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School Climate

45 survey questions to understand student engagement in online learning.

In our work with K-12 school districts during the COVID-19 pandemic, countless district leaders and school administrators have told us how challenging it's been to  build student engagement outside of the traditional classroom. 

Not only that, but the challenges associated with online learning may have the largest impact on students from marginalized communities.   Research   suggests that some groups of students experience more difficulty with academic performance and engagement when course content is delivered online vs. face-to-face.

As you look to improve the online learning experience for students, take a moment to understand  how students, caregivers, and staff are currently experiencing virtual learning. Where are the areas for improvement? How supported do students feel in their online coursework? Do teachers feel equipped to support students through synchronous and asynchronous facilitation? How confident do families feel in supporting their children at home?

Below, we've compiled a bank of 45 questions to understand student engagement in online learning.  Interested in running a student, family, or staff engagement survey? Click here to learn about Panorama's survey analytics platform for K-12 school districts.

Download Toolkit: 9 Virtual Learning Resources to Engage Students, Families, and Staff

45 Questions to Understand Student Engagement in Online Learning

For students (grades 3-5 and 6-12):.

1. How excited are you about going to your classes?

2. How often do you get so focused on activities in your classes that you lose track of time?

3. In your classes, how eager are you to participate?

4. When you are not in school, how often do you talk about ideas from your classes?

5. Overall, how interested are you in your classes?

6. What are the most engaging activities that happen in this class?

7. Which aspects of class have you found least engaging?

8. If you were teaching class, what is the one thing you would do to make it more engaging for all students?

9. How do you know when you are feeling engaged in class?

10. What projects/assignments/activities do you find most engaging in this class?

11. What does this teacher do to make this class engaging?

12. How much effort are you putting into your classes right now?

13. How difficult or easy is it for you to try hard on your schoolwork right now?

14. How difficult or easy is it for you to stay focused on your schoolwork right now?

15. If you have missed in-person school recently, why did you miss school?

16. If you have missed online classes recently, why did you miss class?

17. How would you like to be learning right now?

18. How happy are you with the amount of time you spend speaking with your teacher?

19. How difficult or easy is it to use the distance learning technology (computer, tablet, video calls, learning applications, etc.)?

20. What do you like about school right now?

21. What do you not like about school right now?

22. When you have online schoolwork, how often do you have the technology (laptop, tablet, computer, etc) you need?

23. How difficult or easy is it for you to connect to the internet to access your schoolwork?

24. What has been the hardest part about completing your schoolwork?

25. How happy are you with how much time you spend in specials or enrichment (art, music, PE, etc.)?

26. Are you getting all the help you need with your schoolwork right now?

27. How sure are you that you can do well in school right now?

28. Are there adults at your school you can go to for help if you need it right now?

29. If you are participating in distance learning, how often do you hear from your teachers individually?

For Families, Parents, and Caregivers:

30 How satisfied are you with the way learning is structured at your child’s school right now?

31. Do you think your child should spend less or more time learning in person at school right now?

32. How difficult or easy is it for your child to use the distance learning tools (video calls, learning applications, etc.)?

33. How confident are you in your ability to support your child's education during distance learning?

34. How confident are you that teachers can motivate students to learn in the current model?

35. What is working well with your child’s education that you would like to see continued?

36. What is challenging with your child’s education that you would like to see improved?

37. Does your child have their own tablet, laptop, or computer available for schoolwork when they need it?

38. What best describes your child's typical internet access?

39. Is there anything else you would like us to know about your family’s needs at this time?

For Teachers and Staff:

40.   In the past week, how many of your students regularly participated in your virtual classes?

41. In the past week, how engaged have students been in your virtual classes?

42. In the past week, how engaged have students been in your in-person classes?

43. Is there anything else you would like to share about student engagement at this time?

44. What is working well with the current learning model that you would like to see continued?

45. What is challenging about the current learning model that you would like to see improved?

Elevate Student, Family, and Staff Voices This Year With Panorama

Schools and districts can use Panorama’s leading survey administration and analytics platform to quickly gather and take action on information from students, families, teachers, and staff. The questions are applicable to all types of K-12 school settings and grade levels, as well as to communities serving students from a range of socioeconomic backgrounds.

In the Panorama platform, educators can view and disaggregate results by topic, question, demographic group, grade level, school, and more to inform priority areas and action plans. Districts may use the data to improve teaching and learning models, build stronger academic and social-emotional support systems, improve stakeholder communication, and inform staff professional development.

To learn more about Panorama's survey platform, get in touch with our team.

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• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 06 February 2017

Blended learning effectiveness: the relationship between student characteristics, design features and outcomes

• Mugenyi Justice Kintu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4500-1168 1 , 2 ,
• Chang Zhu 2 &
• Edmond Kagambe 1  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  14 , Article number:  7 ( 2017 ) Cite this article

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This paper investigates the effectiveness of a blended learning environment through analyzing the relationship between student characteristics/background, design features and learning outcomes. It is aimed at determining the significant predictors of blended learning effectiveness taking student characteristics/background and design features as independent variables and learning outcomes as dependent variables. A survey was administered to 238 respondents to gather data on student characteristics/background, design features and learning outcomes. The final semester evaluation results were used as a measure for performance as an outcome. We applied the online self regulatory learning questionnaire for data on learner self regulation, the intrinsic motivation inventory for data on intrinsic motivation and other self-developed instruments for measuring the other constructs. Multiple regression analysis results showed that blended learning design features (technology quality, online tools and face-to-face support) and student characteristics (attitudes and self-regulation) predicted student satisfaction as an outcome. The results indicate that some of the student characteristics/backgrounds and design features are significant predictors for student learning outcomes in blended learning.

Introduction

The teaching and learning environment is embracing a number of innovations and some of these involve the use of technology through blended learning. This innovative pedagogical approach has been embraced rapidly though it goes through a process. The introduction of blended learning (combination of face-to-face and online teaching and learning) initiatives is part of these innovations but its uptake, especially in the developing world faces challenges for it to be an effective innovation in teaching and learning. Blended learning effectiveness has quite a number of underlying factors that pose challenges. One big challenge is about how users can successfully use the technology and ensuring participants’ commitment given the individual learner characteristics and encounters with technology (Hofmann, 2014 ). Hofmann adds that users getting into difficulties with technology may result into abandoning the learning and eventual failure of technological applications. In a report by Oxford Group ( 2013 ), some learners (16%) had negative attitudes to blended learning while 26% were concerned that learners would not complete study in blended learning. Learners are important partners in any learning process and therefore, their backgrounds and characteristics affect their ability to effectively carry on with learning and being in blended learning, the design tools to be used may impinge on the effectiveness in their learning.

This study tackles blended learning effectiveness which has been investigated in previous studies considering grades, course completion, retention and graduation rates but no studies regarding effectiveness in view of learner characteristics/background, design features and outcomes have been done in the Ugandan university context. No studies have also been done on how the characteristics of learners and design features are predictors of outcomes in the context of a planning evaluation research (Guskey, 2000 ) to establish the effectiveness of blended learning. Guskey ( 2000 ) noted that planning evaluation fits in well since it occurs before the implementation of any innovation as well as allowing planners to determine the needs, considering participant characteristics, analyzing contextual matters and gathering baseline information. This study is done in the context of a plan to undertake innovative pedagogy involving use of a learning management system (moodle) for the first time in teaching and learning in a Ugandan university. The learner characteristics/backgrounds being investigated for blended learning effectiveness include self-regulation, computer competence, workload management, social and family support, attitude to blended learning, gender and age. We investigate the blended learning design features of learner interactions, face-to-face support, learning management system tools and technology quality while the outcomes considered include satisfaction, performance, intrinsic motivation and knowledge construction. Establishing the significant predictors of outcomes in blended learning will help to inform planners of such learning environments in order to put in place necessary groundwork preparations for designing blended learning as an innovative pedagogical approach.

Kenney and Newcombe ( 2011 ) did their comparison to establish effectiveness in view of grades and found that blended learning had higher average score than the non-blended learning environment. Garrison and Kanuka ( 2004 ) examined the transformative potential of blended learning and reported an increase in course completion rates, improved retention and increased student satisfaction. Comparisons between blended learning environments have been done to establish the disparity between academic achievement, grade dispersions and gender performance differences and no significant differences were found between the groups (Demirkol & Kazu, 2014 ).

However, blended learning effectiveness may be dependent on many other factors and among them student characteristics, design features and learning outcomes. Research shows that the failure of learners to continue their online education in some cases has been due to family support or increased workload leading to learner dropout (Park & Choi, 2009 ) as well as little time for study. Additionally, it is dependent on learner interactions with instructors since failure to continue with online learning is attributed to this. In Greer, Hudson & Paugh’s study as cited in Park and Choi ( 2009 ), family and peer support for learners is important for success in online and face-to-face learning. Support is needed for learners from all areas in web-based courses and this may be from family, friends, co-workers as well as peers in class. Greer, Hudson and Paugh further noted that peer encouragement assisted new learners in computer use and applications. The authors also show that learners need time budgeting, appropriate technology tools and support from friends and family in web-based courses. Peer support is required by learners who have no or little knowledge of technology, especially computers, to help them overcome fears. Park and Choi, ( 2009 ) showed that organizational support significantly predicts learners’ stay and success in online courses because employers at times are willing to reduce learners’ workload during study as well as supervisors showing that they are interested in job-related learning for employees to advance and improve their skills.

The study by Kintu and Zhu ( 2016 ) investigated the possibility of blended learning in a Ugandan University and examined whether student characteristics (such as self-regulation, attitudes towards blended learning, computer competence) and student background (such as family support, social support and management of workload) were significant factors in learner outcomes (such as motivation, satisfaction, knowledge construction and performance). The characteristics and background factors were studied along with blended learning design features such as technology quality, learner interactions, and Moodle with its tools and resources. The findings from that study indicated that learner attitudes towards blended learning were significant factors to learner satisfaction and motivation while workload management was a significant factor to learner satisfaction and knowledge construction. Among the blended learning design features, only learner interaction was a significant factor to learner satisfaction and knowledge construction.

The focus of the present study is on examining the effectiveness of blended learning taking into consideration learner characteristics/background, blended learning design elements and learning outcomes and how the former are significant predictors of blended learning effectiveness.

Studies like that of Morris and Lim ( 2009 ) have investigated learner and instructional factors influencing learning outcomes in blended learning. They however do not deal with such variables in the contexts of blended learning design as an aspect of innovative pedagogy involving the use of technology in education. Apart from the learner variables such as gender, age, experience, study time as tackled before, this study considers social and background aspects of the learners such as family and social support, self-regulation, attitudes towards blended learning and management of workload to find out their relationship to blended learning effectiveness. Identifying the various types of learner variables with regard to their relationship to blended learning effectiveness is important in this study as we embark on innovative pedagogy with technology in teaching and learning.

Literature review

This review presents research about blended learning effectiveness from the perspective of learner characteristics/background, design features and learning outcomes. It also gives the factors that are considered to be significant for blended learning effectiveness. The selected elements are as a result of the researcher’s experiences at a Ugandan university where student learning faces challenges with regard to learner characteristics and blended learning features in adopting the use of technology in teaching and learning. We have made use of Loukis, Georgiou, and Pazalo ( 2007 ) value flow model for evaluating an e-learning and blended learning service specifically considering the effectiveness evaluation layer. This evaluates the extent of an e-learning system usage and the educational effectiveness. In addition, studies by Leidner, Jarvenpaa, Dillon and Gunawardena as cited in Selim ( 2007 ) have noted three main factors that affect e-learning and blended learning effectiveness as instructor characteristics, technology and student characteristics. Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino ( 2001 ) showed the need for examining learner characteristics for effective instructional technology use and showed that user characteristics do impact on behavioral intention to use technology. Research has dealt with learner characteristics that contribute to learner performance outcomes. They have dealt with emotional intelligence, resilience, personality type and success in an online learning context (Berenson, Boyles, & Weaver, 2008 ). Dealing with the characteristics identified in this study will give another dimension, especially for blended learning in learning environment designs and add to specific debate on learning using technology. Lin and Vassar, ( 2009 ) indicated that learner success is dependent on ability to cope with technical difficulty as well as technical skills in computer operations and internet navigation. This justifies our approach in dealing with the design features of blended learning in this study.

