is the next step. As you write your drafts, citing sources appropriately according to the style guide used by your institution will help make your paper appear professional and well-researched.

After completing multiple drafts and editing them accordingly, formatting your paper according to the style guide is necessary before submitting it.

Citing sources appropriately and Formatting Paper according to Style Guide are also essential steps in structuring the paper for a medicine dissertation.

This should be done with care as any errors or omissions may lead to a lower grade or even disqualification of one’s dissertation. Therefore, it is highly recommended that these final steps are given special attention when working on a medicine dissertation.

Editing & Proofreading

When editing and proofreading a medicine dissertation, it is important to pay attention to the grammar and spelling errors. This ensures that the information is conveyed accurately and the dissertation is presented in an organized manner.

Clarity and coherence are also key aspects to consider when editing and proofreading a medicine dissertation. Proper sentence structure and the use of appropriate terminology should be used throughout the dissertation to ensure that the ideas and arguments are clear and logical.

The formatting and referencing of a medicine dissertation should also be properly checked. This involves adhering to specific guidelines and ensuring the accuracy of in-text citations and bibliographic entries.

Grammar & Spelling Errors

Grammar and spelling errors are important to take note of when editing and proofreading.

Before the digital age, many words had outdated spellings that were still in use, such as ‘colour’ instead of ‘color’. It is important to be aware of these conventions while revising your work.

Additionally, you should double check that all punctuation marks are used correctly, as well as make sure there are no word choice errors such as using “affect” instead of “effect”.

Taking the time to ensure that your paper is free from grammar and spelling errors will give it a more polished look and make it easier for readers to understand.

Therefore, it is beneficial to review your paper multiple times before submitting it for feedback or publication.

Clarity & Coherence

When editing and proofreading, it is essential to ensure that your writing is clear and coherent. This means making sure that the points you are trying to get across are easily understood by the reader.

To do this, you should reference guidelines, such as formatting requirements and presentation techniques, to make sure that all of your ideas are expressed clearly. Additionally, you should pay attention to any words or phrases that could be ambiguous or confusing and revise them accordingly.

By following these steps, you can create a well-structured paper that is both clear and concise. In the end, readers will appreciate your effort since they will be able to easily understand what you wrote and take away whatever message you intended them to receive.

Formatting & Referencing

Formatting and referencing are important aspects of editing and proofreading that must be considered in order to ensure clarity and accuracy.

It is essential to adhere to the legal requirements for citing data sources, as well as any formatting guidelines that have been provided by the publisher or instructor.

Additionally, if statistical techniques are used to analyze data, those should also be referenced properly.

Knowing the correct way to format references can help ensure that all information is accurately represented and can prevent potential issues with plagiarism.

By following these steps, writers can produce a paper that is both academically sound and free of any legal implications.

Time Management

Time management is a critical skill to develop in order to successfully complete your dissertation.

It can be difficult to stay on track with such a large project, but by creating deadlines, breaking tasks into manageable chunks, and avoiding procrastination, you can make steady progress.

Technology and support systems can help you manage your time efficiently; for example, online calendars or task tracking programs are great tools for staying organized.

Additionally, enlisting the help of peers or mentors can provide much needed accountability and motivation as you work towards completing your dissertation.

Making a plan and sticking to it will ensure that you reach the end goal of submitting your dissertation on time.

Seeking Professional Assistance

Writing a dissertation can be an overwhelming task, and many students may find themselves in need of professional assistance.

Seeking external help can help make the process smoother and more efficient.

When seeking professional assistance, it is important to ensure that your sources are accurately referenced and your data is interpreted correctly.

Furthermore, having somebody who is familiar with formatting guidelines can be immensely helpful when submitting a dissertation.

In addition, having access to writing strategies from an experienced tutor can be invaluable when writing a complex paper like a dissertation.

By enlisting the help of a professional, students can gain insight into how to best approach their project and increase their chances of success.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long should a medicine dissertation be.

When writing a medicine dissertation, it is important to keep in mind the expected length of the paper.

Generally, a medical dissertation should be at least 50 pages long, excluding bibliography and other supplemental material. However, depending on the topic and research methods used, the page length may vary.

Outlining expectations prior to starting the project can help students stay on track while creating their dissertation.

Additionally, citing sources correctly and avoiding plagiarism are important components of any dissertation so that proper credit is given to those whose work was utilized in completing the project.

Additionally, proofreading content as well as researching options are important steps that should not be overlooked when writing a medicine dissertation.

What Is The Best Way To Structure The Introduction Of A Medicine Dissertation?

Structuring the introduction of a medicine dissertation is an important step that should not be overlooked.

A well-structured introduction should include framing arguments, data collection, referencing techniques, researching techniques and evidence based on the topic at hand.

It is essential to ensure the audience knows why your research is important and what you hope to achieve through it.

Furthermore, it needs to be succinct yet comprehensive enough for the reader to understand the context of the dissertation.

An online tutor can help guide you through this process by providing guidance on how best to structure the introduction and make sure all necessary information has been included.

What Resources Are Available For Researching A Medicine Dissertation Topic?

When researching a medicine dissertation topic, it is essential to use reliable and up-to-date resources.

Searching databases such as PubMed and Medline can help in finding relevant research studies.

Additionally, time management strategies, outlining techniques, proofreading techniques, and referencing guidelines should all be taken into consideration when researching a dissertation topic.

