hurricane katrina research paper thesis

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Hurricane Katrina: an American tragedy

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Tee L. Guidotti, Hurricane Katrina: an American tragedy, Occupational Medicine , Volume 56, Issue 4, June 2006, Pages 222–224, https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqj043

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The true extent of the American tragedy that is Hurricane Katrina is still unfolding almost 12 months after the event and its implications may be far more reaching. Hurricane Katrina, which briefly became a Category 5 hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico, began as a storm in the western Atlantic. Katrina made landfall on Monday, 29 August 2005 at 6.30 p.m. in Florida as a Category 1 hurricane, turned north, gained strength and made landfall again at 7.10 a.m. in southeast Louisiana as a Category 4 hurricane and rapidly attenuated over land to a Category 3 hurricane. New Orleans is below sea level as a consequence of subsidence and because of elevation of the Mississippi river due to altered flow. The storm brought a nearly 4 m storm surge east of the eye, where the winds blew south to the south shore of Lake Pontchartrain, and gusts of 344 km/h at the storm's peak at ∼1.00 p.m. Levees protecting the city from adjacent Lake Pontchartrain failed, inundating 80% of the city to a depth of up to 8 m. Further east in the Gulf Coast, a storm surge of 10.4 m was recorded at Bay St Louis, Mississippi [ 1 , 2 ].

What followed was horrifying and discouraging. Poor residents and the immobilized were left stranded in squalor. Essential services failed. Heroic rescues were undertaken with wholly inadequate follow-up and resettlement [ 3 ]. Emergency response was feeble. It was only after the military intervened that the situation began, slowly, to improve. New Orleans and much of the Gulf Coast to the east is still a depleted, devitalized, largely uninhabitable wreck. Less than a month later, on 24 September, Hurricane Rita followed. A much stronger storm in magnitude, Rita caused further displacement and disruption in Texas, where evacuation measures, undertaken in near-ideal conditions, were shown to be completely inadequate.

Floods usually conceal more than they reveal. Hurricane Katrina was an exception. It revealed truths about disaster response in the United States that had been concealed. Now, months later, one may assess the response and recovery to the disaster, evaluate how the country handled the challenge and determine what lessons were, or could have been, learned.

Katrina revealed that natural disasters and public health crises are as much threats to national security as intentional assaults. An entire region that played a vital role in the American economy and a unique role in the country's culture ground to a halt. During Katrina and Rita, ∼19% of the nation's oil refining capacity and 25% of its oil producing capacity became unavailable [ 4 ]. The country temporarily lost 13% of its natural gas capacity. Together, the storms destroyed 113 offshore oil and gas platforms. The Port of New Orleans, the major cargo transportation hub of the southeast, was closed to operations. Commodities were not shipped or accessible, including, in one of those statistics that are revealing beyond their triviality, 27% of the nation's coffee beans [ 5 ]. Consequences of this magnitude are beyond the reach of conventional terrorist acts.

Katrina revealed the close interconnection between the natural environment and human health risk. The capacity of wetlands in the Gulf Region to absorb precipitation and to buffer the effects of such storms has been massively degraded in recent years by local development. This has been known for a very long time [ 6 ], but development yielded short-term economic gain while mitigation was expensive. Katrina also revealed that understanding the threat and the circumstances that enable it means nothing if no concrete preparations are taken. The disaster that struck New Orleans, specifically, was not only foreseeable but also understood to be inevitable. Emergency managers had participated in a tabletop exercise that followed essentially an identical scenario just 13 months before, called ‘Hurricane Pam’ [ 7 ]. Had their conclusions and recommendations been acted upon, the actual event may have turned out differently. Although the levees would still have failed, perhaps those responsible for safeguarding the people would not have done so.

Katrina revealed that the federal agency designed to protect all Americans was incompetent. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) reached its peak under President Clinton, when it enjoyed Cabinet-level rank. Post 9-11 FEMA was subordinated within the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), a department highly focused on terrorism and intentional homeland threats. The wisdom of combining the two was always in doubt. The logical solution is to move FEMA out of DHS but so far there has been no political will to do so and FEMA is so reduced and depleted as an agency that it probably could not now operate at a Cabinet level even were it to have the authority [ 5 , 8 ].

Katrina revealed how large and resilient the American economy has become overall. The evidence for this is how quickly the country has returned to economic growth and business as usual, despite the destruction of a region once economically important [ 9 ]. Katrina devastated ≥223 000 km [ 2 ] of the United States, an area almost as large as Britain. Yet, with one exception, the economy of the country barely registered an effect, even on psychologically volatile indicators such as stock market indices. It is projected that Katrina, as such, will only reduce growth in GDP for the United States by about one half of 1%. Although the southeast region served by New Orleans is very large geographically, it constitutes only 1% of the total American economy [ 10 ]. The lower Mississippi region adds little of its own economic value to GDP, other than tourism and as a source of energy. The exception noted above, of course, was the price of oil, as reflected in the prices of gasoline and refined petroleum products.

Katrina revealed how marginal the Gulf Region had become to the American economy, despite the wealth that passes through it. New Orleans itself was a poor city—it probably still is, although the returning citizens obviously have sufficient resources to allow them to return—and its neighbours in Mississippi and Alabama are not rich, either. The region is economically significant mainly for tourism, transshipment of cargo, oil and gas and for redistribution of wealth (in the form of legalized gambling). Reconstruction efforts may even fuel an economic expansion in the rest of the economy, although precious little prosperity resulting from it is likely to be seen in the devastated Gulf itself anytime soon. Astonishingly, the compounded effect of the war in Iraq, the high price of crude oil and the direct effects of Hurricane Katrina did not set back growth in the American economy, although it may have kept stock market prices level to the end of 2005.