Learner characteristics/background and blended learning effectiveness

Studies indicate that student characteristics such as gender play significant roles in academic achievement (Oxford Group, 2013 ), but no study examines performance of male and female as an important factor in blended learning effectiveness. It has again been noted that the success of e- and blended learning is highly dependent on experience in internet and computer applications (Picciano & Seaman, 2007 ). Rigorous discovery of such competences can finally lead to a confirmation of high possibilities of establishing blended learning. Research agrees that the success of e-learning and blended learning can largely depend on students as well as teachers gaining confidence and capability to participate in blended learning (Hadad, 2007 ). Shraim and Khlaif ( 2010 ) note in their research that 75% of students and 72% of teachers were lacking in skills to utilize ICT based learning components due to insufficient skills and experience in computer and internet applications and this may lead to failure in e-learning and blended learning. It is therefore pertinent that since the use of blended learning applies high usage of computers, computer competence is necessary (Abubakar & Adetimirin, 2015 ) to avoid failure in applying technology in education for learning effectiveness. Rovai, ( 2003 ) noted that learners’ computer literacy and time management are crucial in distance learning contexts and concluded that such factors are meaningful in online classes. This is supported by Selim ( 2007 ) that learners need to posses time management skills and computer skills necessary for effectiveness in e- learning and blended learning. Self-regulatory skills of time management lead to better performance and learners’ ability to structure the physical learning environment leads to efficiency in e-learning and blended learning environments. Learners need to seek helpful assistance from peers and teachers through chats, email and face-to-face meetings for effectiveness (Lynch & Dembo, 2004 ). Factors such as learners’ hours of employment and family responsibilities are known to impede learners’ process of learning, blended learning inclusive (Cohen, Stage, Hammack, & Marcus, 2012 ). It was also noted that a common factor in failure and learner drop-out is the time conflict which is compounded by issues of family , employment status as well as management support (Packham, Jones, Miller, & Thomas, 2004 ). A study by Thompson ( 2004 ) shows that work, family, insufficient time and study load made learners withdraw from online courses.

Learner attitudes to blended learning can result in its effectiveness and these shape behavioral intentions which usually lead to persistence in a learning environment, blended inclusive. Selim, ( 2007 ) noted that the learners’ attitude towards e-learning and blended learning are success factors for these learning environments. Learner performance by age and gender in e-learning and blended learning has been found to indicate no significant differences between male and female learners and different age groups (i.e. young, middle-aged and old above 45 years) (Coldwell, Craig, Paterson, & Mustard, 2008 ). This implies that the potential for blended learning to be effective exists and is unhampered by gender or age differences.

Blended learning design features

The design features under study here include interactions, technology with its quality, face-to-face support and learning management system tools and resources.

Research shows that absence of learner interaction causes failure and eventual drop-out in online courses (Willging & Johnson, 2009 ) and the lack of learner connectedness was noted as an internal factor leading to learner drop-out in online courses (Zielinski, 2000 ). It was also noted that learners may not continue in e- and blended learning if they are unable to make friends thereby being disconnected and developing feelings of isolation during their blended learning experiences (Willging & Johnson, 2009). Learners’ Interactions with teachers and peers can make blended learning effective as its absence makes learners withdraw (Astleitner, 2000 ). Loukis, Georgious and Pazalo (2007) noted that learners’ measuring of a system’s quality, reliability and ease of use leads to learning efficiency and can be so in blended learning. Learner success in blended learning may substantially be affected by system functionality (Pituch & Lee, 2006 ) and may lead to failure of such learning initiatives (Shrain, 2012 ). It is therefore important to examine technology quality for ensuring learning effectiveness in blended learning. Tselios, Daskalakis, and Papadopoulou ( 2011 ) investigated learner perceptions after a learning management system use and found out that the actual system use determines the usefulness among users. It is again noted that a system with poor response time cannot be taken to be useful for e-learning and blended learning especially in cases of limited bandwidth (Anderson, 2004 ). In this study, we investigate the use of Moodle and its tools as a function of potential effectiveness of blended learning.

The quality of learning management system content for learners can be a predictor of good performance in e-and blended learning environments and can lead to learner satisfaction. On the whole, poor quality technology yields no satisfaction by users and therefore the quality of technology significantly affects satisfaction (Piccoli, Ahmad, & Ives, 2001 ). Continued navigation through a learning management system increases use and is an indicator of success in blended learning (Delone & McLean, 2003 ). The efficient use of learning management system and its tools improves learning outcomes in e-learning and blended learning environments.

It is noted that learner satisfaction with a learning management system can be an antecedent factor for blended learning effectiveness. Goyal and Tambe ( 2015 ) noted that learners showed an appreciation to Moodle’s contribution in their learning. They showed positivity with it as it improved their understanding of course material (Ahmad & Al-Khanjari, 2011 ). The study by Goyal and Tambe ( 2015 ) used descriptive statistics to indicate improved learning by use of uploaded syllabus and session plans on Moodle. Improved learning is also noted through sharing study material, submitting assignments and using the calendar. Learners in the study found Moodle to be an effective educational tool.

In blended learning set ups, face-to-face experiences form part of the blend and learner positive attitudes to such sessions could mean blended learning effectiveness. A study by Marriot, Marriot, and Selwyn ( 2004 ) showed learners expressing their preference for face-to-face due to its facilitation of social interaction and communication skills acquired from classroom environment. Their preference for the online session was only in as far as it complemented the traditional face-to-face learning. Learners in a study by Osgerby ( 2013 ) had positive perceptions of blended learning but preferred face-to-face with its step-by-stem instruction. Beard, Harper and Riley ( 2004 ) shows that some learners are successful while in a personal interaction with teachers and peers thus prefer face-to-face in the blend. Beard however dealt with a comparison between online and on-campus learning while our study combines both, singling out the face-to-face part of the blend. The advantage found by Beard is all the same relevant here because learners in blended learning express attitude to both online and face-to-face for an effective blend. Researchers indicate that teacher presence in face-to-face sessions lessens psychological distance between them and the learners and leads to greater learning. This is because there are verbal aspects like giving praise, soliciting for viewpoints, humor, etc and non-verbal expressions like eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, etc which make teachers to be closer to learners psychologically (Kelley & Gorham, 2009 ).

Learner outcomes

The outcomes under scrutiny in this study include performance, motivation, satisfaction and knowledge construction. Motivation is seen here as an outcome because, much as cognitive factors such as course grades are used in measuring learning outcomes, affective factors like intrinsic motivation may also be used to indicate outcomes of learning (Kuo, Walker, Belland, & Schroder, 2013 ). Research shows that high motivation among online learners leads to persistence in their courses (Menager-Beeley, 2004 ). Sankaran and Bui ( 2001 ) indicated that less motivated learners performed poorly in knowledge tests while those with high learning motivation demonstrate high performance in academics (Green, Nelson, Martin, & Marsh, 2006 ). Lim and Kim, ( 2003 ) indicated that learner interest as a motivation factor promotes learner involvement in learning and this could lead to learning effectiveness in blended learning.

Learner satisfaction was noted as a strong factor for effectiveness of blended and online courses (Wilging & Johnson, 2009) and dissatisfaction may result from learners’ incompetence in the use of the learning management system as an effective learning tool since, as Islam ( 2014 ) puts it, users may be dissatisfied with an information system due to ease of use. A lack of prompt feedback for learners from course instructors was found to cause dissatisfaction in an online graduate course. In addition, dissatisfaction resulted from technical difficulties as well as ambiguous course instruction Hara and Kling ( 2001 ). These factors, once addressed, can lead to learner satisfaction in e-learning and blended learning and eventual effectiveness. A study by Blocker and Tucker ( 2001 ) also showed that learners had difficulties with technology and inadequate group participation by peers leading to dissatisfaction within these design features. Student-teacher interactions are known to bring satisfaction within online courses. Study results by Swan ( 2001 ) indicated that student-teacher interaction strongly related with student satisfaction and high learner-learner interaction resulted in higher levels of course satisfaction. Descriptive results by Naaj, Nachouki, and Ankit ( 2012 ) showed that learners were satisfied with technology which was a video-conferencing component of blended learning with a mean of 3.7. The same study indicated student satisfaction with instructors at a mean of 3.8. Askar and Altun, ( 2008 ) found that learners were satisfied with face-to-face sessions of the blend with t-tests and ANOVA results indicating female scores as higher than for males in the satisfaction with face-to-face environment of the blended learning.

Studies comparing blended learning with traditional face-to-face have indicated that learners perform equally well in blended learning and their performance is unaffected by the delivery method (Kwak, Menezes, & Sherwood, 2013 ). In another study, learning experience and performance are known to improve when traditional course delivery is integrated with online learning (Stacey & Gerbic, 2007 ). Such improvement as noted may be an indicator of blended learning effectiveness. Our study however, delves into improved performance but seeks to establish the potential of blended learning effectiveness by considering grades obtained in a blended learning experiment. Score 50 and above is considered a pass in this study’s setting and learners scoring this and above will be considered to have passed. This will make our conclusions about the potential of blended learning effectiveness.

Regarding knowledge construction, it has been noted that effective learning occurs where learners are actively involved (Nurmela, Palonen, Lehtinen & Hakkarainen, 2003 , cited in Zhu, 2012 ) and this may be an indicator of learning environment effectiveness. Effective blended learning would require that learners are able to initiate, discover and accomplish the processes of knowledge construction as antecedents of blended learning effectiveness. A study by Rahman, Yasin and Jusoff ( 2011 ) indicated that learners were able to use some steps to construct meaning through an online discussion process through assignments given. In the process of giving and receiving among themselves, the authors noted that learners learned by writing what they understood. From our perspective, this can be considered to be accomplishment in the knowledge construction process. Their study further shows that learners construct meaning individually from assignments and this stage is referred to as pre-construction which for our study, is an aspect of discovery in the knowledge construction process.

Predictors of blended learning effectiveness

Researchers have dealt with success factors for online learning or those for traditional face-to-face learning but little is known about factors that predict blended learning effectiveness in view of learner characteristics and blended learning design features. This part of our study seeks to establish the learner characteristics/backgrounds and design features that predict blended learning effectiveness with regard to satisfaction, outcomes, motivation and knowledge construction. Song, Singleton, Hill, and Koh ( 2004 ) examined online learning effectiveness factors and found out that time management (a self-regulatory factor) was crucial for successful online learning. Eom, Wen, and Ashill ( 2006 ) using a survey found out that interaction, among other factors, was significant for learner satisfaction. Technical problems with regard to instructional design were a challenge to online learners thus not indicating effectiveness (Song et al., 2004 ), though the authors also indicated that descriptive statistics to a tune of 75% and time management (62%) impact on success of online learning. Arbaugh ( 2000 ) and Swan ( 2001 ) indicated that high levels of learner-instructor interaction are associated with high levels of user satisfaction and learning outcomes. A study by Naaj et al. ( 2012 ) indicated that technology and learner interactions, among other factors, influenced learner satisfaction in blended learning.

Objective and research questions of the current study

The objective of the current study is to investigate the effectiveness of blended learning in view of student satisfaction, knowledge construction, performance and intrinsic motivation and how they are related to student characteristics and blended learning design features in a blended learning environment.

Research questions

What are the student characteristics and blended learning design features for an effective blended learning environment?

Which factors (among the learner characteristics and blended learning design features) predict student satisfaction, learning outcomes, intrinsic motivation and knowledge construction?

