draw conclusion meaning in science

Scientific Method: Step 6: CONCLUSION

• Step 1: QUESTION
• Step 2: RESEARCH
• Step 3: HYPOTHESIS
• Step 4: EXPERIMENT
• Step 5: DATA
• Step 6: CONCLUSION

Step 6: Conclusion

Finally, you've reached your conclusion. Now it is time to summarize and explain what happened in your experiment. Your conclusion should answer the question posed in step one. Your conclusion should be based solely on your results.

Think about the following questions:

• Was your hypothesis correct?
• If your hypothesis wasn't correct, what can you conclude from that?
• Do you need to run your experiment again changing a variable?
• Is your data clearly defined so everyone can understand the results and follow your reasoning?

Remember, even a failed experiment can yield a valuable lesson.  

Draw your conclusion

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Drawing Conclusions

For any research project and any scientific discipline, drawing conclusions is the final, and most important, part of the process.

This article is a part of the guide:

• Null Hypothesis
• Research Hypothesis
• Defining a Research Problem
• Selecting Method

Browse Full Outline

• 1 Scientific Method
• 2.1.1 Null Hypothesis
• 2.1.2 Research Hypothesis
• 2.2 Prediction
• 2.3 Conceptual Variable
• 3.1 Operationalization
• 3.2 Selecting Method
• 3.3 Measurements
• 3.4 Scientific Observation
• 4.1 Empirical Evidence
• 5.1 Generalization
• 5.2 Errors in Conclusion

Whichever reasoning processes and research methods were used, the final conclusion is critical, determining success or failure. If an otherwise excellent experiment is summarized by a weak conclusion, the results will not be taken seriously.

Success or failure is not a measure of whether a hypothesis is accepted or refuted, because both results still advance scientific knowledge.

Failure lies in poor experimental design, or flaws in the reasoning processes, which invalidate the results. As long as the research process is robust and well designed, then the findings are sound, and the process of drawing conclusions begins.

The key is to establish what the results mean. How are they applied to the world?

What Has Been Learned?

Generally, a researcher will summarize what they believe has been learned from the research, and will try to assess the strength of the hypothesis.

Even if the null hypothesis is accepted, a strong conclusion will analyze why the results were not as predicted. 

Theoretical physicist Wolfgang Pauli was known to have criticized another physicist’s work by saying, “it’s not only not right; it is not even wrong.”

While this is certainly a humorous put-down, it also points to the value of the null hypothesis in science, i.e. the value of being “wrong.” Both accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis provides useful information – it is only when the research provides no illumination on the phenomenon at all that it is truly a failure.

In observational research , with no hypothesis, the researcher will analyze the findings, and establish if any valuable new information has been uncovered. The conclusions from this type of research may well inspire the development of a new hypothesis for further experiments. 

Generating Leads for Future Research

However, very few experiments give clear-cut results, and most research uncovers more questions than answers.

The researcher can use these to suggest interesting directions for further study. If, for example, the null hypothesis was accepted, there may still have been trends apparent within the results. These could form the basis of further study, or experimental refinement and redesign.

Question: Let’s say a researcher is interested in whether people who are ambidextrous (can write with either hand) are more likely to have ADHD. She may have three groups – left-handed, right-handed and ambidextrous, and ask each of them to complete an ADHD screening.

She hypothesizes that the ambidextrous people will in fact be more prone to symptoms of ADHD. While she doesn’t find a significant difference when she compares the mean scores of the groups, she does notice another trend: the ambidextrous people seem to score lower overall on tests of verbal acuity. She accepts the null hypothesis, but wishes to continue with her research. Can you think of a direction her research could take, given what she has already learnt?

Answer: She may decide to look more closely at that trend. She may design another experiment to isolate the variable of verbal acuity, by controlling for everything else. This may eventually help her arrive at a new hypothesis: ambidextrous people have lower verbal acuity.

Evaluating Flaws in the Research Process

The researcher will then evaluate any apparent problems with the experiment. This involves critically evaluating any weaknesses and errors in the design, which may have influenced the results .

Even strict, ' true experimental ,' designs have to make compromises, and the researcher must be thorough in pointing these out, justifying the methodology and reasoning.

For example, when drawing conclusions, the researcher may think that another causal effect influenced the results, and that this variable was not eliminated during the experimental process . A refined version of the experiment may help to achieve better results, if the new effect is included in the design process.

In the global warming example, the researcher might establish that carbon dioxide emission alone cannot be responsible for global warming. They may decide that another effect is contributing, so propose that methane may also be a factor in global warming. A new study would incorporate methane into the model.

What are the Benefits of the Research?

The next stage is to evaluate the advantages and benefits of the research.

In medicine and psychology, for example, the results may throw out a new way of treating a medical problem, so the advantages are obvious.

In some fields, certain kinds of research may not typically be seen as beneficial, regardless of the results obtained. Ideally, researchers will consider the implications of their research beforehand, as well as any ethical considerations. In fields such as psychology, social sciences or sociology, it’s important to think about who the research serves and what will ultimately be done with the results.