Katrina revealed the great divide that remains between people living next to one another but differing in the clustered characteristics of race, poverty, immobility and ill-health [ 11 , 12 ]. Those who lacked the resources, who could not fend for themselves, who were left behind, who happened to be sick were almost all African–American, and therefore so were the ones who died. Relatively, well off residents near the shore of Lake Pontchartrain also sustained many deaths [ 2 ]. However, the brunt of the storm was clearly borne by the poor and dispossessed. That this was not intentional does not make it any more acceptable.

Honour in this dishonourable story came from the role of rescue, medical, public health and occupational health professionals. Rescuers took personal risks to save the stranded citizens of New Orleans. Public health agencies quickly identified and documented the risks of water contamination [ 13 ], warned of risks from carbon monoxide from portable generators [ 14 ], identified dermatitis and wound infections as major health risks [ 15 ] and identified outbreaks of norovirus-induced gastroenteritis [ 16 ]. Occupational health clinics and occupational health physicians and nurses treated the injured, from wherever they came [ 17 ]. Occupational health professionals returned critical personnel to work as soon as it was possible, to hasten economic recovery and rebuilding. Occupational Safety and Health Administration professionals warned against hazards in the floodwaters and the destroyed, abandoned houses but supplies for personal protection were nowhere to be found. The American College of Occupational and Environmental Health served as a clearing-house for information and provided almost 200 participants with web-supported telephone training on Katrina-related hazards and measures to get workers back on the job safely.

It was not enough. No human effort could have been by then. But what can we, as a medical speciality, do better next time? The occupational health physician is not, as such, a specialist in emergency medicine, an expert in emergency management and incident command or a safety engineer, although many do have special expertise in these areas because of personal interest, prior training or military experience. The occupational health physician is, however, uniquely prepared to work with management and technical personnel at the plant, enterprise or corporate level. We can assist in preparing for plausible incidents, planning for an effective response, identifying resources that will be required, and advising on their deployment.

The occupational physician has critical roles to play in disaster preparedness and emergency management. Our role in disaster preparedness is distinct from those of safety engineering and risk managers. Our role in emergency management is distinct from those of emergency medicine and emergency management personnel. Our roles in both are complementary, sometimes overlapping and predicated on the value that we bring to the table as physicians familiar with facilities. We have the means to protect workers in harm's way and from the many hazards already so familiar from our daily work. Katrina demonstrates that occupational health professionals can translate experience of the ordinary to play an integral role in dealing with the extraordinary.

US National Interagency Coordinating Center. SITREP [Situation Report]: Combined Hurricanes Katrina & Rita. Access restricted but unclassified (3 January 2006 , date last accessed).

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McIntosh E. Occupational medicine response to Hurricane Katrina crisis. WOEMA Quarterly Newsletter (Western Occupational and Environmental Medical Association) 2005 , pp. 2, 7.

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Hurricane Katrina: Who Stayed and Why?

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This paper contributes to the growing body of social science research on population displacement from disasters by examining the social determinants of evacuation behavior. It seeks to clarify the effects of race and socioeconomic status on evacuation outcomes vis-a-vis previous research on Hurricane Katrina, and it expands upon prior research on evacuation behavior more generally by differentiating non-evacuees according to their reasons for staying. This research draws upon the Harvard Medical School Hurricane Katrina Community Advisory Group's 2006 survey of individuals affected by Hurricane Katrina. Using these data, we develop two series of logistic regression models. The first set of models predicts the odds that respondents evacuated prior to the storm, relative to delayed- or non-evacuation; the second group of models predicts the odds that non-evacuees were unable to evacuate relative to having chosen to stay. We find that black and low-education respondents were least likely to evacuate prior to the storm and among non-evacuees, most likely to have been unable to evacuate. Respondents' social networks, information attainment, and geographic location also affected evacuation behavior. We discuss these findings and outline directions for future research.

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• Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law

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• 10.1007/s11113-013-9302-9

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• hurricane Earth & Environmental Sciences 100%
• socioeconomic status Earth & Environmental Sciences 26%
• social network Earth & Environmental Sciences 23%
• social science Earth & Environmental Sciences 22%
• disaster Social Sciences 21%
• social status Social Sciences 20%
• logistics Social Sciences 20%
• determinants Social Sciences 18%

T1 - Hurricane Katrina

T2 - Who Stayed and Why?

AU - Thiede, Brian C.

AU - Brown, David L.

N1 - Funding Information: Acknowledgments This article benefitted greatly from the insights of Max Pfeffer, Scott Sanders, Laura Hathaway, and anonymous reviewers. The authors alone are responsible for mistakes of any kind. This research was supported by the Cornell Population Center, Cornell Population and Development Program, and USDA multi-state research project W-2001 ‘‘Population Dynamics and Change: Aging, Ethnicity and Land Use Change in Rural Communities,’’ administered by the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station project 159-6808.