Proper organization of the research process is key in order to ensure the most efficient results.

What Are The Most Common Mistakes Made When Writing A Medicine Dissertation?

Poor referencing, inadequate time management, inaccurate data analysis, and a lack of subject expertise are some of the most common mistakes made when writing a medicine dissertation.

While there can be many other errors that could be made, these particular ones can be easily avoided if the student takes the time to ensure their referencing is correct and up to date, they manage their time effectively, ensure that data is analysed accurately and thoroughly review literature in the field.

Furthermore, it is essential for students to have an adequate understanding of their chosen topic in order to write a successful dissertation.

Should I Use Footnotes Or Endnotes In My Medicine Dissertation?

When writing a medicine dissertation, the decision between using footnotes or endnotes may be difficult. It is important to consider the structuring of sources, proofreading techniques, quantitative analysis, time management and data interpretation when making this decision.

Generally speaking, footnotes are placed at the bottom of each page and provide additional information about the source cited; whereas endnotes are listed on a separate page at the end of the document.

Ultimately, it is up to personal preference as to which one you choose for your medicine dissertation.

The writing of a medicine dissertation can be a long and laborious task. It is important to ensure that the length of the dissertation is appropriate, as this will help to ensure that all relevant material is covered.

The introduction should be concise yet informative, setting out the main topic and providing an overview of what follows.

When researching for a medicine dissertation, it is important to use reliable academic sources such as journal articles, books and online databases. Taking notes throughout the research process will help make sure all relevant information is included in the final document.

Common mistakes made when writing a medicine dissertation include not properly referencing sources, poor grammar or punctuation, and overlooking plagiarism issues. When including references in the paper, footnotes are generally preferred over endnotes as they are easier to read and reference quickly.

Overall, writing a medicine dissertation can be challenging but with careful planning and attention to detail it can also be rewarding.

To ensure success when writing a medicine dissertation it is important to keep track of research materials, structure the paper appropriately, follow academic style guidelines and take care to avoid common errors such as plagiarism or poor grammar.

With dedication and hard work any student can produce an exceptional piece of work suitable for submission for their degree program.

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dissertation

Definition of dissertation

Examples of dissertation in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'dissertation.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1651, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near dissertation

dissertative

Cite this Entry

“Dissertation.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dissertation. Accessed 1 Jun. 2024.

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Internal Medicine: Thesis & Dissertations

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• ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global This link opens in a new window ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (PQDT) Global is the world's most comprehensive collection of dissertations and theses from around the world, offering millions of works from thousands of universities. Each year hundreds of thousands of works are added. Full-text coverage spans from 1743 to the present, with citation coverage dating back to 1637.
• Current & Completed Research This link opens in a new window Contains current and completed research projects (in economics, science and humanities), and includes (the master’s and doctoral theses and dissertations) theses and dissertations from South African universities, Technikons, and Universities of Technology, as well as the research works from the government, non-government and private sectors. Some records include links to the full text. The database is maintained by the National Research Foundation (1919- ).

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EliScholar > Medicine > Medicine Thesis Digital Library

Yale Medicine Thesis Digital Library

Starting with the Yale School of Medicine (YSM) graduating class of 2002, the Cushing/Whitney Medical Library and YSM Office of Student Research have collaborated on the Yale Medicine Thesis Digital Library (YMTDL) project, publishing the digitized full text of medical student theses on the web as a valuable byproduct of Yale student research efforts. The digital thesis deposit has been a graduation requirement since 2006. Starting in 2012, alumni of the Yale School of Medicine were invited to participate in the YMTDL project by granting scanning and hosting permission to the Cushing/Whitney Medical Library, which digitized the Library’s print copy of their thesis or dissertation. A grant from the Arcadia Fund in 2017 provided the means for digitizing over 1,000 additional theses. IF YOU ARE A MEMBER OF THE YALE COMMUNITY AND NEED ACCESS TO A THESIS RESTRICTED TO THE YALE NETWORK, PLEASE MAKE SURE YOUR VPN (VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK) IS ON.

Theses/Dissertations from 2024 2024

Refractory Neurogenic Cough Management: The Non-Inferiority Of Soluble Steroids To Particulate Suspensions For Superior Laryngeal Nerve Blocks , Hisham Abdou

Percutaneous Management Of Pelvic Fluid Collections: A 10-Year Series , Chidumebi Alim

Behavioral Outcomes In Patients With Metopic Craniosynostosis: Relationship With Radiographic Severity , Mariana Almeida

Ventilator Weaning Parameters Revisited: A Traditional Analysis And A Test Of Artificial Intelligence To Predict Successful Extubation , John James Andrews

Developing Precision Genome Editors: Peptide Nucleic Acids Modulate Crispr Cas9 To Treat Autosomal Dominant Disease , Jem Atillasoy

Radiology Education For U.s. Medical Students In 2024: A State-Of-The-Art Analysis , Ryan Bahar

Out-Of-Pocket Spending On Medications For Diabetes In The United States , Baylee Bakkila

Imaging Markers Of Microstructural Development In Neonatal Brains And The Impact Of Postnatal Pathologies , Pratheek Sai Bobba

A Needs Assessment For Rural Health Education In United States Medical Schools , Kailey Carlson

Racial Disparities In Behavioral Crisis Care: Investigating Restraint Patterns In Emergency Departments , Erika Chang-Sing

Social Determinants Of Health & Barriers To Care In Diabetic Retinopathy Patients Lost To Follow-Up , Thomas Chang