For example, the study regarding ambidexterity and verbal acuity may be interesting, but what would be the effect of accepting that hypothesis? Would it really benefit anyone to know that the ambidextrous are less likely to have a high verbal acuity?

However, all well-constructed research is useful, even if it only strengthens or supports a more tentative conclusion made by prior research.

Suggestions Based Upon the Conclusions

The final stage is the researcher's recommendations based on the results, depending on the field of study. This area of the research process is informed by the researcher's judgement, and will integrate previous studies.

For example, a researcher interested in schizophrenia may recommend a more effective treatment based on what has been learnt from a study. A physicist might propose that our picture of the structure of the atom should be changed. A researcher could make suggestions for refinement of the experimental design, or highlight interesting areas for further study. This final piece of the paper is the most critical, and pulls together all of the findings into a coherent agrument.

The area in a research paper that causes intense and heated debate amongst scientists is often when drawing conclusions .

Sharing and presenting findings to the scientific community is a vital part of the scientific process. It is here that the researcher justifies the research, synthesizes the results and offers them up for scrutiny by their peers.

As the store of scientific knowledge increases and deepens, it is incumbent on researchers to work together. Long ago, a single scientist could discover and publish work that alone could have a profound impact on the course of history. Today, however, such impact can only be achieved in concert with fellow scientists.

Summary - The Strength of the Results

The key to drawing a valid conclusion is to ensure that the deductive and inductive processes are correctly used, and that all steps of the scientific method were followed.

Even the best-planned research can go awry, however. Part of interpreting results also includes the researchers putting aside their ego to appraise what, if anything went wrong. Has anything occurred to warrant a more cautious interpretation of results?

If your research had a robust design, questioning and scrutiny will be devoted to the experiment conclusion, rather than the methods.

Question: Researchers are interested in identifying new microbial species that are capable of breaking down cellulose for possible application in biofuel production. They collect soil samples from a particular forest and create laboratory cultures of every microbial species they discover there. They then “feed” each species a cellulose compound and observe that in all the species tested, there was no decrease in cellulose after 24 hours.

Read the following conclusions below and decide which of them is the most sound:

They conclude that there are no microbes that can break down cellulose.

They conclude that the sampled microbes are not capable of breaking down cellulose in a lab environment within 24 hours.

They conclude that all the species are related somehow.

They conclude that these microbes are not useful in the biofuel industry.

They conclude that microbes from forests don’t break down cellulose.

Answer: The most appropriate conclusion is number 2. As you can see, sound conclusions are often a question of not extrapolating too widely, or making assumptions that are not supported by the data obtained. Even conclusion number 2 will likely be presented as tentative, and only provides evidence given the limits of the methods used.

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How to Write a Good Lab Conclusion in Science

Last Updated: March 21, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Bess Ruff, MA . Bess Ruff is a Geography PhD student at Florida State University. She received her MA in Environmental Science and Management from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 2016. She has conducted survey work for marine spatial planning projects in the Caribbean and provided research support as a graduate fellow for the Sustainable Fisheries Group. There are 11 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,762,744 times.

A lab report describes an entire experiment from start to finish, outlining the procedures, reporting results, and analyzing data. The report is used to demonstrate what has been learned, and it will provide a way for other people to see your process for the experiment and understand how you arrived at your conclusions. The conclusion is an integral part of the report; this is the section that reiterates the experiment’s main findings and gives the reader an overview of the lab trial. Writing a solid conclusion to your lab report will demonstrate that you’ve effectively learned the objectives of your assignment.

Outlining Your Conclusion

• Restate : Restate the lab experiment by describing the assignment.
• Explain : Explain the purpose of the lab experiment. What were you trying to figure out or discover? Talk briefly about the procedure you followed to complete the lab.
• Results : Explain your results. Confirm whether or not your hypothesis was supported by the results.
• Uncertainties : Account for uncertainties and errors. Explain, for example, if there were other circumstances beyond your control that might have impacted the experiment’s results.
• New : Discuss new questions or discoveries that emerged from the experiment.

• Your assignment may also have specific questions that need to be answered. Make sure you answer these fully and coherently in your conclusion.

Discussing the Experiment and Hypothesis

• If you tried the experiment more than once, describe the reasons for doing so. Discuss changes that you made in your procedures.
• Brainstorm ways to explain your results in more depth. Go back through your lab notes, paying particular attention to the results you observed. [5] X Trustworthy Source University of North Carolina Writing Center UNC's on-campus and online instructional service that provides assistance to students, faculty, and others during the writing process Go to source

• Start this section with wording such as, “The results showed that…”
• You don’t need to give the raw data here. Just summarize the main points, calculate averages, or give a range of data to give an overall picture to the reader.
• Make sure to explain whether or not any statistical analyses were significant, and to what degree, such as 1%, 5%, or 10%.

• Use simple language such as, “The results supported the hypothesis,” or “The results did not support the hypothesis.”

Demonstrating What You Have Learned

• If it’s not clear in your conclusion what you learned from the lab, start off by writing, “In this lab, I learned…” This will give the reader a heads up that you will be describing exactly what you learned.
• Add details about what you learned and how you learned it. Adding dimension to your learning outcomes will convince your reader that you did, in fact, learn from the lab. Give specifics about how you learned that molecules will act in a particular environment, for example.
• Describe how what you learned in the lab could be applied to a future experiment.