PY - 2013/12

Y1 - 2013/12

N2 - This paper contributes to the growing body of social science research on population displacement from disasters by examining the social determinants of evacuation behavior. It seeks to clarify the effects of race and socioeconomic status on evacuation outcomes vis-a-vis previous research on Hurricane Katrina, and it expands upon prior research on evacuation behavior more generally by differentiating non-evacuees according to their reasons for staying. This research draws upon the Harvard Medical School Hurricane Katrina Community Advisory Group's 2006 survey of individuals affected by Hurricane Katrina. Using these data, we develop two series of logistic regression models. The first set of models predicts the odds that respondents evacuated prior to the storm, relative to delayed- or non-evacuation; the second group of models predicts the odds that non-evacuees were unable to evacuate relative to having chosen to stay. We find that black and low-education respondents were least likely to evacuate prior to the storm and among non-evacuees, most likely to have been unable to evacuate. Respondents' social networks, information attainment, and geographic location also affected evacuation behavior. We discuss these findings and outline directions for future research.

AB - This paper contributes to the growing body of social science research on population displacement from disasters by examining the social determinants of evacuation behavior. It seeks to clarify the effects of race and socioeconomic status on evacuation outcomes vis-a-vis previous research on Hurricane Katrina, and it expands upon prior research on evacuation behavior more generally by differentiating non-evacuees according to their reasons for staying. This research draws upon the Harvard Medical School Hurricane Katrina Community Advisory Group's 2006 survey of individuals affected by Hurricane Katrina. Using these data, we develop two series of logistic regression models. The first set of models predicts the odds that respondents evacuated prior to the storm, relative to delayed- or non-evacuation; the second group of models predicts the odds that non-evacuees were unable to evacuate relative to having chosen to stay. We find that black and low-education respondents were least likely to evacuate prior to the storm and among non-evacuees, most likely to have been unable to evacuate. Respondents' social networks, information attainment, and geographic location also affected evacuation behavior. We discuss these findings and outline directions for future research.

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UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/citedby.url?scp=84888044638&partnerID=8YFLogxK

U2 - 10.1007/s11113-013-9302-9

DO - 10.1007/s11113-013-9302-9

M3 - Article

AN - SCOPUS:84888044638

SN - 0167-5923

JO - Population Research and Policy Review

JF - Population Research and Policy Review

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Hurricane Katrina: Who Stayed and Why?

• Published: 05 September 2013
• Volume 32 , pages 803–824, ( 2013 )

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• David L. Brown 1  

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This paper contributes to the growing body of social science research on population displacement from disasters by examining the social determinants of evacuation behavior. It seeks to clarify the effects of race and socioeconomic status on evacuation outcomes vis-a-vis previous research on Hurricane Katrina, and it expands upon prior research on evacuation behavior more generally by differentiating non-evacuees according to their reasons for staying. This research draws upon the Harvard Medical School Hurricane Katrina Community Advisory Group’s 2006 survey of individuals affected by Hurricane Katrina. Using these data, we develop two series of logistic regression models. The first set of models predicts the odds that respondents evacuated prior to the storm, relative to delayed- or non-evacuation; the second group of models predicts the odds that non-evacuees were unable to evacuate relative to having chosen to stay. We find that black and low-education respondents were least likely to evacuate prior to the storm and among non-evacuees, most likely to have been unable to evacuate. Respondents’ social networks, information attainment, and geographic location also affected evacuation behavior. We discuss these findings and outline directions for future research.

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As justified later in the paper and in footnote #10, we use a measure of education as an indicator of household socioeconomic status. We refer to “education effects” when discussing the particular findings of our statistical models, but refer to “socioeconomic status” when discussing the conceptualization of our research question and referring to previous literature on evacuation behavior, which has utilized multiple indicators of socioeconomic status.

An extensive review by Dash and Gladwin ( 2007 ) demonstrates that previous research on this topic has examined the effect of numerous other characteristics of evacuees and non-evacuees (e.g., gender), as well as the psychosocial dimensions of the evacuation process.

Gallup Poll #2005-45.

Household evacuation strategies were categorized according to (a) the timing of evacuation and (b) whether or not household members remained united or divided.

Both Elliott and Pais ( 2006 ) and Haney et al. ( 2007 ) report a number of other statistically significant factors in their models. Elliot and Pais find significant gender differences in some comparisons. Haney et al. observe significant differences in evacuation strategies according to employment, religion, and sex. Because they do not interact with or otherwise affect their findings regarding race and socioeconomic status, we exclude this from our discussion for the sake of brevity.

“Affected areas” are defined as those counties and parishes that were declared eligible for “individual assistance” by FEMA.

Adjustments were made for overlap in the sampling frames (see Hurricane Katrina Community Advisory Group 2006 for details).

To easily interpret odds ratios <1.000, one should invert the coefficient \(\left( {\frac{1}{\beta }} \right)\) . The quotient expresses the degree to which respondents in group k of variable x i were less likely to experience outcome Y 1 than those in the reference group, in the same terms as coefficients above 1.000.

Although an income variable was also available, we found that education and income were significantly and strongly correlated ( r = 0.417). We chose to use education and exclude the income variable for two primary reasons. First, the income variable reports household income, which is not appropriate given that our outcome and all other explanatory variables are individual-level indicators. Second, income is more prone to reporting bias than education.

We consider responses of 0–4 to either of the following questions “low” and responses of 5+ “high”: (1) “about how many friends or relatives in the county/parish were you close enough to that you could talk about your private feelings without feeling embarrassed?”; and (2) “about how many friends or relatives who did not live in the country/parish were you close enough to that you could talk about your private feelings without feeling embarrassed?” The median responses to these questions were 5.0 and 4.0, respectively, therefore 4.0 provides a reasonable central point around which to assign respondents to these categories.