Association Between Fine Particulate Matter And Eczema: A Cross-Sectional Study Of The All Of Us Research Program And The Center For Air, Climate, And Energy Solutions , Gloria Chen

Predictors Of Adverse Outcomes Following Surgical Intervention For Cervical Spondylotic Myelopathy , Samuel Craft

Genetic Contributions To Thoracic Aortic Disease , Ellelan Arega Degife

Actigraphy And Symptom Changes With A Social Rhythm Intervention In Young Persons With Mood Disorders , Gabriela De Queiroz Campos

Incidence Of Pathologic Nodal Disease In Clinically Node Negative, Microinvasive/t1a Breast Cancers , Pranammya Dey

Spinal Infections: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Prevention, And Management , Meera Madhav Dhodapkar

Childen's Reentry To School After Psychiatric Hospitalization: A Qualitative Study , Madeline Digiovanni

Bringing Large Language Models To Ophthalmology: Domain-Specific Ontologies And Evidence Attribution , Aidan Gilson

Surgical Personalities: A Cultural History Of Early 20th Century American Plastic Surgery , Joshua Zev Glahn

Implications Of Acute Brain Injury Following Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement , Daniel Grubman

Latent Health Status Trajectory Modelling In Patients With Symptomatic Peripheral Artery Disease , Scott Grubman

The Human Claustrum Tracks Slow Waves During Sleep , Brett Gu

Patient Perceptions Of Machine Learning-Enabled Digital Mental Health , Clara Zhang Guo

Variables Affecting The 90-Day Overall Reimbursement Of Four Common Orthopaedic Procedures , Scott Joseph Halperin

The Evolving Landscape Of Academic Plastic Surgery: Understanding And Shaping Future Directions In Diversity, Equity, And Inclusion , Sacha C. Hauc

Association Of Vigorous Physical Activity With Psychiatric Disorders And Participation In Treatment , John L. Havlik

Long-Term Natural History Of Ush2a-Retinopathy , Michael Heyang

Clinical Decision Support For Emergency Department-Initiated Buprenorphine For Opioid Use Disorder , Wesley Holland

Applying Deep Learning To Derive Noninvasive Imaging Biomarkers For High-Risk Phenotypes Of Prostate Cancer , Sajid Hossain

The Hardships Of Healthcare Among People With Lived Experiences Of Homelessness In New Haven, Ct , Brandon James Hudik

Outcomes Of Peripheral Vascular Interventions In Patients Treated With Factor Xa Inhibitors , Joshua Joseph Huttler

Janus Kinase Inhibition In Granuloma Annulare: Two Single-Arm, Open-Label Clinical Trials , Erica Hwang

Medicaid Coverage For Undocumented Children In Connecticut: A Political History , Chinye Ijeli

Population Attributable Fraction Of Reproductive Factors In Triple Negative Breast Cancer By Race , Rachel Jaber Chehayeb

Evaluation Of Gastroesophageal Reflux And Hiatal Hernia As Risk Factors For Lobectomy Complications , Michael Kaminski

Health-Related Social Needs Before And After Critical Illness Among Medicare Beneficiaries , Tamar A. Kaminski

Effects Of Thoracic Endovascular Aortic Repair On Cardiac Function At Rest , Nabeel Kassam

Conditioned Hallucinations By Illness Stage In Individuals With First Episode Schizophrenia, Chronic Schizophrenia, And Clinical High Risk For Psychosis , Adam King

The Choroid Plexus Links Innate Immunity To Dysregulation Of Csf Homeostasis In Diverse Forms Of Hydrocephalus , Emre Kiziltug

Health Status Changes After Stenting For Stroke Prevention In Carotid Artery Stenosis , Jonathan Kluger

Rare And Undiagnosed Liver Diseases: New Insights From Genomic And Single Cell Transcriptomic Analyses , Chigoziri Konkwo

“Teen Health” Empowers Informed Contraception Decision-Making In Adolescents And Young Adults , Christina Lepore

Barriers To Mental Health Care In Us Military Veterans , Connor Lewis

Barriers To Methadone For Hiv Prevention Among People Who Inject Drugs In Kazakhstan , Amanda Rachel Liberman

Unheard Voices: The Burden Of Ischemia With No Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease In Women , Marah Maayah

Partial And Total Tonsillectomy For Pediatric Sleep-Disordered Breathing: The Role Of The Cas-15 , Jacob Garn Mabey

Association Between Insurance, Access To Care, And Outcomes For Patients With Uveal Melanoma In The United States , Victoria Anne Marks

Urinary Vegf And Cell-Free Dna As Non-Invasive Biomarkers For Diabetic Retinopathy Screening , Mitchelle Matesva

Pain Management In Facial Trauma: A Narrative Review , Hunter Mccurdy

Meningioma Relational Database Curation Using A Pacs-Integrated Tool For Collection Of Clinical And Imaging Features , Ryan Mclean

Colonoscopy Withdrawal Time And Dysplasia Detection In Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease , Chandler Julianne Mcmillan

Cerebral Arachnoid Cysts Are Radiographic Harbingers Of Epigenetics Defects In Neurodevelopment , Kedous Mekbib

Regulation And Payment Of New Medical Technologies , Osman Waseem Moneer

Permanent Pacemaker Implantation After Tricuspid Valve Repair Surgery , Alyssa Morrison