• On a new line, write the question in italics. On the next line, write the answer to the question in regular text.

• If your experiment did not achieve the objectives, explain or speculate why not.

Wrapping Up Your Conclusion

• If your experiment raised questions that your collected data can’t answer, discuss this here.

• Describe what is new or innovative about your research.
• This can often set you apart from your classmates, many of whom will just write up the barest of discussion and conclusion.

Finalizing Your Lab Report

Community Q&A

• If you include figures or tables in your conclusion, be sure to include a brief caption or label so that the reader knows what the figures refer to. Also, discuss the figures briefly in the text of your report. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Once again, avoid using personal pronouns (I, myself, we, our group) in a lab report. The first-person point-of-view is often seen as subjective, whereas science is based on objectivity. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Ensure the language used is straightforward with specific details. Try not to drift off topic. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• Take care with writing your lab report when working in a team setting. While the lab experiment may be a collaborative effort, your lab report is your own work. If you copy sections from someone else’s report, this will be considered plagiarism. Thanks Helpful 3 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://phoenixcollege.libguides.com/LabReportWriting/introduction
• ↑ https://www.hcs-k12.org/userfiles/354/Classes/18203/conclusionwriting.pdf
• ↑ https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/Pages/puttingittogether.aspx
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/brainstorming/
• ↑ https://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/types-of-writing/lab-report/
• ↑ http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/conclusion
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/introduction/researchproblem
• ↑ http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/scientific-reports/
• ↑ https://phoenixcollege.libguides.com/LabReportWriting/labreportstyle
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/editing-and-proofreading/

About This Article

To write a good lab conclusion in science, start with restating the lab experiment by describing the assignment. Next, explain what you were trying to discover or figure out by doing the experiment. Then, list your results and explain how they confirmed or did not confirm your hypothesis. Additionally, include any uncertainties, such as circumstances beyond your control that may have impacted the results. Finally, discuss any new questions or discoveries that emerged from the experiment. For more advice, including how to wrap up your lab report with a final statement, keep reading. Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Overview of the Scientific Method

13 Drawing Conclusions and Reporting the Results

Learning objectives.

• Identify the conclusions researchers can make based on the outcome of their studies.
• Describe why scientists avoid the term “scientific proof.”
• Explain the different ways that scientists share their findings.

Drawing Conclusions

Since statistics are probabilistic in nature and findings can reflect type I or type II errors, we cannot use the results of a single study to conclude with certainty that a theory is true. Rather theories are supported, refuted, or modified based on the results of research.

If the results are statistically significant and consistent with the hypothesis and the theory that was used to generate the hypothesis, then researchers can conclude that the theory is supported. Not only did the theory make an accurate prediction, but there is now a new phenomenon that the theory accounts for. If a hypothesis is disconfirmed in a systematic empirical study, then the theory has been weakened. It made an inaccurate prediction, and there is now a new phenomenon that it does not account for.

Although this seems straightforward, there are some complications. First, confirming a hypothesis can strengthen a theory but it can never prove a theory. In fact, scientists tend to avoid the word “prove” when talking and writing about theories. One reason for this avoidance is that the result may reflect a type I error.  Another reason for this  avoidance  is that there may be other plausible theories that imply the same hypothesis, which means that confirming the hypothesis strengthens all those theories equally. A third reason is that it is always possible that another test of the hypothesis or a test of a new hypothesis derived from the theory will be disconfirmed. This  difficulty  is a version of the famous philosophical “problem of induction.” One cannot definitively prove a general principle (e.g., “All swans are white.”) just by observing confirming cases (e.g., white swans)—no matter how many. It is always possible that a disconfirming case (e.g., a black swan) will eventually come along. For these reasons, scientists tend to think of theories—even highly successful ones—as subject to revision based on new and unexpected observations.

A second complication has to do with what it means when a hypothesis is disconfirmed. According to the strictest version of the hypothetico-deductive method, disconfirming a hypothesis disproves the theory it was derived from. In formal logic, the premises “if  A  then  B ” and “not  B ” necessarily lead to the conclusion “not  A .” If  A  is the theory and  B  is the hypothesis (“if  A  then  B ”), then disconfirming the hypothesis (“not  B ”) must mean that the theory is incorrect (“not  A ”). In practice, however, scientists do not give up on their theories so easily. One reason is that one disconfirmed hypothesis could be a missed opportunity (the result of a type II error) or it could be the result of a faulty research design. Perhaps the researcher did not successfully manipulate the independent variable or measure the dependent variable.

A disconfirmed hypothesis could also mean that some unstated but relatively minor assumption of the theory was not met. For example, if Zajonc had failed to find social facilitation in cockroaches, he could have concluded that drive theory is still correct but it applies only to animals with sufficiently complex nervous systems. That is, the evidence from a study can be used to modify a theory.  This practice does not mean that researchers are free to ignore disconfirmations of their theories. If they cannot improve their research designs or modify their theories to account for repeated disconfirmations, then they eventually must abandon their theories and replace them with ones that are more successful.