Conceptual model of the present study

The reviewed literature clearly shows learner characteristics/background and blended learning design features play a part in blended learning effectiveness and some of them are significant predictors of effectiveness. The conceptual model for our study is depicted as follows (Fig.  1 ):

Conceptual model of the current study

Research design

This research applies a quantitative design where descriptive statistics are used for the student characteristics and design features data, t-tests for the age and gender variables to determine if they are significant in blended learning effectiveness and regression for predictors of blended learning effectiveness.

This study is based on an experiment in which learners participated during their study using face-to-face sessions and an on-line session of a blended learning design. A learning management system (Moodle) was used and learner characteristics/background and blended learning design features were measured in relation to learning effectiveness. It is therefore a planning evaluation research design as noted by Guskey ( 2000 ) since the outcomes are aimed at blended learning implementation at MMU. The plan under which the various variables were tested involved face-to-face study at the beginning of a 17 week semester which was followed by online teaching and learning in the second half of the semester. The last part of the semester was for another face-to-face to review work done during the online sessions and final semester examinations. A questionnaire with items on student characteristics, design features and learning outcomes was distributed among students from three schools and one directorate of postgraduate studies.

Participants

Cluster sampling was used to select a total of 238 learners to participate in this study. Out of the whole university population of students, three schools and one directorate were used. From these, one course unit was selected from each school and all the learners following the course unit were surveyed. In the school of Education ( n  = 70) and Business and Management Studies ( n  = 133), sophomore students were involved due to the fact that they have been introduced to ICT basics during their first year of study. Students of the third year were used from the department of technology in the School of Applied Sciences and Technology ( n  = 18) since most of the year two courses had a lot of practical aspects that could not be used for the online learning part. From the Postgraduate Directorate ( n  = 17), first and second year students were selected because learners attend a face-to-face session before they are given paper modules to study away from campus.

The study population comprised of 139 male students representing 58.4% and 99 females representing 41.6% with an average age of 24 years.

Instruments

The end of semester results were used to measure learner performance. The online self-regulated learning questionnaire (Barnard, Lan, To, Paton, & Lai, 2009 ) and the intrinsic motivation inventory (Deci & Ryan, 1982 ) were applied to measure the constructs on self regulation in the student characteristics and motivation in the learning outcome constructs. Other self-developed instruments were used for the other remaining variables of attitudes, computer competence, workload management, social and family support, satisfaction, knowledge construction, technology quality, interactions, learning management system tools and resources and face-to-face support.

Instrument reliability

Cronbach’s alpha was used to test reliability and the table below gives the results. All the scales and sub-scales had acceptable internal consistency reliabilities as shown in Table  1 below:

Data analysis

First, descriptive statistics was conducted. Shapiro-Wilk test was done to test normality of the data for it to qualify for parametric tests. The test results for normality of our data before the t- test resulted into significant levels (Male = .003, female = .000) thereby violating the normality assumption. We therefore used the skewness and curtosis results which were between −1.0 and +1.0 and assumed distribution to be sufficiently normal to qualify the data for a parametric test, (Pallant, 2010 ). An independent samples t -test was done to find out the differences in male and female performance to explain the gender characteristics in blended learning effectiveness. A one-way ANOVA between subjects was conducted to establish the differences in performance between age groups. Finally, multiple regression analysis was done between student variables and design elements with learning outcomes to determine the significant predictors for blended learning effectiveness.

Student characteristics, blended learning design features and learning outcomes ( RQ1 )

A t- test was carried out to establish the performance of male and female learners in the blended learning set up. This was aimed at finding out if male and female learners do perform equally well in blended learning given their different roles and responsibilities in society. It was found that male learners performed slightly better ( M  = 62.5) than their female counterparts ( M  = 61.1). An independent t -test revealed that the difference between the performances was not statistically significant ( t  = 1.569, df = 228, p  = 0.05, one tailed). The magnitude of the differences in the means is small with effect size ( d  = 0.18). A one way between subjects ANOVA was conducted on the performance of different age groups to establish the performance of learners of young and middle aged age groups (20–30, young & and 31–39, middle aged). This revealed a significant difference in performance (F(1,236 = 8.498, p < . 001).

Average percentages of the items making up the self regulated learning scale are used to report the findings about all the sub-scales in the learner characteristics/background scale. Results show that learner self-regulation was good enough at 72.3% in all the sub-scales of goal setting, environment structuring, task strategies, time management, help-seeking and self-evaluation among learners. The least in the scoring was task strategies at 67.7% and the highest was learner environment structuring at 76.3%. Learner attitude towards blended learning environment is at 76% in the sub-scales of learner autonomy, quality of instructional materials, course structure, course interface and interactions. The least scored here is attitude to course structure at 66% and their attitudes were high on learner autonomy and course interface both at 82%. Results on the learners’ computer competences are summarized in percentages in the table below (Table  2 ):

It can be seen that learners are skilled in word processing at 91%, email at 63.5%, spreadsheets at 68%, web browsers at 70.2% and html tools at 45.4%. They are therefore good enough in word processing and web browsing. Their computer confidence levels are reported at 75.3% and specifically feel very confident when it comes to working with a computer (85.7%). Levels of family and social support for learners during blended learning experiences are at 60.5 and 75% respectively. There is however a low score on learners being assisted by family members in situations of computer setbacks (33.2%) as 53.4% of the learners reported no assistance in this regard. A higher percentage (85.3%) is reported on learners getting support from family regarding provision of essentials for learning such as tuition. A big percentage of learners spend two hours on study while at home (35.3%) followed by one hour (28.2%) while only 9.7% spend more than three hours on study at home. Peers showed great care during the blended learning experience (81%) and their experiences were appreciated by the society (66%). Workload management by learners vis-à-vis studying is good at 60%. Learners reported that their workmates stand in for them at workplaces to enable them do their study in blended learning while 61% are encouraged by their bosses to go and improve their skills through further education and training. On the time spent on other activities not related to study, majority of the learners spend three hours (35%) while 19% spend 6 hours. Sixty percent of the learners have to answer to someone when they are not attending to other activities outside study compared to the 39.9% who do not and can therefore do study or those other activities.

The usability of the online system, tools and resources was below average as shown in the table below in percentages (Table  3 ):

However, learners became skilled at navigating around the learning management system (79%) and it was easy for them to locate course content, tools and resources needed such as course works, news, discussions and journal materials. They effectively used the communication tools (60%) and to work with peers by making posts (57%). They reported that online resources were well organized, user friendly and easy to access (71%) as well as well structured in a clear and understandable manner (72%). They therefore recommended the use of online resources for other course units in future (78%) because they were satisfied with them (64.3%). On the whole, the online resources were fine for the learners (67.2%) and useful as a learning resource (80%). The learners’ perceived usefulness/satisfaction with online system, tools, and resources was at 81% as the LMS tools helped them to communicate, work with peers and reflect on their learning (74%). They reported that using moodle helped them to learn new concepts, information and gaining skills (85.3%) as well as sharing what they knew or learned (76.4%). They enjoyed the course units (78%) and improved their skills with technology (89%).

Learner interactions were seen from three angles of cognitivism, collaborative learning and student-teacher interactions. Collaborative learning was average at 50% with low percentages in learners posting challenges to colleagues’ ideas online (34%) and posting ideas for colleagues to read online (37%). They however met oftentimes online (60%) and organized how they would work together in study during the face-to-face meetings (69%). The common form of communication medium frequently used by learners during the blended learning experience was by phone (34.5%) followed by whatsapp (21.8%), face book (21%), discussion board (11.8%) and email (10.9%). At the cognitive level, learners interacted with content at 72% by reading the posted content (81%), exchanging knowledge via the LMS (58.4%), participating in discussions on the forum (62%) and got course objectives and structure introduced during the face-to-face sessions (86%). Student-teacher interaction was reported at 71% through instructors individually working with them online (57.2%) and being well guided towards learning goals (81%). They did receive suggestions from instructors about resources to use in their learning (75.3%) and instructors provided learning input for them to come up with their own answers (71%).

The technology quality during the blended learning intervention was rated at 69% with availability of 72%, quality of the resources was at 68% with learners reporting that discussion boards gave right content necessary for study (71%) and the email exchanges containing relevant and much needed information (63.4%) as well as chats comprising of essential information to aid the learning (69%). Internet reliability was rated at 66% with a speed considered averagely good to facilitate online activities (63%). They however reported that there was intermittent breakdown during online study (67%) though they could complete their internet program during connection (63.4%). Learners eventually found it easy to download necessary materials for study in their blended learning experiences (71%).

Learner extent of use of the learning management system features was as shown in the table below in percentage (Table  4 ):

From the table, very rarely used features include the blog and wiki while very often used ones include the email, forum, chat and calendar.

The effectiveness of the LMS was rated at 79% by learners reporting that they found it useful (89%) and using it makes their learning activities much easier (75.2%). Moodle has helped learners to accomplish their learning tasks more quickly (74%) and that as a LMS, it is effective in teaching and learning (88%) with overall satisfaction levels at 68%. However, learners note challenges in the use of the LMS regarding its performance as having been problematic to them (57%) and only 8% of the learners reported navigation while 16% reported access as challenges.

Learner attitudes towards Face-to-face support were reported at 88% showing that the sessions were enjoyable experiences (89%) with high quality class discussions (86%) and therefore recommended that the sessions should continue in blended learning (89%). The frequency of the face-to-face sessions is shown in the table below as preferred by learners (Table  5 ).

Learners preferred face-to-face sessions after every month in the semester (33.6%) and at the beginning of the blended learning session only (27.7%).

Learners reported high intrinsic motivation levels with interest and enjoyment of tasks at 83.7%, perceived competence at 70.2%, effort/importance sub-scale at 80%, pressure/tension reported at 54%. The pressure percentage of 54% arises from learners feeling nervous (39.2%) and a lot of anxiety (53%) while 44% felt a lot of pressure during the blended learning experiences. Learners however reported the value/usefulness of blended learning at 91% with majority believing that studying online and face-to-face had value for them (93.3%) and were therefore willing to take part in blended learning (91.2%). They showed that it is beneficial for them (94%) and that it was an important way of studying (84.3%).

Learner satisfaction was reported at 81% especially with instructors (85%) high percentage reported on encouraging learner participation during the course of study 93%, course content (83%) with the highest being satisfaction with the good relationship between the objectives of the course units and the content (90%), technology (71%) with a high percentage on the fact that the platform was adequate for the online part of the learning (76%), interactions (75%) with participation in class at 79%, and face-to-face sessions (91%) with learner satisfaction high on face-to-face sessions being good enough for interaction and giving an overview of the courses when objectives were introduced at 92%.

Learners’ knowledge construction was reported at 78% with initiation and discovery scales scoring 84% with 88% specifically for discovering the learning points in the course units. The accomplishment scale in knowledge construction scored 71% and specifically the fact that learners were able to work together with group members to accomplish learning tasks throughout the study of the course units (79%). Learners developed reports from activities (67%), submitted solutions to discussion questions (68%) and did critique peer arguments (69%). Generally, learners performed well in blended learning in the final examination with an average pass of 62% and standard deviation of 7.5.

Significant predictors of blended learning effectiveness ( RQ 2)

A standard multiple regression analysis was done taking learner characteristics/background and design features as predictor variables and learning outcomes as criterion variables. The data was first tested to check if it met the linear regression test assumptions and results showed the correlations between the independent variables and each of the dependent variables (highest 0.62 and lowest 0.22) as not being too high, which indicated that multicollinearity was not a problem in our model. From the coefficients table, the VIF values ranged from 1.0 to 2.4, well below the cut off value of 10 and indicating no possibility of multicollinearity. The normal probability plot was seen to lie as a reasonably straight diagonal from bottom left to top right indicating normality of our data. Linearity was found suitable from the scatter plot of the standardized residuals and was rectangular in distribution. Outliers were no cause for concern in our data since we had only 1% of all cases falling outside 3.0 thus proving the data as a normally distributed sample. Our R -square values was at 0.525 meaning that the independent variables explained about 53% of the variance in overall satisfaction, motivation and knowledge construction of the learners. All the models explaining the three dependent variables of learner satisfaction, intrinsic motivation and knowledge construction were significant at the 0.000 probability level (Table  6 ).