Non-Invasive Epidermal Proteome-Based Subclassification Of Psoriasis And Eczema And Identification Of Treatment Relevant Biomarkers , Michael Murphy

Ballistic And Explosive Orthopaedic Trauma Epidemiology And Outcomes In A Global Population , Jamieson M. O'marr

Dermatologic Infectious Complications And Mimickers In Cancer Patients On Oncologic Therapy , Jolanta Pach

Distressed Community Index In Patients Undergoing Carotid Endarterectomy In Medicare-Linked Vqi Registry , Carmen Pajarillo

Preoperative Psychosocial Risk Burden Among Patients Undergoing Major Thoracic And Abdominal Surgery , Emily Park

Volumetric Assessment Of Imaging Response In The Pnoc Pediatric Glioma Clinical Trials , Divya Ramakrishnan

Racial And Sex Disparities In Adult Reconstructive Airway Surgery Outcomes: An Acs Nsqip Analysis , Tagan Rohrbaugh

A School-Based Study Of The Prevalence Of Rheumatic Heart Disease In Bali, Indonesia , Alysha Rose

Outcomes Following Hypofractionated Radiotherapy For Patients With Thoracic Tumors In Predominantly Central Locations , Alexander Sasse

Healthcare Expenditure On Atrial Fibrillation In The United States: The Medical Expenditure Panel Survey 2016-2021 , Claudia See

A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis Of Oropharyngeal Cancer Post-Treatment Surveillance Practices , Rema Shah

Machine Learning And Risk Prediction Tools In Neurosurgery: A Rapid Review , Josiah Sherman

Maternal And Donor Human Milk Support Robust Intestinal Epithelial Growth And Differentiation In A Fetal Intestinal Organoid Model , Lauren Smith

Constructing A Fetal Human Liver Atlas: Insights Into Liver Development , Zihan Su

Somatic Mutations In Aging, Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria, And Myeloid Neoplasms , Tho Tran

Illness Perception And The Impact Of A Definitive Diagnosis On Women With Ischemia And No Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease: A Qualitative Study , Leslie Yingzhijie Tseng

Advances In Keratin 17 As A Cancer Biomarker: A Systematic Review , Robert Tseng

Regionalization Strategy To Optimize Inpatient Bed Utilization And Reduce Emergency Department Crowding , Ragini Luthra Vaidya

Survival Outcomes In T3 Laryngeal Cancer Based On Staging Features At Diagnosis , Vickie Jiaying Wang

Analysis Of Revertant Mosaicism And Cellular Competition In Ichthyosis With Confetti , Diana Yanez

A Hero's Journey: Experiences Using A Therapeutic Comicbook In A Children’s Psychiatric Inpatient Unit , Idil Yazgan

Prevalence Of Metabolic Comorbidities And Viral Infections In Monoclonal Gammopathy , Mansen Yu

Automated Detection Of Recurrent Gastrointestinal Bleeding Using Large Language Models , Neil Zheng

Vascular Risk Factor Treatment And Control For Stroke Prevention , Tianna Zhou

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Radiomics: A Methodological Guide And Its Applications To Acute Ischemic Stroke , Emily Avery

Characterization Of Cutaneous Immune-Related Adverse Events Due To Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors , Annika Belzer

An Investigation Of Novel Point Of Care 1-Tesla Mri Of Infants’ Brains In The Neonatal Icu , Elisa Rachel Berson

Understanding Perceptions Of New-Onset Type 1 Diabetes Education In A Pediatric Tertiary Care Center , Gabriel BetancurVelez

Effectiveness Of Acitretin For Skin Cancer Prevention In Immunosuppressed And Non-Immunosuppressed Patients , Shaman Bhullar

Adherence To Tumor Board Recommendations In Patients With Hepatocellular Carcinoma , Yueming Cao

Clinical Trials Related To The Spine & Shoulder/elbow: Rates, Predictors, & Reasons For Termination , Dennis Louis Caruana

Improving Delivery Of Immunomodulator Mpla With Biodegradable Nanoparticles , Jungsoo Chang

Sex Differences In Patients With Deep Vein Thrombosis , Shin Mei Chan

Incorporating Genomic Analysis In The Clinical Practice Of Hepatology , David Hun Chung

Emergency Medicine Resident Perceptions Of A Medical Wilderness Adventure Race (medwar) , Lake Crawford

Surgical Outcomes Following Posterior Spinal Fusion For Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis , Wyatt Benajmin David

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• PhD vs MD – Differences explained
• Types of Doctorates

A MD is a Doctor of Medicine, whilst a PhD is a Doctor of Philosophy. A MD program focuses on the application of medicine to diagnose and treat patients. A PhD program research focuses on research (in any field) to expand knowledge.

Introduction

This article will outline the key differences between a MD and a PhD. If you are unsure of which degree is suitable for you, then read on to find out the focuses and typical career paths of both. Please note this article has been written for the perspective of a US audience.

What is a MD?

MD (also seen stylized as M.D and M.D.) comes from the Latin term Medicīnae Doctor and denotes a Doctor of Medicine.

MDs practice allopathic medicine (they use modern medicine to treat symptoms and diseases). A common example would be your physician, though there are numerous types of medical doctors, with different areas of speciality and as such may be referred to differently.

What is a PhD?

A PhD (sometimes seen stylized as Ph.D.) comes from the Latin term Philosophiae Doctor and denotes a Doctor of Philosophy.