The bottom line here is that because statistics are probabilistic in nature and because all research studies have flaws there is no such thing as scientific proof, there is only scientific evidence.

Reporting the Results

The final step in the research process involves reporting the results. As described in the section on Reviewing the Research Literature in this chapter, results are typically reported in peer-reviewed journal articles and at conferences.

The most prestigious way to report one’s findings is by writing a manuscript and having it published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. Manuscripts published in psychology journals typically must adhere to the writing style of the American Psychological Association (APA style). You will likely be learning the major elements of this writing style in this course.

Another way to report findings is by writing a book chapter that is published in an edited book. Preferably the editor of the book puts the chapter through peer review but this is not always the case and some scientists are invited by editors to write book chapters.

A fun way to disseminate findings is to give a presentation at a conference. This can either be done as an oral presentation or a poster presentation. Oral presentations involve getting up in front of an audience of fellow scientists and giving a talk that might last anywhere from 10 minutes to 1 hour (depending on the conference) and then fielding questions from the audience. Alternatively, poster presentations involve summarizing the study on a large poster that provides a brief overview of the purpose, methods, results, and discussion. The presenter stands by their poster for an hour or two and discusses it with people who pass by. Presenting one’s work at a conference is a great way to get feedback from one’s peers before attempting to undergo the more rigorous peer-review process involved in publishing a journal article.

Research Methods in Psychology Copyright © 2019 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Drawing Conclusions and Reporting the Results

Rajiv S. Jhangiani; I-Chant A. Chiang; Carrie Cuttler; and Dana C. Leighton

Learning Objectives

• Identify the conclusions researchers can make based on the outcome of their studies.
• Describe why scientists avoid the term “scientific proof.”
• Explain the different ways that scientists share their findings.

Drawing Conclusions

Since statistics are probabilistic in nature and findings can reflect type I or type II errors, we cannot use the results of a single study to conclude with certainty that a theory is true. Rather theories are supported, refuted, or modified based on the results of research.

If the results are statistically significant and consistent with the hypothesis and the theory that was used to generate the hypothesis, then researchers can conclude that the theory is supported. Not only did the theory make an accurate prediction, but there is now a new phenomenon that the theory accounts for. If a hypothesis is disconfirmed in a systematic empirical study, then the theory has been weakened. It made an inaccurate prediction, and there is now a new phenomenon that it does not account for.

Although this seems straightforward, there are some complications. First, confirming a hypothesis can strengthen a theory but it can never prove a theory. In fact, scientists tend to avoid the word “prove” when talking and writing about theories. One reason for this avoidance is that the result may reflect a type I error.  Another reason for this  avoidance  is that there may be other plausible theories that imply the same hypothesis, which means that confirming the hypothesis strengthens all those theories equally. A third reason is that it is always possible that another test of the hypothesis or a test of a new hypothesis derived from the theory will be disconfirmed. This  difficulty  is a version of the famous philosophical “problem of induction.” One cannot definitively prove a general principle (e.g., “All swans are white.”) just by observing confirming cases (e.g., white swans)—no matter how many. It is always possible that a disconfirming case (e.g., a black swan) will eventually come along. For these reasons, scientists tend to think of theories—even highly successful ones—as subject to revision based on new and unexpected observations.

A second complication has to do with what it means when a hypothesis is disconfirmed. According to the strictest version of the hypothetico-deductive method, disconfirming a hypothesis disproves the theory it was derived from. In formal logic, the premises “if  A  then  B ” and “not  B ” necessarily lead to the conclusion “not  A .” If  A  is the theory and  B  is the hypothesis (“if  A  then  B ”), then disconfirming the hypothesis (“not  B ”) must mean that the theory is incorrect (“not  A ”). In practice, however, scientists do not give up on their theories so easily. One reason is that one disconfirmed hypothesis could be a missed opportunity (the result of a type II error) or it could be the result of a faulty research design. Perhaps the researcher did not successfully manipulate the independent variable or measure the dependent variable.

A disconfirmed hypothesis could also mean that some unstated but relatively minor assumption of the theory was not met. For example, if Zajonc had failed to find social facilitation in cockroaches, he could have concluded that drive theory is still correct but it applies only to animals with sufficiently complex nervous systems. That is, the evidence from a study can be used to modify a theory.  This practice does not mean that researchers are free to ignore disconfirmations of their theories. If they cannot improve their research designs or modify their theories to account for repeated disconfirmations, then they eventually must abandon their theories and replace them with ones that are more successful.

The bottom line here is that because statistics are probabilistic in nature and because all research studies have flaws there is no such thing as scientific proof, there is only scientific evidence.

Reporting the Results

The final step in the research process involves reporting the results. As described in the section on Reviewing the Research Literature in this chapter, results are typically reported in peer-reviewed journal articles and at conferences.

The most prestigious way to report one’s findings is by writing a manuscript and having it published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. Manuscripts published in psychology journals typically must adhere to the writing style of the American Psychological Association (APA style). You will likely be learning the major elements of this writing style in this course.