From the table above, design features (technology quality and online tools and resources), and learner characteristics (attitudes to blended learning, self-regulation) were significant predictors of learner satisfaction in blended learning. This means that good technology with the features involved and the learner positive attitudes with capacity to do blended learning with self drive led to their satisfaction. The design features (technology quality, interactions) and learner characteristics (self regulation and social support), were found to be significant predictors of learner knowledge construction. This implies that learners’ capacity to go on their work by themselves supported by peers and high levels of interaction using the quality technology led them to construct their own ideas in blended learning. Design features (technology quality, online tools and resources as well as learner interactions) and learner characteristics (self regulation), significantly predicted the learners’ intrinsic motivation in blended learning suggesting that good technology, tools and high interaction levels with independence in learning led to learners being highly motivated. Finally, none of the independent variables considered under this study were predictors of learning outcomes (grade).

In this study we have investigated learning outcomes as dependent variables to establish if particular learner characteristics/backgrounds and design features are related to the outcomes for blended learning effectiveness and if they predict learning outcomes in blended learning. We took students from three schools out of five and one directorate of post-graduate studies at a Ugandan University. The study suggests that the characteristics and design features examined are good drivers towards an effective blended learning environment though a few of them predicted learning outcomes in blended learning.

Student characteristics/background, blended learning design features and learning outcomes

The learner characteristics, design features investigated are potentially important for an effective blended learning environment. Performance by gender shows a balance with no statistical differences between male and female. There are statistically significant differences ( p  < .005) in the performance between age groups with means of 62% for age group 20–30 and 67% for age group 31 –39. The indicators of self regulation exist as well as positive attitudes towards blended learning. Learners do well with word processing, e-mail, spreadsheets and web browsers but still lag below average in html tools. They show computer confidence at 75.3%; which gives prospects for an effective blended learning environment in regard to their computer competence and confidence. The levels of family and social support for learners stand at 61 and 75% respectively, indicating potential for blended learning to be effective. The learners’ balance between study and work is a drive factor towards blended learning effectiveness since their management of their workload vis a vis study time is at 60 and 61% of the learners are encouraged to go for study by their bosses. Learner satisfaction with the online system and its tools shows prospect for blended learning effectiveness but there are challenges in regard to locating course content and assignments, submitting their work and staying on a task during online study. Average collaborative, cognitive learning as well as learner-teacher interactions exist as important factors. Technology quality for effective blended learning is a potential for effectiveness though features like the blog and wiki are rarely used by learners. Face-to-face support is satisfactory and it should be conducted every month. There is high intrinsic motivation, satisfaction and knowledge construction as well as good performance in examinations ( M  = 62%, SD = 7.5); which indicates potentiality for blended learning effectiveness.

Significant predictors of blended learning effectiveness

Among the design features, technology quality, online tools and face-to-face support are predictors of learner satisfaction while learner characteristics of self regulation and attitudes to blended learning are predictors of satisfaction. Technology quality and interactions are the only design features predicting learner knowledge construction, while social support, among the learner backgrounds, is a predictor of knowledge construction. Self regulation as a learner characteristic is a predictor of knowledge construction. Self regulation is the only learner characteristic predicting intrinsic motivation in blended learning while technology quality, online tools and interactions are the design features predicting intrinsic motivation. However, all the independent variables are not significant predictors of learning performance in blended learning.

The high computer competences and confidence is an antecedent factor for blended learning effectiveness as noted by Hadad ( 2007 ) and this study finds learners confident and competent enough for the effectiveness of blended learning. A lack in computer skills causes failure in e-learning and blended learning as noted by Shraim and Khlaif ( 2010 ). From our study findings, this is no threat for blended learning our case as noted by our results. Contrary to Cohen et al. ( 2012 ) findings that learners’ family responsibilities and hours of employment can impede their process of learning, it is not the case here since they are drivers to the blended learning process. Time conflict, as compounded by family, employment status and management support (Packham et al., 2004 ) were noted as causes of learner failure and drop out of online courses. Our results show, on the contrary, that these factors are drivers for blended learning effectiveness because learners have a good balance between work and study and are supported by bosses to study. In agreement with Selim ( 2007 ), learner positive attitudes towards e-and blended learning environments are success factors. In line with Coldwell et al. ( 2008 ), no statistically significant differences exist between age groups. We however note that Coldwel, et al dealt with young, middle-aged and old above 45 years whereas we dealt with young and middle aged only.

Learner interactions at all levels are good enough and contrary to Astleitner, ( 2000 ) that their absence makes learners withdraw, they are a drive factor here. In line with Loukis (2007) the LMS quality, reliability and ease of use lead to learning efficiency as technology quality, online tools are predictors of learner satisfaction and intrinsic motivation. Face-to-face sessions should continue on a monthly basis as noted here and is in agreement with Marriot et al. ( 2004 ) who noted learner preference for it for facilitating social interaction and communication skills. High learner intrinsic motivation leads to persistence in online courses as noted by Menager-Beeley, ( 2004 ) and is high enough in our study. This implies a possibility of an effectiveness blended learning environment. The causes of learner dissatisfaction noted by Islam ( 2014 ) such as incompetence in the use of the LMS are contrary to our results in our study, while the one noted by Hara and Kling, ( 2001 ) as resulting from technical difficulties and ambiguous course instruction are no threat from our findings. Student-teacher interaction showed a relation with satisfaction according to Swan ( 2001 ) but is not a predictor in our study. Initiating knowledge construction by learners for blended learning effectiveness is exhibited in our findings and agrees with Rahman, Yasin and Jusof ( 2011 ). Our study has not agreed with Eom et al. ( 2006 ) who found learner interactions as predictors of learner satisfaction but agrees with Naaj et al. ( 2012 ) regarding technology as a predictor of learner satisfaction.

Conclusion and recommendations

An effective blended learning environment is necessary in undertaking innovative pedagogical approaches through the use of technology in teaching and learning. An examination of learner characteristics/background, design features and learning outcomes as factors for effectiveness can help to inform the design of effective learning environments that involve face-to-face sessions and online aspects. Most of the student characteristics and blended learning design features dealt with in this study are important factors for blended learning effectiveness. None of the independent variables were identified as significant predictors of student performance. These gaps are open for further investigation in order to understand if they can be significant predictors of blended learning effectiveness in a similar or different learning setting.

In planning to design and implement blended learning, we are mindful of the implications raised by this study which is a planning evaluation research for the design and eventual implementation of blended learning. Universities should be mindful of the interplay between the learner characteristics, design features and learning outcomes which are indicators of blended learning effectiveness. From this research, learners manifest high potential to take on blended learning more especially in regard to learner self-regulation exhibited. Blended learning is meant to increase learners’ levels of knowledge construction in order to create analytical skills in them. Learner ability to assess and critically evaluate knowledge sources is hereby established in our findings. This can go a long way in producing skilled learners who can be innovative graduates enough to satisfy employment demands through creativity and innovativeness. Technology being less of a shock to students gives potential for blended learning design. Universities and other institutions of learning should continue to emphasize blended learning approaches through installation of learning management systems along with strong internet to enable effective learning through technology especially in the developing world.

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MJK conceived the study idea, developed the conceptual framework, collected the data, analyzed it and wrote the article. CZ gave the technical advice concerning the write-up and advised on relevant corrections to be made before final submission. EK did the proof-reading of the article as well as language editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Kintu, M.J., Zhu, C. & Kagambe, E. Blended learning effectiveness: the relationship between student characteristics, design features and outcomes. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 14 , 7 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0043-4

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Modular Learning: 8 Tips for Effective Online Teaching

Table of contents.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many teachers in affected areas worldwide suddenly faced the task of getting their instructional materials ready to facilitate modular learning as a strategy for the sustained delivery of education to their students. I am one of these teachers, but the possibility of teaching the students exclusively online did not deter me because I have already worked on my instructional modules designed for online delivery.

Since 2012, and during COVID-19 times, I gradually developed a learning model for effective modular learning. I call it the Blended Website Learning Model, an innovative learning system that I immediately put to use at the beginning of the pandemic.

So if you’re someone willing to innovate in your modular learning approach and make the teaching and learning process more efficient and less time-consuming, I dedicate this article to you. You may work on the tips gradually until you become comfortable with them. 

Once you can apply these eight tips to your classes, I assure you that you will not be spending endless hours checking your papers and getting frustrated with the inability of your students to keep up. Once in place, you will spend less effort and time to work on your instructional materials for modular learning in the new normal. 

Besides, today’s trends follow a digital path as global technological innovations occur at light speed. Teachers have to keep up to be relevant.

Given the experience I gathered through the years, I would like to share eight tips on modular learning. These tips will somehow ease the teachers’ struggle for something they are not mentally and technically ready to face. The pandemic has changed the way teaching is carried out.

I start this discussion by defining modular learning, asynchronous versus asynchronous delivery of lessons, problems encountered, and solutions to those problems.

Earlier, I synthesized the lessons learned and the corresponding fixes in a learning model – the  Blended Website Learning Model  for more effective achievement of desired learning outcomes or most essential learning competencies (MELCs) for each course. You may refer to this model later on.

What is Modular Learning?

Modular learning, as the word connotes, uses learning modules that facilitate student learning by themselves. Modular learning is a form of distance learning that uses Self-Learning Modules (SLM) based on the most essential learning competencies (MELCS) developed by the teachers with the aid of curriculum developers.

The modules include sections on motivation and assessment that serve as teachers’ and students’ guides to achieve desired competencies. Feedback mechanisms aid teachers in monitoring student achievement and identify those who require follow-up interventions.

Self-paced learning modules can educate learners through carefully written guideposts that direct the learner on what action to take. The contents of the learning module follow a particular learning model that makes instruction effective. 

Upon our department chair’s advice, I used the 4H or  Experiential Learning Model  (ELM) based on the Experiential Learning Theory developed by educators for more than a century. I am not an education graduate. Hence, I have to study ELM carefully.

8 Tips to Achieve the Course Outcomes in Modular Learning

1. write your instructional tips to students online.

Teaching is a repetitive exercise. So what I did is to write articles about the lessons I teach and publish them online. I update those articles once in a while to ensure their relevance.

Although educational articles on almost anything under the sun can be found online, I find some tips lacking credibility and proper documentation. Thus, I embarked on my blogging platform (this website) to house my tips for students on specific topics I teach in the classroom.

I made sure that the tips I gave use the latest information or reliable references online for my students to refer to for further reading. Besides, many of the legitimate and well-referenced material are behind a paywall which my students do not have the means to purchase. Nevertheless, there are free, open-access articles that anyone can access with extra effort.

2. Compress and upload instructional materials on a fast-loading website

I uploaded all of my instructional modules in pdf on a fast-loading website I created at the beginning of the pandemic. I compress each module in the free pdf compressor provided by ilovepdf.com . Compressing the modules makes downloading into students’ smartphones easy. The small files also save them bandwidth, thus reduced data consumption in their internet subscription.

I studied website development for quite a while, anticipating the emphasis on modular learning in the future. I started with Webnode sometime in 2012. Webnode uses drag-and-drop technology, which works for a beginning website developer like me. I even purchased a domain name for my free account on that website.

However, after several years of use, I found the technology lacks the flexibility I need. I want to maintain an independent website without the costly upgrades when the traffic exceeds my subscription. Hence, I shifted to an independently hosted WordPress.org Content Management System (CMS) platform. But not before I practiced in the WordPress.com website.

WordPress as a Tool in Modular Learning

I used WordPress to develop the simple but fast-loading website that students can easily load on their cellphones. It scores an almost perfect speed of 99% in both mobile and desktop (Figure 1).

I used Neve, a WordPress theme with no frills nor bloat software, to delay loading. All instructional modules are instantly available to students after entering the password I gave them.

The instructional material website simply works. No frills, no fuss.