A PhD can be awarded for carrying out original research in any field, not just medicine. In comparison to an MD, a PhD in a Medicinal field is focused on finding out new knowledge, as opposed to applying current knowledge.

A PhD in Medicine therefore does not require you to attend medical school or complete a residency program. Instead, you are required to produce a thesis (which summarizes your research findings) and defend your work in an oral examination.

What is the difference between a MD and a PhD?

Both are Doctoral Degrees, and someone with either degree can be referred to as a doctor. But for clarity, MDs are awarded to those with expertise in practicing medicine and are therefore more likely to be found in clinical environments. PhDs are awarded to researchers, and are therefore more likely to be found in academic environments.

This does not mean that MDs cannot pursue a research career, nor does it mean that a PhD cannot pursue clinical practice. It does mean, however, that PhDs are more suited to those who would wish to pursue a career in research, and that MDs are more suited to those who prefer the clinical aspects of medicine or aspire to become a practicing physician.

It should also be noted that a medical PhD doctorates possess transferable skills which make them desirable to various employers. Their familiarity with the scientific method and research experience makes them well suited to industry work beyond medical research.

Program structure and time

The standard MD program structure sees students undertake 2 years of coursework and classroom-based learning, before undertaking 2 years of rotational work in a clinical environment (such as a hospital). Getting an MD requires attending a medical school (accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education) and completing a residency program. Both of which prepare students to diagnose patients and practice clinical medicine.

The standard PhD program lasts 5 to 7 years and sees students undertake original research (monitored by a supervisor). Getting a PhD requires the contribution of novel findings, which leads to the advancement of knowledge within your field of research. With the exception of some clinical PhDs, a PhD alone is not enough to be able to prescribe medicine.

PhD doctorates are required to summarize the purpose, methodology, findings and significance of their research in a thesis. The final step is the ‘ Viva Voce ’ where the student must defend their thesis to a panel of examiners.

To summarize, a MD program usually lasts 4 years, whilst a PhD program lasts 5 to 7 years. Before being licensed to practice medicine, however, you must first complete a residency program which can last between 3 to 7 years.

What is a MD/PhD?

A MD/PhD is a dual doctoral degree. The program alternates between clinical focused learning and research focused work. This is ideal for those who are interested in both aspects of medicine. According to the Association of American Medical Colleges, an estimated 600 students matriculate into MD-PhD programs each year .

The typical length of a MD/PhD program is 7 to 8 years, almost twice the length of a MD alone. As with a MD, MD/PhDs are still required to attend medical school and must complete a residency program before being able to practice medicine.

In comparison to PhD and MD programs, MD/PhD positions in the United States are scarce and consequently more competitive. The tuition fees for MD/PhD positions are typically much lower than MD and PhD positions are sometimes waived completely.

Those who possess a MD/PhD are commonly referred to as medical scientists. The ability to combine their medical knowledge with research skills enables MD/PhDs to work in a wide range of positions from academia to industrial research.

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

Browse PhDs Now

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Facility for Rare Isotope Beams

At michigan state university, new frib precision measurement program advances understanding of proton halos, theoretical physicists and experimentalists work together to measure the mass of a rare isotope expected to form a rare proton halo, publishing the first results from frib’s precision measurement program. .

In May 2022, the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB) at Michigan State University (MSU), launched its precision measurement program. Staff from FRIB’s  Low Energy Beam and Ion Trap (LEBIT) facility take high-energy, rare-isotope beams generated at FRIB and cool them to a lower energy state. Afterward, the researchers measure specific particles’ masses at high precision. 

The LEBIT team, led by  Ryan Ringle , adjunct professor of physics at FRIB and in the MSU Department of Physics and Astronomy and senior scientist at FRIB, and  Georg Bollen , University Distinguished Professor of Physics and FRIB Experimental Systems Division director, recently published a research paper that used the facility to take a step in verifying the mass of aluminum-22. Researchers think this exotic isotope demonstrates a rare but interesting property—specifically, that the nucleus is surrounded by a “halo” of protons that loosely orbit the nucleus. This halo structure reveals distinctive physical properties during its fleeting existence.

“This program requires a lot of extra beam preparation to perform experiments, and this is the first measurement in FRIB’s science program,” Ringle said. “This measurement could not have been done in a reasonable time at FRIB’s predecessor, the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory, and it highlights our facility’s potential moving forward. Considering this was done with one-eightieth of FRIB’s power specification, this was like a warm-up before exercising.” 

The team published its results in  Physical Review Letters (“ Precision Mass Measurement of the Proton Dripline Halo Candidate 22 Al”).

Capturing elusive proton halos

While most atoms have electrons tightly orbiting the nucleus, protons and neutrons are part of the nucleus itself. However, when atoms encounter many of the same charged particles under certain conditions, they can create halos that orbit the nucleus beyond the pull of the strong nuclear force—the force that would normally keep these particles within the nucleus. While all halo structures are rare fleeting phenomena, neutrons are usually observed as halo particles. A nucleus’s positive charge usually repels protons’ positive charges, meaning that halos made of protons are even rarer. Measurements on nearby isotopes suggested that aluminum-22 might be an isotope that could form a proton halo, but researchers needed to verify this directly in other experiments. 