Another way to report findings is by writing a book chapter that is published in an edited book. Preferably the editor of the book puts the chapter through peer review but this is not always the case and some scientists are invited by editors to write book chapters.

A fun way to disseminate findings is to give a presentation at a conference. This can either be done as an oral presentation or a poster presentation. Oral presentations involve getting up in front of an audience of fellow scientists and giving a talk that might last anywhere from 10 minutes to 1 hour (depending on the conference) and then fielding questions from the audience. Alternatively, poster presentations involve summarizing the study on a large poster that provides a brief overview of the purpose, methods, results, and discussion. The presenter stands by their poster for an hour or two and discusses it with people who pass by. Presenting one’s work at a conference is a great way to get feedback from one’s peers before attempting to undergo the more rigorous peer-review process involved in publishing a journal article.

Drawing Conclusions and Reporting the Results Copyright © by Rajiv S. Jhangiani; I-Chant A. Chiang; Carrie Cuttler; and Dana C. Leighton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Science and the scientific method: Definitions and examples

Here's a look at the foundation of doing science — the scientific method.

The scientific method

Hypothesis, theory and law, a brief history of science, additional resources, bibliography.

Science is a systematic and logical approach to discovering how things in the universe work. It is also the body of knowledge accumulated through the discoveries about all the things in the universe. 

The word "science" is derived from the Latin word "scientia," which means knowledge based on demonstrable and reproducible data, according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary . True to this definition, science aims for measurable results through testing and analysis, a process known as the scientific method. Science is based on fact, not opinion or preferences. The process of science is designed to challenge ideas through research. One important aspect of the scientific process is that it focuses only on the natural world, according to the University of California, Berkeley . Anything that is considered supernatural, or beyond physical reality, does not fit into the definition of science.

When conducting research, scientists use the scientific method to collect measurable, empirical evidence in an experiment related to a hypothesis (often in the form of an if/then statement) that is designed to support or contradict a scientific theory .

"As a field biologist, my favorite part of the scientific method is being in the field collecting the data," Jaime Tanner, a professor of biology at Marlboro College, told Live Science. "But what really makes that fun is knowing that you are trying to answer an interesting question. So the first step in identifying questions and generating possible answers (hypotheses) is also very important and is a creative process. Then once you collect the data you analyze it to see if your hypothesis is supported or not."

The steps of the scientific method go something like this, according to Highline College :

• Make an observation or observations.
• Form a hypothesis — a tentative description of what's been observed, and make predictions based on that hypothesis.
• Test the hypothesis and predictions in an experiment that can be reproduced.
• Analyze the data and draw conclusions; accept or reject the hypothesis or modify the hypothesis if necessary.
• Reproduce the experiment until there are no discrepancies between observations and theory. "Replication of methods and results is my favorite step in the scientific method," Moshe Pritsker, a former post-doctoral researcher at Harvard Medical School and CEO of JoVE, told Live Science. "The reproducibility of published experiments is the foundation of science. No reproducibility — no science."

Some key underpinnings to the scientific method:

• The hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable, according to North Carolina State University . Falsifiable means that there must be a possible negative answer to the hypothesis.
• Research must involve deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning . Deductive reasoning is the process of using true premises to reach a logical true conclusion while inductive reasoning uses observations to infer an explanation for those observations.
• An experiment should include a dependent variable (which does not change) and an independent variable (which does change), according to the University of California, Santa Barbara .
• An experiment should include an experimental group and a control group. The control group is what the experimental group is compared against, according to Britannica .

The process of generating and testing a hypothesis forms the backbone of the scientific method. When an idea has been confirmed over many experiments, it can be called a scientific theory. While a theory provides an explanation for a phenomenon, a scientific law provides a description of a phenomenon, according to The University of Waikato . One example would be the law of conservation of energy, which is the first law of thermodynamics that says that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. 

A law describes an observed phenomenon, but it doesn't explain why the phenomenon exists or what causes it. "In science, laws are a starting place," said Peter Coppinger, an associate professor of biology and biomedical engineering at the Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology. "From there, scientists can then ask the questions, 'Why and how?'"

Laws are generally considered to be without exception, though some laws have been modified over time after further testing found discrepancies. For instance, Newton's laws of motion describe everything we've observed in the macroscopic world, but they break down at the subatomic level.

This does not mean theories are not meaningful. For a hypothesis to become a theory, scientists must conduct rigorous testing, typically across multiple disciplines by separate groups of scientists. Saying something is "just a theory" confuses the scientific definition of "theory" with the layperson's definition. To most people a theory is a hunch. In science, a theory is the framework for observations and facts, Tanner told Live Science.

The earliest evidence of science can be found as far back as records exist. Early tablets contain numerals and information about the solar system , which were derived by using careful observation, prediction and testing of those predictions. Science became decidedly more "scientific" over time, however.

1200s: Robert Grosseteste developed the framework for the proper methods of modern scientific experimentation, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. His works included the principle that an inquiry must be based on measurable evidence that is confirmed through testing.