Anyone can easily create a WordPress website in minutes. Just have your email and password ready to create an account in WordPress.com for free. You can create your website later, like what I did when I first started. As you practice using the free WordPress website, you will get to be familiar with how websites work.

You may listen to the simple instruction in the video I give below. Knowing how to create your website will give you more opportunities to become digitally savvy. Modular learning will be much more easily as you gain experience and expertise.

3. Use a Learning Management System to assess student performance

I had a limited two-day training on the use of Moodle before the COVID-19 pandemic began. By a stroke of luck, I could use the LMS as a modular learning tool in the middle of the semester when the government declared a nationwide Enhanced Community Quarantine (ECQ) to stem the brewing spread of the dreaded virus.

Using a Learning Management System (LMS) such as the free, open-source Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (MOODLE) can help a lot in designing quizzes and periodic examinations. The once time-consuming task of checking the students’ quizzes and periodic examinations is done real time.

Using a Learning Management System (LMS) such as the free, open-source Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (Moodle™) can help a lot in designing quizzes and periodic examinations. The once time-consuming task of checking the students’ quizzes and periodic examinations is done real time .

Students get their quiz or exam results in a matter of seconds. Once they submit their quiz, long exam, or midterm or final exam, they get the results right away.

I give students two chances of taking the quiz or major examination, mindful of the glitch that students experience while taking the assessment. Last semester, the internet connection of some students break while taking the quiz. Hence, it is good practice to give them another chance. Further, giving the students another chance to take the quiz provides them an opportunity to correct their answers and establish mastery of the subject matter.

I pushed my knowledge of Moodle further, not by just being a user, but by studying the process of its installation, mainly as part of my hobby and partly as a challenge to create a website to house the LMS myself. Having my own Moodle site gives me the independence and freedom to innovate.

I realized I can create an independent Moodle site on my GoDaddy server. In short, I figured that the only thing I need to put Moodle to work was to register a unique domain name. I hosted Moodle in the same platform where my blogging site, Simplyeducate.me, is being hosted. The LMS had virtually a free ride as a sub-domain.

I don’t mind spending a little more for my convenience. It’s an investment to save time and effort. In addition, I learn and enjoy the new functionality as I implement the system.

Moodle takes time to load; it’s slow

Although Moodle was designed to house complete learning modules for learners, my students have trouble accessing it. I had the impression that Moodle, being an open source project, had too many functionalities that made it heavy to load. Also, many of my students use cellphones in accessing the lessons online.

After spending considerable time looking for answers online and tweaking the Moodle website, I gave up, even though I successfully enhanced the speed of the LMS. I cannot make the Moodle site load faster without adding more investment in Random Access Memory (RAM) capacities and having it work on a Solid State Drive (SSD). I have a limited budget for this expense.

But Moodle is a good performance assessment site that enhances modular learning

I found the assessment function of Moodle very useful, so I kept it as an assessment site that students will log on once they are ready. Another advantage is that the LMS enables me to prepare my quizzes easily and checks the quizzes and periodic exams automatically. I just record the points my students get in Excel to give the corresponding percentages on the different assessment criteria.

That functionality surely saved me time in checking the students’ performance. It’s even better than administering questions in a face-to-face learning session. It worked well for me serving as an assessment site. I just set the period wherein the quiz will be available to students.

Also, the system can shuffle the questions and the answers in the exam. Each student has a different set of questions and answers, ensuring a unique performance record.

4. Conduct regular short synchronous meetings to remind and update the students

I conduct regular, synchronous meetings with my students to give them a feel of classroom ambiance; it simulates a face-to-face interaction. While most of my students can attend the meeting via Zoom, a video teleconferencing software program, several of them could not connect to the internet for valid reasons.

Among the valid reasons I have learned from my students for their inability to connect during synchronous meetings are the following:

• poor internet connection,
• exhausted data allocation,
• attending to emergencies, and

Recording of synchronous meetings

Recognizing these student difficulties, I always record the proceedings of the synchronous meetings. I upload the zoom video in MP4 format in mediafire.com , the cloud service I have been using for easy access. Then I provide a link to the fast website I created for the instructional materials.

Once the students have the opportunity to go online after resolving their issues during synchronous meetings, they are able to access the proceedings of the meeting. The poor internet connection can be remedied by going online during non-peak hours. Midnight until the early hours of the morning appears to have fewer users online.

The recorded videos do not last more than an hour. Making them short saves bandwidth as well as limits file size to a manageable size that students can download with ease.

5. Follow-up students through Messenger

Almost everyone has an account on Facebook together with Messenger nowadays. I tell my students to communicate with me through Messenger if there are concerns that they need me to know.

During Zoom sessions, some students could not easily express their burdens while others listen. Hence, they can send private messages to prevent getting embarrassed for their queries.

Since most of my work is done online, I can readily see the notifications that I have messages from my students. I consider the communication part of my consultation time. It also presents an opportunity to empathize with the students on their unique concerns.

So far, Messenger has become an effective tool to connect with students and give them support, especially in crucial times. Also, it is easy to find them online if I need to issue additional instructions related to the subjects I teach.

6. Use an Ishikawa diagram to contextualize the Most Essential Learning Outcomes

Given the considerable time that students have to devote to keeping up with their subjects, I design my modules as briefly as I can muster without sacrificing the essential outcomes of the modules. I present these outcomes in an Ishikawa or fishbone diagram at the beginning of the semester.

Figure 2 presents an Ishikawa diagram showing the learning outcomes I prepared for my students. The diagram visualizes the expected competencies that students could gain during the semester. Guided by the outline, they will see their pace in context while performing the tasks at hand. Seeing the goal serves as motivation for them to go on.

The fishbone diagram motivates the students concerning the overall outcome of the things that they do each learning session. One learning activity progresses to another one that leads towards the goal of learning.

Hence, the process of modular learning becomes meaningful to students. Incremental, modular learning transpires.

7. Give generous time for achievement of MELCs

I give a generous time of at least two weeks for students to achieve the expected learning outcomes. Giving them leeway to perform and reflect on their assigned tasks facilitates retention and helps them perform at their very best.

Writing many tasks without enough time to ponder or reflect on their work leads to a half-baked performance. Thus, less than stellar work dampens the motivation to do things in the best way they can.

Seeing some prescribed MELCs as part of modular learning online, I get the impression that they’re more applicable to face-to-face interactions. Chances are, the students become overstressed with tasks to do without the focused guidance of their teachers, making online learning a mechanical activity fixated on compliance.

8. Use a Feedback table

To keep track of student performance and encourage them to perform within the time frame, I prepared a feedback table to show what stage they were already in. Whenever I meet the students during synchronous meetings, I present the feedback table to the class and ask them if I have recorded their submissions correctly.

Some of my students would tell me they have submitted, but I could not verify their submissions. Perhaps failing to upload is due to a poor internet connection. Given the real-time feedback I get via Messenger, they try again until they have successfully uploaded. I confirm that I have received their outputs. Thus, the student’s anxiety because of failure to upload the required submissions is eliminated or minimized.

The feedback table finds support in Dr. Tali Sharot’s book on changing people’s behavior. It emphasizes the importance of feedback to change people’s behavior.

I invite you to listen to the highly motivating speech of Dr. Sharot in TED Talk that can change not only your student’s behavior towards the assigned tasks but also your ingrained habits. The lecture emphasizes the importance of feedback.

The feedback table instantly tells me potential problems and takes corrective measures before they get worse. Students exert more effort to keep up with their classmates once they notice that some of their classmates have already accomplished the modules. Modular learning becomes more effective with a monitoring system like this.

Figure 3 provides an example of a feedback table where you can quickly troubleshoot submission problems and ensure that no student is left behind.

Modular Learning is here to Stay

Whether the pandemic will last for quite a time, online modular learning will become the norm rather than an exception. The educational system has already shifted to Education 4, in tune with  Industry 4.0 , where interconnectivity through the Internet of Things (IoT), lies at its core.

Despite the setbacks experienced by teachers on the  effects of modular learning , we must be progressive in our thinking. The challenges are not without answers as technology progresses. Most students can access a laptop, or virtually everyone can access a cell phone, to download educational materials like the ones I make available on my IM website.

Although some of my students are hundreds of miles away, or even on an island, they can still access my instructional modules using their cell phones. I make online learning easy for them by applying the tips I previously gave—make the website load faster by compressing images and videos and make my instructional modules simpler to follow. I focus on a few but crucial and  most essential  learning outcomes. 

Stop being bookish. This time it’s online learning, not face-to-face classes where you cram in everything you want to the detriment of your students.

A 30-minute or less synchronous meeting is more than enough to brief your students about the module, the expected learning outcomes, and ask a few questions to get their feedback on the modules and constraints on their performance.

Advanced countries are already eyeing the many uses of  machine learning , and interest is growing in getting a degree in this field. Are our students ready to become part of this technological development?

In the information age, teachers are no longer what they used to be. We are now facilitators and innovators of learning through online modular learning as the information age changed the way people gain information.

We must undo the belief that we are the authorities of knowledge. Digital technology has shaped how we live, learn, and navigate this increasingly automated world.

Kudos to all teachers! Let’s rock the world of online modular learning.

© P. A. Regoniel 22 June 2021

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About the author, patrick regoniel.

Dr. Regoniel, a faculty member of the graduate school, served as consultant to various environmental research and development projects covering issues and concerns on climate change, coral reef resources and management, economic valuation of environmental and natural resources, mining, and waste management and pollution. He has extensive experience on applied statistics, systems modelling and analysis, an avid practitioner of LaTeX, and a multidisciplinary web developer. He leverages pioneering AI-powered content creation tools to produce unique and comprehensive articles in this website.

Thank you for your comment. Teaching in the new normal requires constant innovation and a change in mindset.

Thank you so much for sharing this! The different modes of learning in this new normal are somehow confusing, but this really helped. I also appreciate the tips you gave on how to teach effectively in modular learning!

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Assessing Cognitive Factors of Modular Distance Learning of K-12 Students Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic towards Academic Achievements and Satisfaction

Yung-tsan jou.

1 Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan; wt.ude.ucyc@uojty (Y.-T.J.); moc.oohay@enimrahcrolfas (C.S.S.)

Klint Allen Mariñas

2 School of Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, Mapua University, Manila 1002, Philippines

3 Department of Industrial Engineering, Occidental Mindoro State College, San Jose 5100, Philippines

Charmine Sheena Saflor

Associated data.

Not applicable.

The COVID-19 pandemic brought extraordinary challenges to K-12 students in using modular distance learning. According to Transactional Distance Theory (TDT), which is defined as understanding the effects of distance learning in the cognitive domain, the current study constructs a theoretical framework to measure student satisfaction and Bloom’s Taxonomy Theory (BTT) to measure students’ academic achievements. This study aims to evaluate and identify the possible cognitive capacity influencing K-12 students’ academic achievements and satisfaction with modular distance learning during this new phenomenon. A survey questionnaire was completed through an online form by 252 K-12 students from the different institutions of Occidental Mindoro. Using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), the researcher analyses the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. The model used in this research illustrates cognitive factors associated with adopting modular distance learning based on students’ academic achievements and satisfaction. The study revealed that students’ background, experience, behavior, and instructor interaction positively affected their satisfaction. While the effects of the students’ performance, understanding, and perceived effectiveness were wholly aligned with their academic achievements. The findings of the model with solid support of the integrative association between TDT and BTT theories could guide decision-makers in institutions to implement, evaluate, and utilize modular distance learning in their education systems.