To achieve this, the team creates a high-energy isotope beam of aluminum-22 using a process called “projectile fragmentation” at FRIB. The researchers create a beam from a heavy, stable atomic nucleus of a given element—in this case, an isotope of argon—then accelerate the beam to half the speed of light. The beam then hits a target with these ultra-fast-moving particle projectiles. This violent collision creates rare, short-lived isotopes that the researchers can shepherd into an instrument to filter out the particle of interest. They then lower the temperature to slow them down into a uniform beam and measure particle mass accurately. 

While the team was able to accurately measure the mass of aluminum-22, it is only part of verifying the isotope’s proton halo structure. The LEBIT researchers’ colleagues in the  Beam Cooler and Laser Spectroscopy (BECOLA) facility at FRIB now plan to take the next step in verifying the proton halo by measuring the charge radius—the distribution of protons around the nucleus—as well as how much the nucleus may be deformed from its traditional, spherical shape. Taken together, these measurements can unequivocally confirm the existence of a proton halo structure around aluminum-22. 

Ringle pointed out that the collaboration between theoretical physicists and experimentalists at FRIB plays an essential role for research like determining the existence of a proton halo around a rare isotope such as aluminum-22. 

FRIB provides research opportunities to graduate students 

Ringle credited students on the team for playing a key role in advancing this research. One of LEBIT’s graduate students, Scott Campbell, took this project on as part of his dissertation. 

“He really took charge of running this experiment from start to finish,” Ringle said. “The students who work with us really benefit from the wealth of expertise we have at this facility. Nowhere else is a facility like this located in the middle of a university campus. It allows students to come in for an hour or two between their classes or before they go home for the day. They can work at the lab part-time and easily pair that with taking classes. But our facility gets benefit as well; we have increased access to talented, motivated students.” 

Campbell studied physics and computer science at Gonzaga University as an undergraduate. He was excited by the prospect of coming to MSU for graduate school in large part to FRIB being on campus and being a major resource for physics students. “I was very excited by the prospect of doing for nuclear physics research at MSU, especially with FRIB ramping up during my studies,” he said. “We have access to these great facilities and a great community, and we get to participate in groundbreaking advances in nuclear science.” 

Campbell also noted that FRIB not only offers world-class facilities, but also networking opportunities and mentors like Ringle. “We are surrounded by colleagues who are interested in your research and want to help you push science forward,” he said.

Eric Gedenk is a freelance science writer.

Michigan State University operates the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB) as a user facility for the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science (DOE-SC), supporting the mission of the DOE-SC Office of Nuclear Physics. Hosting what is designed to be the most powerful heavy-ion accelerator, FRIB enables scientists to make discoveries about the properties of rare isotopes in order to better understand the physics of nuclei, nuclear astrophysics, fundamental interactions, and applications for society, including in medicine, homeland security, and industry.

The U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States and is working to address some of today’s most pressing challenges. For more information, visit energy.gov/science.

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Insurance often denies GLP-1 medications for teens with type 2 diabetes, obesity

by The Endocrine Society

Health insurance companies often deny coverage for new medications that treat children and teens with obesity and type 2 diabetes, meaning many patients who need treatment are unable to afford it, according to a study presented at ENDO 2024 , the Endocrine Society's annual meeting in Boston, Mass.

The medications, called GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP1Ra), are often denied despite being approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, especially if children do not have type 2 diabetes , the researchers found.

GLP1Ra drugs include liraglutide (Victoza, Saxenda). The researchers wanted to evaluate the real-world prescription outcomes of these medications at a large children's hospital. They studied 599 children, with an average age of 15, who were prescribed a GLP1Ra. Three-quarters had type 2 diabetes, and 58% had public insurance .

"We found insurance denied the GLP1Ra prescriptions in 64% of patients with obesity and 32% of patients with type 2 diabetes," said lead researcher Gabriel Castano, M.D., of Texas Children's Hospital Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, Texas. "The lack of insurance approval severely limits GLP1Ra use in the children who truly need the medications."

In patients with type 2 diabetes, private insurance denied 54% of the prescriptions, while Medicaid denied 27%. In patients without type 2 diabetes, private insurance denied 55%, and Medicaid denied 69% of prescriptions.

Patients taking liraglutide start at a lower dose and gradually increase until they reach the full prescribed dose, a process called titration. The study found that in children with type 2 diabetes, 33% took longer than recommended to reach the prescribed treatment dose, and 17% never reached the treatment dose. For patients with obesity, less than half were able to reach their prescribed dose.

"This has significant clinical implications since the expected improvements with the use of GLP1Ra in weight or glucose control are likely dose-dependent," Castano said. "If patients are unable to reach the prescribed dose, they will likely not experience the full beneficial effects of the medication."

Most patients had no or mild side effects. However, two patients developed severe pancreatitis while on liraglutide, a side effect that has not been reported before, Castano added.

"Our research shows that GLP1Ra medications are difficult to get for the patients who need them, patients may not be able to follow the recommended titration regimen when starting a GLP1Ra, and additional side effects may be possible than what has been reported previously," he said.

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• Best term policy
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• Best for higher policy limits
• Best for guaranteed acceptance
• Best for waiting periods
• How we review no exam life insurance

Best No Exam Life Insurance Companies of June 2024

Affiliate links for the products on this page are from partners that compensate us (see our advertiser disclosure with our list of partners for more details). However, our opinions are our own. See how we rate insurance products to write unbiased product reviews.

Many life insurance companies offer no-exam life insurance, which has the obvious appeal of skipping medical exams. For some people, it's a great option, but keep in mind that this type of life insurance policy will still require some information about your medical history. 