1400s: Leonardo da Vinci began his notebooks in pursuit of evidence that the human body is microcosmic. The artist, scientist and mathematician also gathered information about optics and hydrodynamics.

1500s: Nicolaus Copernicus advanced the understanding of the solar system with his discovery of heliocentrism. This is a model in which Earth and the other planets revolve around the sun, which is the center of the solar system.

1600s: Johannes Kepler built upon those observations with his laws of planetary motion. Galileo Galilei improved on a new invention, the telescope, and used it to study the sun and planets. The 1600s also saw advancements in the study of physics as Isaac Newton developed his laws of motion.

1700s: Benjamin Franklin discovered that lightning is electrical. He also contributed to the study of oceanography and meteorology. The understanding of chemistry also evolved during this century as Antoine Lavoisier, dubbed the father of modern chemistry , developed the law of conservation of mass.

1800s: Milestones included Alessandro Volta's discoveries regarding electrochemical series, which led to the invention of the battery. John Dalton also introduced atomic theory, which stated that all matter is composed of atoms that combine to form molecules. The basis of modern study of genetics advanced as Gregor Mendel unveiled his laws of inheritance. Later in the century, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered X-rays , while George Ohm's law provided the basis for understanding how to harness electrical charges.

1900s: The discoveries of Albert Einstein , who is best known for his theory of relativity, dominated the beginning of the 20th century. Einstein's theory of relativity is actually two separate theories. His special theory of relativity, which he outlined in a 1905 paper, " The Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies ," concluded that time must change according to the speed of a moving object relative to the frame of reference of an observer. His second theory of general relativity, which he published as " The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity ," advanced the idea that matter causes space to curve.

In 1952, Jonas Salk developed the polio vaccine , which reduced the incidence of polio in the United States by nearly 90%, according to Britannica . The following year, James D. Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA , which is a double helix formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone, according to the National Human Genome Research Institute .

2000s: The 21st century saw the first draft of the human genome completed, leading to a greater understanding of DNA. This advanced the study of genetics, its role in human biology and its use as a predictor of diseases and other disorders, according to the National Human Genome Research Institute .

• This video from City University of New York delves into the basics of what defines science.
• Learn about what makes science science in this book excerpt from Washington State University .
• This resource from the University of Michigan — Flint explains how to design your own scientific study.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Scientia. 2022. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/scientia

University of California, Berkeley, "Understanding Science: An Overview." 2022. ​​ https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/intro_01  

Highline College, "Scientific method." July 12, 2015. https://people.highline.edu/iglozman/classes/astronotes/scimeth.htm  

North Carolina State University, "Science Scripts." https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/bio183de/Black/science/science_scripts.html  

University of California, Santa Barbara. "What is an Independent variable?" October 31,2017. http://scienceline.ucsb.edu/getkey.php?key=6045  

Encyclopedia Britannica, "Control group." May 14, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/science/control-group  

The University of Waikato, "Scientific Hypothesis, Theories and Laws." https://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/Theories.shtml  

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Robert Grosseteste. May 3, 2019. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/grosseteste/  

Encyclopedia Britannica, "Jonas Salk." October 21, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/ biography /Jonas-Salk

National Human Genome Research Institute, "​Phosphate Backbone." https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Phosphate-Backbone  

National Human Genome Research Institute, "What is the Human Genome Project?" https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project/What  

‌ Live Science contributor Ashley Hamer updated this article on Jan. 16, 2022.

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How to Write a Strong Lab Conclusion in Science

Crafting a Strong Lab Conclusion in Science: A Guide for Success

Diving into the world of scientific research can be both exciting and daunting. After meticulously conducting experiments, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions, the final step in any scientific investigation is to write a lab conclusion. This crucial component of a scientific report serves to summarize the findings of the study, highlight key results, and provide insight into the significance of the research. In this article, we will explore the essential elements of a strong lab conclusion in science and provide tips on how to craft one that leaves a lasting impression.

Understanding the Purpose of a Lab Conclusion

Before delving into the nuts and bolts of writing a lab conclusion, it is important to understand its purpose. A lab conclusion serves as a reflection of the entire scientific process, from the initial hypothesis to the final results. It is an opportunity to showcase the significance of the research, discuss any limitations or uncertainties, and propose future directions for further investigation. A well-written lab conclusion should tie all the loose ends of the experiment together and leave the reader with a clear understanding of the study’s implications.

Structuring Your Lab Conclusion

When it comes to writing a lab conclusion, structure is key. A well-organized conclusion will not only make your findings more accessible to the reader but also demonstrate your ability to think critically and analytically. Here is a suggested structure for a strong lab conclusion:

Restate the Purpose of the Experiment: Begin your conclusion by restating the purpose of the experiment. This will help remind the reader of the research question and set the stage for the rest of the conclusion.

Summarize the Findings: Next, summarize the key findings of the experiment. Highlight any significant results or trends that emerged from the data analysis. Be concise but comprehensive in your summary, focusing on the most important aspects of the study.

Discuss the Implications: After summarizing the findings, discuss the implications of the research. What do the results mean in the context of the broader scientific field? How do they contribute to our understanding of the topic? Consider the implications of the study from both a theoretical and practical perspective.