Although some respondents’ social network classification may reflect socially insignificant county/parish boundary lines, we have no reason to believe that the distribution of such boundary effects is non-random across the four social network categories or any other variable in our statistical models.

We also consider the possibility that information attainment reflects the respondent’s connection to (isolation from) mainstream society.

This variable consists of three categories: we consider 0–4 recommendations “low” information attainment, 5–15 “medium”, and 16 or greater “high.” These thresholds distribute respondents as evenly as possible across the three categories.

Tables  2 and 3 show the percentage of respondents in each category of each explanatory variable that experienced a given evacuation outcome. For example, we show that among high school dropouts, 31.2 % evacuated prior to the storm and 68.8 % did not evacuate prior to the storm.

This includes systematic reporting biases.

Due to confidentiality restrictions, we were unable to obtain respondents’ zip codes of residence from the Harvard study to link community- and individual-level data. We would have liked, for example, to examine whether living in neighborhoods with high poverty or nativity rates affected the odds that an individual evacuated and the reason for not evacuating.

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Acknowledgments

This article benefitted greatly from the insights of Max Pfeffer, Scott Sanders, Laura Hathaway, and anonymous reviewers. The authors alone are responsible for mistakes of any kind. This research was supported by the Cornell Population Center, Cornell Population and Development Program, and USDA multi-state research project W-2001 “Population Dynamics and Change: Aging, Ethnicity and Land Use Change in Rural Communities,” administered by the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station project 159-6808.

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Thiede, B.C., Brown, D.L. Hurricane Katrina: Who Stayed and Why?. Popul Res Policy Rev 32 , 803–824 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-013-9302-9

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Received : 28 January 2013

Accepted : 03 August 2013

Published : 05 September 2013

Issue Date : December 2013

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-013-9302-9

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Measuring Exposure in Hurricane Katrina: A Meta-Analysis and an Integrative Data Analysis

Christian s. chan.

1 Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China

Jean E. Rhodes

2 Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America

Conceived and designed the experiments: CSC JER. Performed the experiments: CSC. Analyzed the data: CSC. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: CSC. Wrote the paper: CSC JER.

Associated Data

To date there is no consensus on the operationalization of exposure severity in the study of the impact of natural disasters. This is problematic because incomplete and inconsistent measurement of exposure limits the internal and external validity of disaster studies. The current paper examined the predictive validity of severity measures in two interrelated studies of Hurricane Katrina survivors. First, in a meta-analysis of eight studies that measured both exposure severity and posttraumatic stress, the effect size was estimated to be r  = .266. The moderating effects of sample and study characteristics were examined and we found that minority status and number of stressors assessed were significant moderators. Second, in an integrative data analysis of five independent samples of Hurricane Katrina survivors, the impact of specific disaster-related stressors on mental health was compared. Threat to physical integrity of self and others were found to have the strongest association with posttraumatic stress (PTS) and general psychological distress (GPD). The lack of basic necessities, such as food, water, and medical care, and loss of pet were also found to be strongly associated with both PTS and GPD. The results from the two studies are integrated and their implication for disaster research and relief are discussed.

Introduction

Natural disasters can be profoundly and pervasively disruptive [1] – [3] . Reviewing the literature, Norris and colleagues [2] estimated the overall prevalence rate of severe and very severe psychological impact after a natural disaster at around 34%. In another review [4] , found that the prevalence rate of PTSD ranged from 5% to 60%.

Exposure is considered one of the key predictors of psychological outcomes in disasters in both adults [2] , [4] – [6] and children [7] . Nonetheless, variations in disasters as well as the measurement of disaster-related stressors have complicated our understanding of the association between disaster exposure and outcome. First, there is considerable heterogeneity in survivors' disaster response, both within and between disasters. Past meta-analyses have found a large degree of heterogeneity in effect sizes of risk factors across studies [8] , [9] . Such heterogeneity is a combination of systematic variability in survivors' experiences and error. Even in the context of the same disaster type, survivors can experience very different levels of exposure [2] , [4] . Moreover, the cultural and community contexts in which disasters occur further complicate the comparability and generalizability between studies.

Second, there is a lack of consensus on the measurement of the construct. Disaster-related stressors (DRS) have been assessed in a variety of ways, including inquiring about the loss of life and bereavement, threat to life, injury, fear, witnessing injury and death, property damage and financial loss, loss of social and personal resources, as well as stressors related to relocation and chronic stressors after the disaster [10] . Many studies use a combination of these DRS in their operationalization of exposure, often including both “objective events,” such as injury, death, or property loss, and “subjective experience,” such as life-threat [11] , [12] . These DRS are often aggregated into a checklist to create a composite severity scores. Unfortunately, there has been no consensus regarding the number items to be included on such check-lists. Responding to the lack of consistency in the measurement of exposure severity, a few assessment tools have been developed, such as the Traumatic Exposure Severity Scale (TESS) [13] and the Hurricane Related Traumatic Experiences (HURTE) [7] . Both scales and their variants have been found to be associated with mental health outcomes and both have been used in a number of studies across different disaster events but have not been adopted as standards. The lack of consensus on the measurement of the construct makes it difficult to assess the impact of DRS or to compare their impact across samples or study characteristics. With these challenges in mind, the present study quantitatively synthesized primary disaster studies in order to estimate the impact of severity of exposure on symptoms.