Our Top Picks for the Best No Exam Life Insurance

• Best term life policy: Ethos Life
• Best for seniors: AARP Life Insurance
• Best for military members: USAA Life Insurance
• Best for higher policy limits: Prudential Life Insurance
• Best for guaranteed acceptance: Mutual of Omaha Life Insurance
• Best for waiting period: AAA Life Insurance

How we rate no exam life insurance companies »

Compare No Medical Exam Life Insurance Plans

No medical exam life insurance is particularly good for people seeking insurance later in life, forfeiting death benefit amounts and paying higher premiums to qualify. As such, the best no exam life insurance should have high age eligibility without too much compromise on coverage and costs.

Policies included in our guide on the best no medical exam life insurance insure people up to 85 years old. Read on to learn more.

Best term policy: Ethos

Apply for life insurance online in just a few minutes with Ethos' simple application. No medical exams are required. Just answer a few health questions—many customers enjoy same-day coverage!

• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. 100% online application process, quotes in minutes
• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Coverage starts immediately once approved
• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Term policies renewable up to age 94 for qualifying applicants
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. No conversion options to turn term policies to whole life for no exam policies
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. Whole life policy limits are lower

Ethos Life accepts applicants up to age 65 with a 100% online application process, and limits are as high as $2 million. 

Ethos Life asks a few basic medical questions, but coverage is effective immediately once approved. In addition, every customer buying policies like this from Ethos Life is eligible for a 30-day look period, which is another way to say you can cancel and get your money back in the first 30 days with no penalties.

• Health questions: Yes
• Coverage limits: Up to $2 million
• Waiting period: May apply
• Unique feature: Instant quotes available with a streamlined online application

Read our Ethos Life Insurance review here.

Best for seniors: AARP

• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. No medical exams required
• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Specialized life insurance coverage for older adults
• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. No medical exams required, guaranteed coverage available
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. AARP membership is required for purchase
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. Only small policies available
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. Coverage may be based on medical questions and history

AARP Life Insurance caters to senior clients for insurance and many other financial products. Older adults between 50 and 74 may qualify as long as they are AARP members. Term policies are available with limits up to $150,000 in most states. Montana and New York residents may be eligible for up to $100,000. Whole life policy limits max out at $25,000.

Whole life policies can be issued without any health exams or medical questions. The term policies, on the other hand, may ask some health questions.

• Health questions: For term life policies, but not whole
• Coverage limits: Up to $150,000
• Unique feature: No medical exam policy caters to older adults

Read our AARP Life Insurance review here.

Best for military members: USAA

• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Affordable pricing starting with $12/month on some policies
• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. May offer coverage to military members other companies won't cover
• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Offers term and permanent life insurance options
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. 2 year waiting period for full benefits on some policies
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. May focus on death benefits only more than other companies
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. All permanent policies are underwritten and serviced by other companies, not by USAA
• USAA offers life insurance for the military, veterans, and the public.

USAA Life Insurance is typically associated with military members and their immediate family members, but its insurance products are available to anyone. Pricing is lower, payouts are higher, and customer service is strong. Of course, these services are only available to military and qualifying family members. For the children of a deceased military member to use any USAA products, the military member would need to be signed up before their death.

Guaranteed whole life policies are available in 49 states, excluding Montana. USAA life insurance coverage is available from $2,000 to $25,000 with no medical exam or questions. Applicants who want higher coverage limits can explore medical exam policy options with a licensed agent.

• Health questions: No
• Coverage limits: Up to $25,000
• Waiting period: Two years
• Unique feature: Below-market product costs available for military members and qualifying family

Read our USAA Life Insurance review here.

Best for higher policy limits: Prudential

Offers aggressive financial plans.

• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Available in all 50 states (New York residents may have different plans)
• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Buyers can withdraw money to pay for nursing home bills due to severe illness or disability
• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Knowledgeable agents who can walk you through your options
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. Financial returns are limited
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. Limited policy options for seniors and other groups who might struggle to find life insurance

The aggressive financial plans offered by Prudential may appeal to many younger buyers and those with a stable income. However, those with lower income or buyers who aren't sure about the financial system may be more hesitant to engage with Prudential. Like many other industry giants, Prudential is working to change this perception.

Prudential Life Insurance  offers up to $3 million in coverage for term life policies. Adults up to 60 years old are eligible for coverage with a short application involving some medical questions. For younger applicants, conversion options may also be available later to make term policies into whole life policies. However, due to the higher limits, Prudential's application process may also be longer.

• Coverage limits: Up to $3 million
• Unique feature: High expert and customer rankings with a trusted provider

Read our Prudential Life Insurance review here.

Best for guaranteed acceptance: Mutual of Omaha

• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. diverse whole and term life insurance options
• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Strong financial ratings and company history
• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Wide range of riders to customize plans
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. online applications not available for term applicants
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. May not provide strong investment options for retirement

Mutual of Omaha Life Insurance has high financial stability and customer satisfaction ratings across different types of insurance. Guaranteed life policies are available for adults between the ages of 45 and 85. In New York state, the age range is 50-75. Policies can be as small as $2,000 in most states and as large as $25,000 with no health questions or medical exams.

Mutual of Omaha's no medical exam policies have a graded death benefit. If you die within two years of the policy start date, the company will not pay the full policy. Instead, it delivers 110% of the premiums paid. The Mutual of Omaha website boasts same-day payouts on most policies. Policies for children are also available.