1. Introduction

The 2019 coronavirus is the latest infectious disease to develop rapidly worldwide [ 1 ], affecting economic stability, global health, and education. Most countries have suspended thee-to-face classes in order to curb the spread of the virus and reduce infections [ 2 ]. One of the sectors impacted has been education, resulting in the suspension of face-to-face classes to avoid spreading the virus. The Department of Education (DepEd) has introduced modular distance learning for K-12 students to ensure continuity of learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Malipot (2020), modular learning is one of the most popular sorts of distance learning alternatives to traditional face-to-face learning [ 3 ]. As per DepEd’s Learner Enrolment and Survey Forms, 7.2 million enrollees preferred “modular” remote learning, TV and radio-based practice, and other modalities, while two million enrollees preferred online learning. It is a method of learning that is currently being used based on the preferred distance learning mode of the students and parents through the survey conducted by the Department of Education (DepEd); this learning method is mainly done through the use of printed and digital modules [ 4 ]. It also concerns first-year students in rural areas; the place net is no longer available for online learning. Supporting the findings of Ambayon (2020), modular teaching within the teach-learn method is more practical than traditional educational methods because students learn at their own pace during this modular approach. This educational platform allows K-12 students to interact in self-paced textual matter or digital copy modules. With these COVID-19 outbreaks, some issues concerned students’ academic, and the factors associated with students’ psychological status during the COVID-19 lockdown [ 5 ].

Additionally, this new learning platform, modular distance learning, seems to have impacted students’ ability to discover and challenged their learning skills. Scholars have also paid close attention to learner satisfaction and academic achievement when it involves distance learning studies and have used a spread of theoretical frameworks to assess learner satisfaction and educational outcomes [ 6 , 7 ]. Because this study aimed to boost academic achievement and satisfaction in K-12 students, the researcher thoroughly applied transactional distance theory (TDT) to understand the consequences of distance in relationships in education. The TDT was utilized since it has the capability to establish the psychological and communication factors between the learners and the instructors in distance education that could eventually help researchers in identifying the variables that might affect students’ academic achievement and satisfaction [ 8 ]. In this view, distance learning is primarily determined by the number of dialogues between student and teacher and the degree of structuring of the course design. It contributes to the core objective of the degree to boost students’ modular learning experiences in terms of satisfaction. On the other hand, Bloom’s Taxonomy Theory (BTT) was applied to investigate the students’ academic achievements through modular distance learning [ 6 ]. Bloom’s theory was employed in addition to TDT during this study to enhance students’ modular educational experiences. Moreover, TDT was utilized to check students’ modular learning experiences in conjuction with enhacing students’ achievements.

This study aimed to detect the impact of modular distance learning on K-12 students during the COVID-19 pandemic and assess the cognitive factors affecting academic achievement and student satisfaction. Despite the challenging status of the COVID-19 outbreak, the researcher anticipated a relevant result of modular distance learning and pedagogical changes in students, including the cognitive factors identified during this paper as latent variables as possible predictors for the utilization of K-12 student academic achievements and satisfaction.

1.1. Theoretical Research Framework

This study used TDT to assess student satisfaction and Bloom’s theory to quantify academic achievement. It aimed to assess the impact of modular distance learning on academic achievement and student satisfaction among K-12 students. The Transactional Distance Theory (TDT) was selected for this study since it refers to student-instructor distance learning. TDT Moore (1993) states that distance education is “the universe of teacher-learner connections when learners and teachers are separated by place and time.” Moore’s (1990) concept of ”Transactional Distance” adopts the distance that occurs in all linkages in education, according to TDT Moore (1993). Transactional distance theory is theoretically critical because it states that the most important distance is transactional in distance education, rather than geographical or temporal [ 9 , 10 ]. According to Garrison (2000), transactional distance theory is essential in directing the complicated experience of a cognitive process such as distance teaching and learning. TDT evaluates the role of each of these factors (student perception, discourse, and class organization), which can help with student satisfaction research [ 11 ]. Bloom’s Taxonomy is a theoretical framework for learning created by Benjamin Bloom that distinguishes three learning domains: Cognitive domain skills center on knowledge, comprehension, and critical thinking on a particular subject. Bloom recognized three components of educational activities: cognitive knowledge (or mental abilities), affective attitude (or emotions), and psychomotor skills (or physical skills), all of which can be used to assess K-12 students’ academic achievement. According to Jung (2001), “Transactional distance theory provides a significant conceptual framework for defining and comprehending distance education in general and a source of research hypotheses in particular,” shown in Figure 1 [ 12 ].

Theoretical Research Framework.

1.2. Hypothesis Developments and Literature Review

This section will discuss the study hypothesis and relate each hypothesis to its related studies from the literature.

There is a significant relationship between students’ background and students’ behavior .

The teacher’s guidance is essential for students’ preparedness and readiness to adapt to a new educational environment. Most students opt for the Department of Education’s “modular” distance learning options [ 3 ]. Analyzing students’ study time is critical for behavioral engagement because it establishes if academic performance is the product of student choice or historical factors [ 13 ].

There is a significant relationship between students’ background and students’ experience .

Modules provide goals, experiences, and educational activities that assist students in gaining self-sufficiency at their speed. It also boosts brain activity, encourages motivation, consolidates self-satisfaction, and enables students to remember what they have learned [ 14 ]. Despite its success, many families face difficulties due to their parents’ lack of skills and time [ 15 ].

There is a significant relationship between students’ behavior and students’ instructor interaction .

Students’ capacity to answer problems reflects their overall information awareness [ 5 ]. Learning outcomes can either cause or result in students and instructors behavior. Students’ reading issues are due to the success of online courses [ 16 ].

There is a significant relationship between students’ experience and students’ instructor interaction .

The words “student experience” relate to classroom participation. They establish a connection between students and their school, teachers, classmates, curriculum, and teaching methods [ 17 ]. The three types of student engagement are behavioral, emotional, and cognitive. Behavioral engagement refers to a student’s enthusiasm for academic and extracurricular activities. On the other hand, emotional participation is linked to how children react to their peers, teachers, and school. Motivational engagement refers to a learner’s desire to learn new abilities [ 18 ].

There is a significant relationship between students’ behavior and students’ understanding .

Individualized learning connections, outstanding training, and learning culture are all priorities at the Institute [ 19 , 20 ]. The modular technique of online learning offers additional flexibility. The use of modules allows students to investigate alternatives to the professor’s session [ 21 ].

There is a significant relationship between students’ experience and students’ performance .

Student conduct is also vital in academic accomplishment since it may affect a student’s capacity to study as well as the learning environment for other students. Students are self-assured because they understand what is expected [ 22 ]. They are more aware of their actions and take greater responsibility for their learning.

There is a significant relationship between students’ instructor interaction and students’ understanding .

Modular learning benefits students by enabling them to absorb and study material independently and on different courses. Students are more likely to give favorable reviews to courses and instructors if they believe their professors communicated effectively and facilitated or supported their learning [ 23 ].

There is a significant relationship between students’ instructor interaction and students’ performance.

Students are more engaged and active in their studies when they feel in command and protected in the classroom. Teachers play an essential role in influencing student academic motivation, school commitment, and disengagement. In studies on K-12 education, teacher-student relationships have been identified [ 24 ]. Positive teacher-student connections improve both teacher attitudes and academic performance.

There is a significant relationship between students’ understanding and students’ satisfaction .

Instructors must create well-structured courses, regularly present in their classes, and encourage student participation. When learning objectives are completed, students better understand the course’s success and learning expectations. “Constructing meaning from verbal, written, and graphic signals by interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining” is how understanding is characterized [ 25 ].

There is a significant relationship between students’ performance and student’s academic achievement .

Academic emotions are linked to students’ performance, academic success, personality, and classroom background [ 26 ]. Understanding the elements that may influence student performance has long been a goal for educational institutions, students, and teachers.

There is a significant relationship between students’ understanding and students’ academic achievement .

Modular education views each student as an individual with distinct abilities and interests. To provide an excellent education, a teacher must adapt and individualize the educational curriculum for each student. Individual learning may aid in developing a variety of exceptional and self-reliant attributes [ 27 ]. Academic achievement is the current level of learning in the Philippines [ 28 ].

There is a significant relationship between students’ performance and students’ satisfaction .

Academic success is defined as a student’s intellectual development, including formative and summative assessment data, coursework, teacher observations, student interaction, and time on a task [ 29 ]. Students were happier with course technology, the promptness with which content was shared with the teacher, and their overall wellbeing [ 30 ].

There is a significant relationship between students’ academic achievement and students’ perceived effectiveness .

Student satisfaction is a short-term mindset based on assessing students’ educational experiences [ 29 ]. The link between student satisfaction and academic achievement is crucial in today’s higher education: we discovered that student satisfaction with course technical components was linked to a higher relative performance level [ 31 ].

There is a significant relationship between students’ satisfaction and students’ perceived effectiveness.

There is a strong link between student satisfaction and their overall perception of learning. A satisfied student is a direct effect of a positive learning experience. Perceived learning results had a favorable impact on student satisfaction in the classroom [ 32 ].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. participants.

The principal area under study was San Jose, Occidental Mindoro, although other locations were also accepted. The survey took place between February and March 2022, with the target population of K-12 students in Junior and Senior High Schools from grades 7 to 12, aged 12 to 20, who are now implementing the Modular Approach in their studies during the COVID-19 pandemic. A 45-item questionnaire was created and circulated online to collect the information. A total of 300 online surveys was sent out and 252 online forms were received, a total of 84% response rate [ 33 ]. According to several experts, the sample size for Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) should be between 200 and 500 [ 34 ].

2.2. Questionnaire

The theoretical framework developed a self-administered test. The researcher created the questionnaire to examine and discover the probable cognitive capacity influencing K-12 students’ academic achievement in different parts of Occidental Mindoro during this pandemic as well as their satisfaction with modular distance learning. The questionnaire was designed through Google drive as people’s interactions are limited due to the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic. The questionnaire’s link was sent via email, Facebook, and other popular social media platforms.

The respondents had to complete two sections of the questionnaire. The first is their demographic information, including their age, gender, and grade level. The second is about their perceptions of modular learning. The questionnaire is divided into 12 variables: (1) Student’s Background, (2) Student’s Experience, (3) Student’s Behavior, (4) Student’s Instructor Interaction, (5) Student’s Performance, (6) Student’s Understanding, (7) Student’s Satisfaction, (8) Student’s Academic Achievement, and (9) Student’s Perceived Effectiveness. A 5-point Likert scale was used to assess all latent components contained in the SEM shown in Table 1 .

The construct and measurement items.

2.3. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

All the variables have been adapted from a variety of research in the literature. The observable factors were scored on a Likert scale of 1–5, with one indicating “strongly disagree” and five indicating “strongly agree”, and the data were analyzed using AMOS software. Theoretical model data were confirmed by Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). SEM is more suitable for testing the hypothesis than other methods [ 53 ]. There are many fit indices in the literature, of which the most commonly used are: CMIN/DF, Comparative Fit Index (CFI), AGFI, GFI, and Root Mean Square Error (RMSEA). Table 2 demonstrates the Good Fit Values and Acceptable Fit Values of the fit indices, respectively. AGFI and GFI are based on residuals; when sample size increases, the value of the AGFI also increase. It takes a value between 0 and 1. The fit is good if the value is more significant than 0.80. GFI is a model index that spans from 0 to 1, with values above 0.80 deemed acceptable. An RMSEA of 0.08 or less suggests a good fit [ 54 ], and a value of 0.05 to 0.08 indicates an adequate fit [ 55 ].

Acceptable Fit Values.

3. Results and Discussion

Figure 2 demonstrates the initial SEM for the cognitive factors of Modular Distance learning towards academic achievements and satisfaction of K-12 students during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the figure below, three hypotheses were not significant: Students’ Behavior to Students’ Instructor Interaction (Hypothesis 3), Students’ Understanding of Students’ Academic Achievement (Hypothesis 11), and Students’ Performance to Students’ Satisfaction (Hypothesis 12). Therefore, a revised SEM was derived by removing this hypothesis in Figure 3 . We modified some indices to enhance the model fit based on previous studies using the SEM approach [ 47 ]. Figure 3 demonstrates the final SEM for evaluating cognitive factors affecting academic achievements and satisfaction and the perceived effectiveness of K-12 students’ response to Modular Learning during COVID-19, shown in Table 3 . Moreover, Table 4 demonstrates the descriptive statistical results of each indicator.