Two interrelated studies of Hurricane Katrina survivors were conducted. First, a meta-analysis was conducted to summarize the effect size of the association between exposure severity and posttraumatic stress (PTS). Second, in an integrative data analysis—a method of combining raw data from multiple samples—of Hurricane Katrina survivors, the impact of specific disaster-related stressors on mental health was compared.

Study 1: Meta-Analysis

Although it is difficult to disentangle the effects of different sources of variation on individual survivors' symptoms, meta-analysis offers a way to account for between-study variability, especially differences in study design and sample characteristics. By focusing on one major disaster—Hurricane Katrina—we limit the systematic variability between studies to the differences in sample and study characteristics that might moderate the relationship between exposure severity and PTS. We also considered the moderating effect of both sample composition (i.e., gender, age, race, neighborhood) and study characteristics (e.g., timing of assessment, number of items) on the association between measures of exposure and PTS. Eliminating between-disaster variability allows us to focus on the influence of operationalization of “exposure” on study outcomes, which is our prime research question.

Moderators: Sample Characteristics. Gender

Women are at significantly greater risk than men for post-disaster psychopathology, including posttraumatic stress, anxiety and depression [8] , [14] , [15] . Women are also relied upon more than men in the aftermath of natural disasters [16] , [17] , which may leave them less able to attend to their own psychological needs, putting them at greater risk of post-disaster psychological dysfunction. Indeed, compared to their male counterparts, female survivors of Hurricane Katrina have reported more PTSD and mental health symptoms [18] . Hence, we hypothesized that gender ratio within samples would moderate the relationship between exposure severity and PTSD symptoms, with stronger associations seen in samples in samples with a higher percentage of women.

Race and Ethnicity

Members of minority communities are at particularly high risk of poor physical and mental health in general [19] , [20] . Census data indicated that 67% of the residents of the city of New Orleans before Katrina were Black, about a third of whom lived below the poverty line [21] . Consistent with media reports during the aftermath of Katrina, researchers have documented that the hurricane had a greater impact on Black communities than on White communities, particularly in the city of New Orleans [22] . Blacks were less likely to have an evacuation plan in place prior to the storm [23] , and were less likely to evacuate prior to the hurricane [24] , increasing their risk of exposure to the storm. Racial disparities in economic outcomes of Katrina survivors are also evident in unemployment rates [24] , as well as in reports of difficulties accessing healthcare and of general life disruption. Blacks reported greater levels of stress than Whites in the aftermath of Katrina [24] , and greater levels of anger and depression [25] . Similarly, there is evidence to suggest that immigrants and minority groups are often worse off in the aftermath of natural disasters, compared to their counterparts in majority groups [26] . We hypothesized that the minority ratio within samples would moderate the relationship between exposure severity and PTSD symptoms, with stronger associations seen in samples with a higher percentage of minority participants.

Both younger and older ages have been found as a risk factor for PTSD in some studies [27] and not others [28] . In this meta-analysis, we included only primary studies that used an adult sample (i.e., age 18 and above). Given the inconsistency in the literature, we did not have a specific a priori hypothesis about age as a moderator.

Moderators: Study Characteristics

In addition to sample composition, study characteristics can also moderate the relationship between exposure severity and PTS. For example, Ozer et al. [9] highlighted the importance of methodological differences between primary studies, especially the timing of measurement, when accounting for discrepancies between their own meta-analysis and that of Brewin et al. [8] .

Timing of measurement

Since the impact of a single traumatic event typically dissipates over time [2] , we hypothesized that studies that were conducted soon after the Hurricane would show stronger associations between exposure severity and PTS.

Number of exposure items

The event checklist approach to assess exposure severity is limited by the type and number of DRS included on the list. As Netland [29] , [30] has argued, such checklists ought to be as comprehensive as possible to ensure the each relevant stressor is captured and accounted. Since there is no consensus on the number of DRS to assess, it would be of interest to examine whether the number of items moderates the strength of association between exposure severity and PTS. Although no studies to date have isolated the effects of item number, it would seem logical that the larger the number of DRS, the more variability there will be in the composite score, which in turn might help explain more variance of the outcome variable.

Study location

According to the 2010 census data, the city of New Orleans was 29 percent less populated than it was in 2000 [31] . Although if the exact percentage of residents who have returned to the storm-affected region remains unclear, it can be inferred that a considerable portion of former residents are still displaced. A number of studies on Hurricane Katrina survivors were conducted outside of the Gulf Coast region, with those who relocated to a different city or state. Although there were no a prior studies to guide predictions, it was of interest to examine whether the relocation status moderates the strength of the relationship between exposure severity and PTS.

Literature Search

Relevant studies were identified via PsycINFO and PubMed searches for materials published from 2005 (the year Hurricane Katrina occurred) to December 2011. The following keywords were entered in various combinations: Hurricane Katrina , stress , distress , PTS* , PTSD . Searches were limited to studies that were peer reviewed, written in English, and sampled from adult populations (age 18 years and older).

All manuscripts obtained with the searches were read to determine whether both exposure and symptoms of PTSD had been assessed. Studies on responders, rescue workers, and volunteers were excluded, as were treatment studies. Because we were interested in the relationship between the severity of exposure and PTS, the selection of studies was limited to those that quantitatively measured both variables, and, in addition, reported their bivariate relationship. In cases where multiple studies were published from the same data, one study that provided the relevant statistics for effect size calculation was chosen. When more than one study met all the requirements, the one with the largest sample size was used. These procedures yielded eight independent, empirical studies, which were included in the current meta-analysis ( [32] – [39] ).