Address Limitations: Every scientific study has its limitations, and it is important to acknowledge them in your lab conclusion. Discuss any constraints or uncertainties that may have affected the validity of the results. This demonstrates your ability to think critically and reflect on the experimental process.

Propose Future Directions: Finally, propose future directions for further research. What questions remain unanswered? How could the study be improved or expanded upon in future investigations? This shows that you are thinking beyond the current study and considering the broader implications of the research.

Tips for Writing a Strong Lab Conclusion

Writing a strong lab conclusion requires careful attention to detail and a thorough understanding of the research. Here are some tips to help you craft a compelling conclusion:

Be Clear and Concise: Avoid unnecessary jargon or technical language in your conclusion. Be clear and concise in your writing, focusing on the most important points of the study.

Use Evidence to Support Your Claims: Back up your conclusions with evidence from the experiment. Refer to specific data or results to support your arguments and demonstrate the validity of your findings.

Avoid New Information: Your conclusion should not introduce new information that was not discussed in the main body of the report. Stick to summarizing the findings and discussing their implications.

Proofread Carefully: Before submitting your lab conclusion, be sure to proofread it carefully for any grammatical or spelling errors. A well-written conclusion demonstrates attention to detail and professionalism.

Q: How long should a lab conclusion be?

A: The length of a lab conclusion can vary depending on the complexity of the study. In general, a lab conclusion should be concise and to the point, typically ranging from one to two paragraphs in length.

Q: Should I include references in my lab conclusion?

A: References are not typically included in a lab conclusion, as it is meant to be a summary of the findings and implications of the study. However, if you have referenced specific sources throughout your report, you may choose to include them in the conclusion if relevant.

Q: Can I include personal opinions in my lab conclusion?

A: While it is important to discuss the implications of the research in your lab conclusion, it is best to avoid personal opinions or biases. Stick to the facts and focus on the objective analysis of the study’s results.

In conclusion, crafting a strong lab conclusion in science requires careful attention to detail, a thorough understanding of the research, and effective communication skills. By following the tips outlined in this article and structuring your conclusion thoughtfully, you can create a compelling summary of your findings that leaves a lasting impression on the reader.

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Angel Number 1616: Unlocking the Power of Positive Mindset

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Have you been seeing the number 1616 everywhere lately? It may seem like a coincidence, but it could actually be a message from your guardian angels. Angel number 1616 is a powerful sign that urges you to embrace a positive mindset and unlock the potential for positive changes in your life. In this comprehensive guide, we will explore the hidden meanings behind angel number 1616, its significance in spirituality, love, career, and more. Get ready to embark on a journey of self-discovery and personal growth as we delve into the depths of angel number 1616.

Understanding the Meaning of Angel Number 1616

Unveiling the spiritual significance of angel number 1616, angel number 1616 and its numerological interpretations, angel number 1616 for love and relationships, angel number 1616 for career and finances, the biblical meaning of angel number 1616, angel number 1616 for manifestation, angel number 1616 for pregnancy and parenthood, what to do when you see angel number 1616.

At its core, angel number 1616 is a reminder from your angels to maintain a positive outlook on life. The number 1616 carries a powerful message that you are capable of attracting positive changes and achieving your goals through the power of your mindset. Your angels want you to know that you possess inner strength and the ability to overcome any challenges that come your way. By embracing a positive mindset, you can manifest positive experiences, situations, and opportunities in your life.

In the realm of spirituality, angel number 1616 holds a profound meaning. It serves as a gentle nudge from your angels to remain optimistic and open to spiritual growth. By maintaining a positive mindset, you can advance spiritually and deepen your connection with the divine. The appearance of angel number 1616 is a reminder to tap into your inner wisdom and embrace the transformative power of positive thinking on your spiritual journey.

When we delve into the realm of numerology, angel number 1616 carries multiple significant meanings. Let's explore the numerological interpretations of angel number 1616:

• New Beginnings: The number 1 symbolizes fresh starts and new beginnings. As angel number 1616 contains the number 1 twice, it amplifies the meaning of new chapters and opportunities in your life. Embrace change and step out of your comfort zone with the knowledge that your angels are guiding and supporting you every step of the way.
• Relationships and Love: Angel number 1616 may signify the arrival of a new love interest or the rekindling of a current relationship. If you're single, be prepared to open yourself up to new romantic possibilities. For those in a relationship, 1616 indicates a deepening of love and appreciation for your partner.
• Independence and Leadership: In numerology, 1616 represents independence and the ability to take charge of your own life. Your angels want you to embrace your leadership qualities and have confidence in your abilities to create a successful future for yourself.

When it comes to matters of the heart, angel number 1616 carries special significance. Let's explore the different meanings of angel number 1616 in the context of love and relationships:

New Love Interest:

If you're currently single, angel number 1616 may be a sign that a new love interest is on the horizon. Be open to new possibilities and embrace the excitement of meeting someone who will turn your world upside down. This new relationship has the potential to bring joy, growth, and fulfillment into your life.