Initial SEM with indicators for evaluating the cognitive factors of modular distance learning towards academic achievements and satisfaction of K-12 students during COVID-19 pandemic.

Revised SEM with indicators for evaluating the cognitive factors of modular distance learning towards academic achievements and satisfaction of K-12 students during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Summary of the Results.

Descriptive statistic results.

The current study was improved by Moore’s transactional distance theory (TDT) and Bloom’s taxonomy theory (BTT) to evaluate cognitive factors affecting academic achievements and satisfaction and the perceived effectiveness of K-12 students’ response toward modular learning during COVID-19. SEM was utilized to analyze the correlation between Student Background (SB), Student Experience (SE), Student Behavior (SBE), Student Instructor Interaction (SI), Student Performance (SP), Student Understanding (SAU), Student Satisfaction (SS), Student’s Academic achievement (SAA), and Student’s Perceived effectiveness (SPE). A total of 252 data samples were acquired through an online questionnaire.

According to the findings of the SEM, the students’ background in modular learning had a favorable and significant direct effect on SE (β: 0.848, p = 0.009). K-12 students should have a background and knowledge in modular systems to better experience this new education platform. Putting the students through such an experience would support them in overcoming all difficulties that arise due to the limitations of the modular platforms. Furthermore, SEM revealed that SE had a significant adverse impact on SI (β: 0.843, p = 0.009). The study shows that students who had previous experience with modular education had more positive perceptions of modular platforms. Additionally, students’ experience with modular distance learning offers various benefits to them and their instructors to enhance students’ learning experiences, particularly for isolated learners.

Regarding the Students’ Interaction—Instructor, it positively impacts SAU (β: 0.873, p = 0.007). Communication helps students experience positive emotions such as comfort, satisfaction, and excitement, which aim to enhance their understanding and help them attain their educational goals [ 62 ]. The results revealed that SP substantially impacted SI (β: 0.765; p = 0.005). A student becomes more academically motivated and engaged by creating and maintaining strong teacher-student connections, which leads to successful academic performance.

Regarding the Students’ Understanding Response, the results revealed that SAA (β: 0.307; p = 0.052) and SS (β: 0.699; p = 0.008) had a substantial impact on SAU. Modular teaching is concerned with each student as an individual and with their specific capability and interest to assist each K-12 student in learning and provide quality education by allowing individuality to each learner. According to the Department of Education, academic achievement is the new level for student learning [ 63 ]. Meanwhile, SAA was significantly affected by the Students’ Performance Response (β: 0.754; p = 0.014). It implies that a positive performance can give positive results in student’s academic achievement, and that a negative performance can also give negative results [ 64 ]. Pekrun et al. (2010) discovered that students’ academic emotions are linked to their performance, academic achievement, personality, and classroom circumstances [ 26 ].

Results showed that students’ academic achievement significantly positively affects SPE (β: 0.237; p = 0.024). Prior knowledge has had an indirect effect on academic accomplishment. It influences the amount and type of current learning system where students must obtain a high degree of mastery [ 65 ]. According to the student’s opinion, modular distance learning is an alternative solution for providing adequate education for all learners and at all levels in the current scenario under the new education policy [ 66 ]. However, the SEM revealed that SS significantly affected SPE (β: 0.868; p = 0.009). Students’ perceptions of learning and satisfaction, when combined, can provide a better knowledge of learning achievement [ 44 ]. Students’ perceptions of learning outcomes are an excellent predictor of student satisfaction.

Since p -values and the indicators in Students’ Behavior are below 0.5, therefore two paths connecting SBE to students’ interaction—instructor (0.155) and students’ understanding (0.212) are not significant; thus, the latent variable Students’ Behavior has no effect on the latent variable Students’ Satisfaction and academic achievement as well as perceived effectiveness on modular distance learning of K12 students. This result is supported by Samsen-Bronsveld et al. (2022), who revealed that the environment has no direct influence on the student’s satisfaction, behavior engagement, and motivation to study [ 67 ]. On the other hand, the results also showed no significant relationship between Students’ Performance and Students’ Satisfaction (0.602) because the correlation p -values are greater than 0.5. Interestingly, this result opposed the other related studies. According to Bossman & Agyei (2022), satisfaction significantly affects performance or learning outcomes [ 68 ]. In addition, it was discovered that the main drivers of the students’ performance are the students’ satisfaction [ 64 , 69 ].

The result of the study implies that the students’ satisfaction serves as the mediator between the students’ performance and the student-instructor interaction in modular distance learning for K-12 students [ 70 ].

Table 5 The reliabilities of the scales used, i.e., Cronbach’s alphas, ranged from 0.568 to 0.745, which were in line with those found in other studies [ 71 ]. As presented in Table 6 , the IFI, TLI, and CFI values were greater than the suggested cutoff of 0.80, indicating that the specified model’s hypothesized construct accurately represented the observed data. In addition, the GFI and AGFI values were 0.828 and 0.801, respectively, indicating that the model was also good. The RMSEA value was 0.074, lower than the recommended value. Finally, the direct, indirect, and total effects are presented in Table 7 .

Construct Validity Model.

Direct effect, indirect effect, and total effect.

Table 6 shows that the five parameters, namely the Incremental Fit Index, Tucker Lewis Index, the Comparative Fit Index, Goodness of Fit Index, and Adjusted Goodness Fit Index, are all acceptable with parameter estimates greater than 0.8, whereas mean square error is excellent with parameter estimates less than 0.08.

4. Conclusions

The education system has been affected by the 2019 coronavirus disease; face-to-face classes are suspended to control and reduce the spread of the virus and infections [ 2 ]. The suspension of face-to-face classes results in the application of modular distance learning for K-12 students according to continuity of learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. With the outbreak of COVID-19, some issues concerning students’ academic Performance and factors associated with students’ psychological status are starting to emerge, which impacted the students’ ability to learn. This study aimed to perceive the impact of Modular Distance learning on the K-12 students amid the COVID-19 pandemic and assess cognitive factors affecting students’ academic achievement and satisfaction.

This study applied Transactional Distance Theory (TDT) and Bloom Taxonomy Theory (BTT) to evaluate cognitive factors affecting students’ academic achievements and satisfaction and evaluate the perceived effectiveness of K-12 students in response to modular learning. This study applied Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to test hypotheses. The application of SEM analyzed the correlation among students’ background, experience, behavior, instructor interaction, performance, understanding, satisfaction, academic achievement, and student perceived effectiveness.

A total of 252 data samples were gathered through an online questionnaire. Based on findings, this study concludes that students’ background in modular distance learning affects their behavior and experience. Students’ experiences had significant effects on the performance and understanding of students in modular distance learning. Student instructor interaction had a substantial impact on performance and learning; it explains how vital interaction with the instructor is. The student interacting with the instructor shows that the student may receive feedback and guidance from the instructor. Understanding has a significant influence on students’ satisfaction and academic achievement. Student performance has a substantial impact on students’ academic achievement and satisfaction. Perceived effectiveness was significantly influenced by students’ academic achievement and student satisfaction. However, students’ behavior had no considerable effect on students’ instructor interaction, and students’ understanding while student performance equally had no significant impact on student satisfaction. From this study, students are likely to manifest good performance, behavior, and cognition when they have prior knowledge with regard to modular distance learning. This study will help the government, teachers, and students take the necessary steps to improve and enhance modular distance learning that will benefit students for effective learning.

The modular learning system has been in place since its inception. One of its founding metaphoric pillars is student satisfaction with modular learning. The organization demonstrated its dedication to the student’s voice as a component of understanding effective teaching and learning. Student satisfaction research has been transformed by modular learning. It has caused the education research community to rethink long-held assumptions that learning occurs primarily within a metaphorical container known as a “course.” When reviewing studies on student satisfaction from a factor analytic perspective, one thing becomes clear: this is a complex system with little consensus. Even the most recent factor analytical studies have done little to address the lack of understanding of the dimensions underlying satisfaction with modular learning. Items about student satisfaction with modular distance learning correspond to forming a psychological contract in factor analytic studies. The survey responses are reconfigured into a smaller number of latent (non-observable) dimensions that the students never really articulate but are fully expected to satisfy. Of course, instructors have contracts with their students. Studies such as this one identify the student’s psychological contact after the fact, rather than before the class. The most important aspect is the rapid adoption of this teaching and learning mode in Senior High School. Another balancing factor is the growing sense of student agency in the educational process. Students can express their opinions about their educational experiences in formats ranging from end-of-course evaluation protocols to various social networks, making their voices more critical.

Furthermore, they all agreed with latent trait theory, which holds that the critical dimensions that students differentiate when expressing their opinions about modular learning are formed by the combination of the original items that cannot be directly observed—which underpins student satisfaction. As stated in the literature, the relationship between student satisfaction and the characteristic of a psychological contract is illustrated. Each element is translated into how it might be expressed in the student’s voice, and then a contract feature and an assessment strategy are added. The most significant contributor to the factor pattern, engaged learning, indicates that students expect instructors to play a facilitative role in their teaching. This dimension corresponds to the relational contract, in which the learning environment is stable and well organized, with a clear path to success.

5. Limitations and Future Work

This study was focused on the cognitive capacity of modular distance learning towards academic achievements and satisfaction of K-12 students during the COVID-19 pandemic. The sample size in this study was small, at only 252. If this study is repeated with a larger sample size, it will improve the results. The study’s restriction was to the province of Occidental Mindoro; Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to measure all the variables. Thus, this will give an adequate solution to the problem in the study.

The current study underlines that combining TDT and BTT can positively impact the research outcome. The contribution the current study might make to the field of modular distance learning has been discussed and explained. Based on this research model, the nine (9) factors could broadly clarify the students’ adoption of new learning environment platform features. Thus, the current research suggests that more investigation be carried out to examine relationships among the complexity of modular distance learning.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Data collection, methodology, writing and editing, K.A.M.; data collection, writing—review and editing, Y.-T.J. and C.S.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement.

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Creating Manageable and Flexible Learning Pathways With Modularization

What are modules.

A module is a cohesive and stand-alone unit of learning that has specific start and end points.

Most educators already take a modular approach to teaching. For example, breaking a course down into purposeful “units” or “sessions” helps learners, especially novices, focus attention so  they can remember what they are learning better and build their knowledge over time. This process is sometimes referred to as “chunking” (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). Modules include both content and activities designed to help the learners apply and integrate their learning. This diagram provides a visualization of a potential structure for a module of learning.

Students are more likely to get the most out of a module if all the materials and activities are bundled together in an easily accessible space, such as a Canvas course. This makes it possible for them to revisit the materials and activities as often as needed and check their understanding.

Modularization is a process that extends the idea of modules to offer learners flexible pathways while also continuing to engage them in a purposeful learning experience. These pathways may take place within a semester-long course, or they may be offered as a one-credit or non-credit badged experience.

For example:  

• In a course, all students complete a sequence of foundational modules and then have the option of selecting from a library of topical modules to pursue a personal interest in more depth. This increases learners’ engagement and creates opportunities for them to share the specialized knowledge they have gained with the rest of the class. Providing students with choice can increase student motivation, and offering multiple ways to demonstrate knowledge creates a more inclusive learning experience (Ambrose et al., 2010; Addy et al., 2021).  
• Some skills and concepts are important to many fields (e.g., lab safety, ethical research). Offering one module, or a sequence of shared modules, assures that the orientation and assessment of student learning in a specific area is consistent across multiple contexts.  
• Students on co-op may not have the time to take a semester-long course, but they may benefit from a short and timely burst of learning that will be helpful to their work (e.g., learning an in-demand skill or process). What they learn will also be perceived as more relevant because they can see that the skill or process is valued and often used in their place of work.  
• Examine the syllabi for all the courses you teach. If possible, do this with several colleagues in your department or discipline. Do any concepts or skills span multiple courses? If so, consider how you might collaborate to create one or more modules that could be shared. Note that modules created in Canvas can be easily imported across courses.  
• If you develop a module that you think might be valuable to others, consider uploading it to the Canvas Commons so that other Northeastern instructors can benefit from your work.  
• Set aside class time to talk with learners about modular resources that would be valuable to them. Perhaps you could partner with them to create one or more modules, or perhaps they could even take responsibility for creating a module for others in the class or even beyond the class.