Procedure. Calculation of effect sizes

One effect size (ES) was extracted from each study based on the correlation between severity of exposure and PTS. Following the procedures described by Rosenthal [40] , the correlation coefficients were then converted into Fisher's zr , which were then used for all analyses and were weighted by their degrees of freedom ( n - 3) in order to take into account the differential precision of estimate associated with different sample sizes. Finally, the Fisher's zr was converted back to r to yield a weighted average ES. Higher values of r indicate a stronger positive association between exposure severity and PTS. We used Cohen's [41] guidelines for interpreting the size of sample-weighted average correlations: .10, .30, and .50 correspond to small, medium, and large ES, respectively.

Heterogeneity

To test for heterogeneity of the effects of exposure severity across the studies, and the extent of it, Q and I 2 statistics were used. A significant Q value for homogeneity indicates a heterogeneous set of studies [42] . That is, variation in the true effect sizes exists. On the other hand, I 2 , which ranges from zero to 100%, is the proportion of the observed variance that reflects actual differences in ES across studies [43] .

Fixed-effect vs. random-effect models

Fixed-effect and random-effect models are two of the most common statistical models in meta-analysis, each with its own sets of assumptions and varying degree of generalizability. Because we were interested in drawing inferences that can be generalized to a larger population of survivors of Hurricane Katrina, the random-effects models was chosen to calculate the mean of zr and 95% confidence limits [40] .

Publication bias

Because studies with higher effect sizes are more likely to be published than their counterparts with smaller effect sizes, a synthesis of published studies might lead to biased results. Three methods were used to address this potential problem: visual examination of a funnel plot [44] , Egger's regression test [45] and Duval and Tweedie's trim-and-fill procedure [46] . First, a funnel plot of the effect sizes plotted by the standard error was created. Asymmetry in the funnel plot suggest that the existence of publication bias. Egger's regression test was performed to assess whether the funnel plot's asymmetry was statistically significant. Next, the trim-and-fill procedure was performed to provide an estimation of the number of missing studies to be added to create a more symmetric funnel plot and to estimate the impact on the ES of including the imputed studies in the synthesis.

Moderator Analysis

In addition to ES estimation, the study also examined whether, and to what extent, sample and study characteristics moderated the ES. The six characteristics that were considered included average age of participants, percentage of female participants, percentage of minority in terms of race and ethnicity, timing of assessment, number of items included in the exposure measure, and study location. Minority status was based on the percentage of non-white and Hispanic participants. Timing of assessment was coded in terms of the number of months since the onset of Hurricane Katrina when the study was conducted. When a range of months was given, the middle of the range was taken. Study location was dummy-coded for whether or not it was conducted in an affected region. The moderating effects of each of these characteristics were examined independently using random-effects meta-regression analysis, estimated with maximum likelihood. All analyses were conducted using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis [47] .

Study selection

The search yielded 167 studies, of which 93 were irrelevant to this review. Seventy-four articles were retrieved in full-text. Sixty-eight articles were excluded for the following reasons: studies that used secondary data, had no continuous measure of exposure, had no PTSD measure, or were conducted with non-adult samples ( Figure 1 ). The remaining eight studies met the inclusion criteria.

Characteristics of the Articles

Sample and study characteristics are described in Table 1 . Across the eight studies, sample size varied from 90 to 968, with a mean of 366.75 ( SD  = 303.29) and median of 343.50. The aggregated sample size was 2,934. All eight studies included a mixed gender sample, with women slightly more represented, mean = 53.5% (median = 59.2%, range = 33.3–72.74%). Seven studies provided some information on participants' race and ethnicity. One study consisted of only African American participants, and the remaining six studies had different proportions of minority (nonwhite, including Hispanic) participants, ranging from 7 to 98.6%. The mean ages of the participants of the eight studies ranged from 20.7 to 54.0 years old, with an overall mean of 39.6 and median of 41.8. The studies indicated specific populations: Cieslak et al. [34] , included participants who were HIV positive prior to Katrina, Cepeda et al. [33] recruited participants who used illicit substances after the storm, and the sample in Reuther et al. [36] , were college students.

On average, the studies were conducted eight and a half months after Hurricane Katrina (median = 7.5, range = 3–15). Seven studies measured exposure with multiple binary questions and created a composite severity score. The remaining study [33] assessed exposure with 3 questions, including two binary and one 0 to 6 scale. They created an 8-point composite score using the sum of the scores. The number of exposure questions asked varied from 3 to 46, with an average of 16.3 (median = 11.5). The questions from each study are listed in Table 2 . It should be noted that Wadsworth et al. [38] combined DRS and Life Event Questionnaire to measure exposure severity. Not only did this result in a relatively high (46) number of questions, it prevented the examination of DRS alone.

In terms of instrument for measuring PTS, two studies used the PTSD checklist – specific version (PCL-S) [48] , one used the civilian version of the PCL (PCL-C) [49] , one study used the UCLA PTSD Index [50] , one study adapted the child PTSD checklist for their adult participants [51] , one study used the National Women's Study PTSD module (NWS-PTSD) [52] , one study used the Impact of Event Scale – Revised (IES-R) [53] , and one study used a 7-item screening scale developed by Breslau, Peterson, Kessler, & Schultz [54] . Three samples consisted of participants who were no longer living in affected areas at the time of the study [33] , [38] , [37] .