Deepening Love:

For those already in a relationship, angel number 1616 signifies a deepening of love and a renewed appreciation for your partner. Take this opportunity to strengthen your bond and create a lasting and meaningful connection. Express your love and gratitude to your partner and nurture your relationship with care.

Fresh Start:

If you've been experiencing doubts or challenges in your current relationship, angel number 1616 may be a sign that it's time for a fresh start. Ending a relationship is never easy, but your angels want you to know that sometimes it's necessary to let go in order to find true happiness. Trust in the process and have faith that the universe has something better in store for you.

Angel number 1616 also holds significant meaning in the realm of career and finances. Let's explore how angel number 1616 can impact your professional life:

Positive Change:

If you've been feeling stagnant or dissatisfied in your career, angel number 1616 is a sign that positive change is on the horizon. Embrace the opportunities that come your way and be open to new beginnings. This could be the perfect time to switch careers, ask for a promotion, or start a new venture.

Financial Endeavors:

Angel number 1616 is a powerful sign that now is the time to embark on a new money-making endeavor. Whether it's starting a side hustle or investing in a new business venture, your angels are encouraging you to take calculated risks and trust in your ability to achieve financial success.

Positive Mindset for Career Growth:

To achieve career growth, your angels want you to maintain a positive mindset. Your thoughts and beliefs shape your reality, so focus on positive affirmations and envision yourself achieving your professional goals. Trust in your abilities and embrace the challenges that come your way, knowing that your angels are guiding you towards success.

While the number 1616 does not appear explicitly in the Bible, the individual numbers that make up angel number 1616 hold biblical significance. Let's explore the biblical meanings associated with these numbers:

Wisdom and Rebirth:

The number 16 in the Bible echoes the importance of wisdom and rebirth. Proverbs 16:16 states, "How much better to get wisdom than gold, to get insight rather than silver." This biblical verse emphasizes the value of wisdom and the transformative power of acquiring knowledge.

Jesus' Death and Resurrection:

In the Bible, John 16:16 states, "Jesus went on to say, 'In a little while you will see me no more, and then after a little while you will see me.'" This verse refers to Jesus' death and resurrection, symbolizing the importance of rebirth and the hope of a new beginning.

While the number 1616 itself does not have a specific biblical meaning, the individual numbers that make up this angel number carry deep spiritual significance.

Angel number 1616 serves as a powerful tool for manifestation. By maintaining a positive mindset and aligning your thoughts with your desires, you can manifest positive changes and attract abundance into your life. Here are some steps you can take to harness the manifestation power of angel number 1616:

Clarify Your Desires:

Take time to reflect on what you truly want to manifest in your life. Be specific and detailed about your desires, whether it's a fulfilling career, a loving relationship, or financial abundance. The more clarity you have, the easier it will be to manifest your desires.

Visualize Your Goals:

Create a clear mental picture of yourself already living your desired reality. Visualize the details, emotions, and sensations associated with your manifestation. By regularly visualizing your goals, you align your energy with your desires, making them more likely to manifest.

Take Inspired Action:

While maintaining a positive mindset is essential, it's equally important to take inspired action towards your goals. Break down your goals into actionable steps and consistently work towards them. Trust that your angels are guiding you and providing opportunities to manifest your desires.

If you're on the path to parenthood, angel number 1616 holds a special meaning for you. Here's how angel number 1616 can guide you on your journey:

Encouragement and Support:

Angel number 1616 is a sign that the universe is encouraging you to continue on your path to parenthood. Trust in the process and have faith that you are being guided towards the fulfillment of your desire to have a child. Your angels want you to know that you are not alone on this journey and that they are supporting you every step of the way.

Positive Mindset:

Maintaining a positive mindset is crucial during the journey to parenthood. Trust in your body's natural ability to conceive and nurture a child. Embrace the joy and excitement that comes with the anticipation of becoming a parent. Your angels want you to know that your dreams of starting a family will soon manifest.

When you repeatedly see angel number 1616, it's important to pay attention and take action. Here are some steps you can take when you see angel number 1616:

Embrace Change and New Beginnings:

Angel number 1616 is a sign that change is on the horizon. Embrace this change and be open to new beginnings. Step out of your comfort zone and take bold actions towards your goals. Remember, your angels are guiding and supporting you every step of the way.

Maintain a Positive Mindset:

A positive mindset is key to manifesting positive changes in your life. Focus on positive thoughts, affirmations, and gratitude. Surround yourself with positivity and let go of negative influences. By maintaining a positive mindset, you attract more positivity into your life.

Seek Support and Help:

Your angels want you to know that it's okay to ask for help and lean on your loved ones for support. Reach out to your family and friends when you need assistance or guidance. Remember, you are not alone on your journey, and your loved ones are there to support you.

In conclusion, angel number 1616 is a powerful sign from your angels, urging you to maintain a positive mindset and embrace the potential for positive changes in your life. Whether it's in love, spirituality, career, or parenthood, angel number 1616 holds profound meaning and guidance. Embrace the messages from your angels, take inspired action, and trust in the process. Remember, your angels are always by your side, guiding and supporting you on your journey toward personal growth and fulfillment.

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