References:

Addy, T.  Dube, D., Mitchell, K. A., & SoRelle, M. E. (2021). What inclusive instructors do: Principles and practices for excellence in college teaching (First edition.). Stylus Publishing, LLC.

Ambrose, S., Bridges, M., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M., & Norman, M. (2010). How learning works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching (1st ed.). Jossey-Bass.

Mayer, R & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning, Educational Psychologist . 38 (1) 43-52. DOI: 10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6

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Distance learning survey for students: Tips & examples

The COVID-19 pandemic changed learning in many unprecedented ways. Students had to not just move to online learning but also keep a social distance from their friends and family. A student interest survey helps customize teaching methods and curriculum to make learning more engaging and relevant to students’ lives. It was quite challenging for some to adjust to the ‘new normal’ and missed the in-person interaction with their teachers. For some, it simply meant spending more time with the parents.

Schools need to know how students feel about distance education and learn more about their experiences. To collect data, they can send out a survey on remote learning for students. Once they have the results, the management team can know what students like in the existing setup and what they would like to change.

The classroom response system allowed students to answer multiple-choice questions and engage in real-time discussions instantly.

Here are the examples of class survey questions of distance learning survey for students you must ask to collect their feedback.

LEARN ABOUT:  Testimonial Questions

Examples of distance learning survey questions for students

1. How do you feel overall about distance education?

• Below Average

This question collects responses about the overall experience of the students regarding online education. Schools can use this data to decide whether they should continue with teaching online or move in-person learning.

2. Do you have access to a device for learning online?

• Yes, but it doesn’t work well
• No, I share with others

Students should have uninterrupted access to a device for learning online. Know if they face any challenges with the device’s hardware quality. Or if they share the device with others in the house and can’t access when they need it.

3. What device do you use for distance learning?

Know whether students use a laptop, desktop, smartphone, or tablet for distance learning. A laptop or desktop would be an ideal choice for its screen size and quality. You can use a multiple-choice question type in your questionnaire for distance education students.

4. How much time do you spend each day on an average on distance education?

Know how much time do students spend while taking an online course. Analyze if they are over-spending time and find out the reasons behind it. Students must allocate some time to play and exercise while staying at home to take care of their health. You can find out from answers to this question whether they spend time on other activities as well.

5. How effective has remote learning been for you?

• Not at all effective
• Slightly effective
• Moderately effective
• Very effective
• Extremely effective

Depending on an individual’s personality, students may like to learn in the classroom with fellow students or alone at home. The classroom offers a more lively and interactive environment, whereas it is relatively calm at home. You can use this question to know if remote learning is working for students or not. 

6. How helpful your [School or University] has been in offering you the resources to learn from home?

• Not at all helpful
• Slightly helpful
• Moderately helpful
• Very helpful
• Extremely helpful

The school management teams need to offer full support to both teachers and students to make distance education comfortable and effective. They should provide support in terms of technological infrastructure and process framework. Given the pandemic situation, schools must allow more flexibility and create lesser strict policies.

7. How stressful is distance learning for you during the COVID-19 pandemic?

Studying in the time of pandemic can be quite stressful, especially if you or someone in the family is not doing well. Measure the stress level of the students and identify ways to reduce it. For instance, you can organize an online dance party or a lego game. The responses to this question can be crucial in deciding the future course of distance learning. 

8. How well could you manage time while learning remotely? (Consider 5 being extremely well and 1 being not at all)

• Academic schedule

Staying at home all the time and balancing multiple things can be stressful for many people. It requires students to have good time-management skills and self-discipline. Students can rate their experience on a scale of 1-5 and share it with the school authorities. Use a multiple-choice matrix question type for such questions in your distance learning questionnaire for students.

LEARN ABOUT: System Usability Scale

9. Do you enjoy learning remotely?

• Yes, absolutely
• Yes, but I would like to change a few things
• No, there are quite a few challenges
• No, not at all

Get a high-level view on whether students are enjoying learning from home or doing it because they are being forced to do so. Gain insights on how you can improve distance education and make it interesting for them.

10. How helpful are your teachers while studying online?

Distance education lacks proximity with teachers and has its own set of unique challenges. Some students may find it difficult to learn a subject and take more time to understand. This question measures the extent to which students find their teachers helpful.

You can also use a ready-made survey template to save time. The sample questionnaire for students can be easily customized as per your requirements.

USE THIS TEMPLATE

Other important questions of distance learning survey for students

• How peaceful is the environment at home while learning?
•  Are you satisfied with the technology and software you are using for online learning?
• How important is face-to-face communication for you while learning remotely?
• How often do you talk to your [School/University] classmates?
• How often do you have a 1-1 discussion with your teachers?

How to create a survey?

The intent behind creating a remote learning questionnaire for students should be to know how schools and teachers can better support them. Use an online survey software like ours to create a survey or use a template to get started. Distribute the survey through email, mobile app, website, or QR code.

Once you get the survey results, generate reports, and share them with your team. You can also download them in formats like .pdf, .doc, and .xls. To analyze data from multiple resources, you can integrate the survey software with third-party apps.

If you need any help with designing a survey, customizing the look and feel, or deriving insights from it, get in touch with us. We’d be happy to help.

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MODULAR DISTANCE LEARNING AMIDST OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

2021, IOER International Multidisciplinary Research Journal

Education is one of the relevant industries caught in the middle of this pandemic and the Philippines has millions of affected learners all over the country. Incidentally, it is necessary to safeguard the education sector through strategies that guarantee the continuous flow of learning integrating online with offline approaches. The researcher aimed to present the difficulties and experiences faced by the learners on Modular Distance Learning. A descriptive, qualitative research was conducted and used an online survey, interview, and observation as tools to gather data and to find out the problems encountered of the learners on this mode of learning. Moore's theory on Transactional Distance Learning served as the framework of analysis and the researcher analyzed the results by thematic coding. A total of 45 learners participated in the online survey and 10 learners participated on online interview. Questions in the survey elicit the situations of the learners and how they managed to study on their own in the absence of learning facilitators to guide them. The result of the survey conducted to section HUMMS 11-Kohlberg determine the accessibility and availability of the gadgets that will be used for modular distance learning, it was revealed that most of the learners' used cellphones to access FB messenger, group chat and google meet for online classes. Learners engaged themselves in understanding the concepts presented in the module as they developed a sense of responsibility in learning on their own and in accomplishing the tasks provided in the module, with limited assistance from the teacher, these learners progress on their own. Today, as the country is at the state of emergency health crisis, these SLMs for Modular Distance Learning were the most convenient, and appropriate to use for our learners to continue learning amidst of Covid-19 pandemic.

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Knowing that education has been inaccessible and ineffective to some students in the Philippines, it is crucial to know the efficacy and success of the new learning setup during this time of the pandemic to assess if these new modalities are beneficial to the students or not. This paper reviewed and studied the various perceptions and lived experiences of selected students in a private university in Manila regarding online classes amidst the pandemic. Using a phenomenological approach, the researchers gathered data by interviewing 15 students who are attending online classes. Findings and results were drawn on the themes created by the researchers. It can be seen that majority of the students find online classes ineffective and only cater the privileged. Furthermore, lessons and discussions are difficult to digest using the current mode of learning. These findings signify a need to improve the mode of learning in order to provide a quality and effective education to students despite the current crisis faced by the country. Keywords: distance learning, online learning, online classes

IOER INTERNATIONAL MULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH JOURNAL ( IIMRJ )

ABSTRACT Quality education considered as a crucial factor to produce a competent professional to build a strong nation and to bring out the best way to get along with global competition. Thus, this study aimed to determine the current practices in using Web 2.0 tools in 15 selected Higher Education Institutions in CALABARZON, Philippines concerning communication and collaboration, creativity and innovation, and instructional design. It also considered its level of acceptability for classroom instruction as assessed by administrators, teachers, and students. The level of seriousness of the problems met in the integration relative to teachers’ preparation, curriculum content and administrative support were also evaluated. The research design was descriptive survey method with the use of a researcher-constructed questionnaire as the data gathering instrument. The method and instrument employed were deemed appropriate to determine the viability of providing the students with an alternative delivery of learning through Web 2.0 tools for instruction. Weighted mean, T-test and Probability values, Percentage and Standard Deviation were the statistical tools used to test the hypothesis posited in this study. The hypothesis tested the significant differences between two groups of respondents regarding the extent of use of Web 2.0 tools in classroom instruction. Results revealed that to a very great extent, integration of Web 2.0 tools in the classroom promotes learner to interact, build a learning community and promotes student active participation in the classroom and increases student’s productivity. Based on the findings and conclusions, the researcher developed an offline game-based interactive instructional material that supports instruction and collaboration and could be used to enhance students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills to achieve better learning outcomes. Keywords: Web 2.0 tools, 21st Century students, Communication and Collaboration, Descriptive method, Higher Education, Philippines

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Predicting local control of brain metastases after stereotactic radiosurgery with clinical, radiomics and deep learning features

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Background and purpose: Timely identification of Local Failure (LF) after stereotactic radiosurgery offers the opportunity for appropriate treatment modifications that may result in improved treatment outcomes, patient survival, and quality of life. Previous studies showed that the addition of either radiomics or deep learning features to clinical features increased the accuracy of the models in predicting Local Control (LC) of brain metastases after stereotactic radiosurgery. To date, however, no study combined both radiomics and deep learning features together with clinical features to develop machine learning algorithms to predict LC of brain metastases. In this study, we examined whether a model trained with a combination of all these features could predict LC better than models trained with only a subset of these features. Materials and methods: Pre-treatment brain MRIs and clinical data were collected retrospectively for 129 patients at the Gamma Knife Center of Elisabeth-TweeSteden Hospital (ETZ), Tilburg, The Netherlands. The patients were split into 103 patients for training and 26 patients for testing. The segment-based radiomics features were extracted using the radiomics feature extractor of the python radiomics package. The deep learning features were extracted using a fine-tuned 3D ResNet model and then combined with the clinical and radiomics features. A Random Forest classifier was trained with the training data set and then tested with the test data set. The performance was compared across 4 different models trained with clinical features only, clinical and radiomics features, clinical and deep learning features, and clinical, radiomics and deep learning features. Results: The prediction model with only clinical variables provided an Area Under the receiver operating characteristic Curve (AUC) of 0.82 and an accuracy of 75.6%. The prediction model with the combination of clinical and radiomics features demonstrated an AUC of 0.880 and an accuracy of 83.3% whereas the prediction model with the combination of clinical and deep learning features demonstrated an AUC of 0.863 and an accuracy of 78.3%. The best prediction performance was associated with the model that combined the clinical, radiomics and deep learning features with an AUC of 0.886 and 87% accuracy. Conclusion: Machine learning models trained on radiomics features and deep learning features combined with patient characteristics show good potential to predict LC after stereotactic radiosurgery with high accuracy. The promising findings from this study demonstrate the potential for early prediction of stereotactic radiosurgery outcome for brain metastasis prior to treatment initiation and might offer the opportunity for appropriate treatment modifications that may result in improved treatment outcomes, patient survival, and quality of life.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funding Statement

This research is supported by KWF Kankerbestrijding and NWO Domain AES, as part of their joint strategic research programme: Technology for Oncology IL. The collaboration project is co-funded by the PPP Allowance made available by Health Holland, Top Sector Life Sciences & Health, to stimulate public-private partnerships.

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

This study was approved by the ETZ science office and by the Ethics Review Board at Tilburg University.

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

The data used for this study is available at ETZ and is accessible after approval from the ETZ Science office.

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