Exposure severity and PTS

In the total set of eight samples, a significant correlation was found between severity of exposure and PTS. The ES ranged from r  = .06 to .40. The combined sample-weighted ES was r  = .266, p <.01, 95% CI [.173, .355] ( Figure 2 ).

Test for heterogeneity

Q statistics yielded a significant result ( = 42.627, p <.001), indicating that there were differences in ESs beyond that expected due to sampling error alone. I 2 was high (83.6%), which showed that there was a high degree of true between-study variability. Because of the significant heterogeneity, we next tested the moderators using meta-regression to help identify between-study factors that might have contributed to the differences in effect sizes across studies.

We tested the six moderators with six separate univariable simple mixed effects meta-regressions with ES as the dependent variable. Results are presented in Table 3 . Of the six moderators, only percentage of racial and ethnic minorities in the sample was significantly associated with ES ( Figure 3 ). Studies with a higher percentage of minority participants had smaller effect sizes. The number of exposure items became a significant moderator when an outlier, Wadworth et al. [38] , was removed, B  = .012, SE = .002, p <.001. No other significant relationships were found.

Tests for publication bias

The funnel plot of the standard error against ES was not asymmetric by Egger's test, 1.580, 95% CI [−4.214, 7.375], ns . On the other hand, the trim-and-fill procedure suggested one additional study with a small ES to be filled in order to make the plot more symmetric ( Figure 4 ). The addition of the imputed study yielded an adjusted effect of .251, 95% CI [.162, .336]. The relatively small change, along with the non-significant Egger's test, suggested that there was little evidence of publication bias.

In this meta-analysis, we examined the impact of severity of exposure to stressors on PTS among Hurricane Katrina survivors. The overall finding from eight samples ( N  = 2,934) of survivors of Hurricane Katrina confirmed the positive relationship between severity of exposure and PTS. The ES ( r  = .266) was in the small-to-medium range [41] . This finding was similar to results from previous meta-analyses on traumatic events in general (i.e., not specific to Hurricane Katrina or other natural disasters) [8] , [9] . When compared with results based on civilian subsamples across an array of traumatic events, the ES from the present study was larger (vs., r  = .18) [8] . The results of our meta-regression suggest that the discrepancy might be in part due to certain characteristics of the samples, especially the survivors' race and ethnicity. More generally, however, the discrepancy between our findings and previous ones may also be stem from the heterogeneity across disasters and disaster types. This remains an empirical question to be explored.

Even across primary studies of the same disaster and outcome, we found a high degree of heterogeneity in effect sizes. Interestingly, studies with higher percentage of White participants appeared to have larger effect sizes. This does not imply that minority groups were less impacted by the storm. Rather, it suggests that minority group members' PTS was less associated with the severity of exposure, which was operationalized as stressors directly related to Hurricane Katrina. Perhaps, in the context of poverty and systemic racism, minority groups have been exposed to more stressors before the storm, relative to their White counterparts [55] [56] . Through more frequent exposure to moderate and severe stressors, the more vulnerable survivors may have established a set of coping strategies that enabled them to more readily resist traumatic responses [24] [58] [57] . The effect of the stressors directly related to the storm might have been relatively attenuated by comparison. Nonetheless, that is not to say that ethnic minorities were not exposed to other stressors or risk factors that might have been exacerbated by Hurricane Katrina and its aftermath [18] .

After the removal of an outlier that created a composite score of DRS and resource loss [38] , the number of DRS measured was also a significant moderator. Studies that assessed more stressors had larger effect sizes. This might suggest that studies that cast a wider net might be more likely to find a stronger association between DRS and mental health outcomes. This points to a potential methodological problem in which the construct “exposure severity” varies between studies. One potential remedy might be to standardize the items included in the measure of exposure severity. Obviously, this solution is not without its limitations, given the between-disaster variability. The selection of items included might need to account for shared stressors (e.g., life loss, property loss) and stressors unique to a particular disaster (e.g., flooding in the case of a hydrological disaster). In many cases, researchers use exposure severity—typically a composite score—as a control variable. Limiting the items that constitute the composite score to common and shared stressors would permit better between-study comparisons.

Limitations

A number of limitations should be noted. First, the number of primary studies included in the meta-analysis was small ( k  = 8). The null results in the meta-regression for four of six variables may be due to lack of statistical power. Because power analysis in meta-analysis of studies with varying variance requires full covariance matrix [59] , we were unable to perform it. One reason for the small sample size was that six additional studies that met the criteria of our literature search did not report the bivariate relationship between exposure severity and PTS, preventing us from calculating their effect sizes. Future studies should strive to adhere to the reporting guidelines of the American Psychological Association [60] on reporting bivariate relationships in order to facilitate meta-analytic procedures. Likewise, to the extent that researchers strive for cross-study consistency in measures of exposure and outcomes, comparisons will be more readily achieved.

Second, the generalizability of the current results is limited by the relatively narrow scope of our inclusion criteria. We focused only on Hurricane Katrina and only on PTS. By constraining the event, we removed some of the systematic sources of heterogeneity and improved the internal validity. We did not include other common psychological problems mostly because the number of studies that included additional psychological variables was even fewer. However, the results may not be generalizable to other disasters, which is a common limitation of disaster research. Building upon the current work, future meta-analytic studies can enlarge the scope to include studies of other natural disasters and outcome variables.