• Age: 45-85 (50-75 in New York State)
• Unique feature: Company website lists same-day payment on most claims

Read our Mutual of Omaha Life Insurance review here.

Best for waiting periods: AAA

• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Large life policies available for term customers
• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Substantial discounts available for AAA members
• Check mark icon A check mark. It indicates a confirmation of your intended interaction. Strong financial ratingSome members may qualify for discounts if combining home and auto policies
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. Only small whole life policies to cover a maximum of $25,000
• con icon Two crossed lines that form an 'X'. Non-members may not get competitive rates

AAA Life Insurance  offers immediate death benefits for qualified applicants between 18 and 75. In other words, once your policy starts, you are eligible for the full policy benefit. Policies are available with limits as low as $25,000 and as high as $500,000. While a medical exam is not required, health questions are.

AAA offers term policies with limits as high as $500,000. For a whole life policy, the limit is $25,000. But applicants can add a rider doubling the payout for accidental death coverage. Younger people have no waiting period for benefits. For applicants over age 45, AAA pays out 130% of the premiums paid up to the date of death for the first two years.

• Coverage limits: Up to $500,000 term/$25,000 whole
• Waiting period: Applies after age 45
• Unique feature: Death benefit available regardless of the cause of death

How to Choose the Best No Medical Exam Life Insurance Company

The number of life insurance providers can be overwhelming and paralyzing. Asking friends and family about their life insurance policy and using guides like ours can be a great first step toward finding your policy. 

However, guides and recommendations can only go so far in helping you decide which no medical exam life insurance company is best for you. You'll need to take factors like age, medical history, and your financial goals into consideration when you make your decisions. A qualified insurance professional may be able to help you crunch your numbers and find the best policy. 

Coverage Amount

The most important, and most obvious, consideration when choosing a life insurance policy is the payout your loved ones will receive. The coverage you need will often depend on why you want life insurance. If your main goal is to make sure your final expenses are covered, than you'll have plenty of options. However, if you have long-term goals in mind, you may want to consider other life insurance options. 

It's worth noting that no exam life insurance often has limited death benefits, so your options will be limited. 

Policy Type

Generally speaking, most no exam life insurance fits into two types of life insurance policies: simplified issue and guaranteed issue.

Simplified issue : This is ideal for people who want life insurance but have a moderate health condition that may bar them from other insurance options. It's worth noting that some simplified issue life insurance providers enforce graded death benefits, withholding access to your full death benefits for a few years.

Guaranteed issue:  Guaranteed issue life insurance is for older people looking for final expense coverage, which includes funeral and burial expenses. It limits applicants to those who are 50 and above.

Premiums for no medical exam life insurance are generally higher as applicants tend to be high-risk and requirements are lower. You'll want to keep this in mind as you sort through quotes.

Customer Service

You should peruse customer reviews on websites like Trustpilot and the Better Business Bureau while shopping for a life insurance company. You should note how helpful and accessible a company's customer service team is and any issues with receiving payouts. Unresponsive insurance companies are the last thing that anyone wants to deal with after the passing of a loved one.

Why You Should Trust Us: How We Reviewed the Best No Exam Life Insurance

The coverage and riders offered are vital parts of our evaluation. We also look at the speed of payouts, customer satisfaction, and financial strength ratings. All of these factor into the immediate and long-term performance of the life insurance companies we review.

If you're looking for more information about a specific life insurer, our reviews offer a deep dive into individual policies, riders, and more. The same considerations are used for all competitors to ensure readers have the edge to make informed decisions in an ever-changing market.

See our insurance rating methodology for more details.

Best No Medical Exam Life Insurance FAQs

Most life insurance policies have some waiting period, whether it's a few weeks or longer. However, no medical exam life insurance is sometimes available with no waiting period, and you also have the option to purchase temporary coverage in the interim before your policy takes effect.

There are alternatives to a new medical exam life insurance policy. Insurance agents can quote you medical exam policies if you're denied a no medical exam option. An experienced agent may be able to assess your application before starting the process to avoid official denials. If you're concerned about premium limits, you can explore options like IUL ( indexed universal life ) for permanent life insurance that increases your benefit as long as you make premium payments.

The highest amount of life insurance you can get without a medical exam is lower than what you could get with a medical exam. Guaranteed-issue policies that don't require medical exams typically top out at $25,000 or $50,000 in coverage, while standard life insurance policies can offer millions in coverage.

You'll have to decide whether you prefer a whole or term policy based on your situation if you're getting no medical life insurance. A term policy has an expiration date, and extensions or conversions to a whole life policy are not guaranteed. If anything, your rate may be higher if you try to convert your policy. The insurer looks at you just as it would any other applicant of your age, health, etc. A whole life policy locks in premiums and payouts.

Yes, you can really get life insurance without a medical exam, but your options will be different. That's because you'll need to choose a guaranteed issue policy — a specific type of insurance that lets you bypass the medical exam requirement — and it will probably cost more than a regular policy including a medical exam.

Editorial Note: Any opinions, analyses, reviews, or recommendations expressed in this article are the author’s alone, and have not been reviewed, approved, or otherwise endorsed by any card issuer. Read our editorial standards .

Please note: While the offers mentioned above are accurate at the time of publication, they're subject to change at any time and may have changed, or may no longer be available.

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