Last, and perhaps most significantly, the authors of all eight primary studies created a composite score with the various DRS. This method in effect treats each DRS with an equal weight. This may be problematic, as previous studies that examined DRS independently have found that some DRS are more predictive of mental health issues than others [6] , [12] . Since the primary studies included different sets of DRS, albeit with some overlap ( Table 2 ), this source of heterogeneity cannot be quantitatively tested. Without the bivariate relationship between each DRS and PTS, we cannot estimate and compare the differences in salience among DRS and thus cannot confidently infer which stressors contributed most strongly to PTS.

The heterogeneity in the constituent studies confirms important theoretical and methodological challenges in generalizing findings across individual primary studies. In light of this, Study 2 was conducted, using raw data drawn from multiple samples of survivors of Hurricane Katrina. This provided the opportunity to examine and compare the contribution of each DRS to mental health problems following a natural disaster.

Study 2: Integrative Data Analysis

As demonstrated in Study 1, one source of between-study variability was the heterogeneity of the operationalization of exposure. Namely, in studies that included more disaster-related stressors (DRS) in their composite score of exposure severity there were stronger associations between exposure and PTS. It remains unclear, however, whether this was due to the mere number of events or whether studies with a more inclusive list of DRS also captured “key” stressors that other studies have failed to detect. Ideally, a checklist that measures exposure severity should encompass all relevant stressors, without being exhaustive and overly taxing for respondents. The two more commonly used hurricane stressors checklists, TESS [13] and HURTE [7] both consist of approximately twenty questions and hence might not always be feasible to use. Also, the development of TESS was based on exploratory factor-analysis approach, which, as argued by Netland [29] , [30] , is not appropriate. This is because the measurement model for event checklists is better conceptualized as a “causal-indicator” model, in which items (i.e., DRS) influences the construct (i.e., exposure), rather than the other way around, in which the indicators are conceptualized as effects of a latent construct. In other words, the extent of exposure to a disaster should be considered as a result of the various DRS and not the reverse. Moreover, neither scales examined the item-level relationship between DRS and outcomes. Without knowing the associations between specific DRS and psychological outcomes, the construction of a checklist would be based on heuristics, not empirical evidence. And in turn, an inadequate measure of exposure biases not only the measure of exposure severity itself, but also the estimation of other risk and protective factors. The establishment of a systematic assessment of disaster experiences has important research and clinical implications [5] , [61] . Geared with information on the relative impact of specific disaster-related events, relief efforts and post-disaster clinical services may advance in efficiency, in terms of both identifying survivors who are at relatively higher risk for developing problems and addressing specific stressors accordingly. Drawing on integrative data analysis (IDA) of raw data from multiple samples of Hurricane Katrina survivors, Study Two was designed to examine the associations between specific DRS and PTS as well as general psychological distress (GPD).

For the most part, disaster researchers have created composite exposure scores from positively endorsed DRS items. Although conventional, this practice assumes equal weighting of the DRS; each stressor is treated equally and assumed to be equally predictive of the outcomes of interest. Because exposure severity is often included as a covariate, the item-level association with mental health outcomes are seldom reported (for exceptions, see Goenjian et al. [28] ; Heir & Weisæth [6] ). The omission of the bivariate relationship between each DRS and PTS, in turn, biases the estimation and limits the comparability of the impact among different DRS on post-disaster psychopathology.

A relatively large number of studies have been conducted on Hurricane Katrina, which provides an apt opportunity to integrate and compare results from different samples. The goal of the current IDA was to examine and compare the effect sizes of different DRS in the context of Hurricane Katrina.

Integrative data analysis

IDA is a method of simultaneously analyzing multiple independent samples [62] . Its function and goals are similar to traditional meta-analysis, in which aggregated parameter estimates (i.e., effect sizes) are combined. What differs is that IDA utilizes actual raw data from existing studies. The advantage is that models can be re-specified to fit the need of emerging research questions, such as the current one. Moreover, larger sample sizes result in increased statistical power and greater potential for generalizability due to greater sample heterogeneity. Nonetheless, IDA has a number of methodological challenges, such as the need to account for historical and regional effects as well as sample heterogeneity across studies [62] . Because the current study drew on data that came from residents of the same geographic area (New Orleans metropolitan area) after the same disaster (Hurricane Katrina), the historical and regional effects on the variability in outcome variables can be assumed to be minimal. Any variability found can be more confidently attributed to between study and sample differences.

In this study, the relationship between DRS and mental health, indicated by PTS and general psychological distress (GPD), were examined using a pooled sample from multiple studies of survivors of Hurricane Katrina.

A literature search similar to the one described in Study 1 was conducted to identify eligible studies. The difference is that in Study 2 we did not screen out studies that did not report the measure of exposure severity, PTS, or GPD as continuous variables. This resulted in 21 independent studies that included an adult (age 18+) sample. Authors and research groups of all 21 studies were contacted to obtain raw data on mental health outcome and measure of exposure severity, in addition to basic demographic variables. Of the 21, two research groups rejected the solicitation, six never responded, four agreed to share the data but have not done so by the time of the data analysis, and nine provided the data ( [12] , [34] , [35] , [63] – [66] , [70] – [71] ). Of the two rejections, one was on the basis of an overlapping project and the other was due to the Principal Investigators' ongoing use of the dataset.

Samples. Posttruamtic Stress

PTS was measured in eight of the nine obtained datasets. Among them, seven studies used a standardized self-report measure and one study used a clinician-administered measure (CIDI). The latter study was excluded from the current analysis because PTS was reported as a binary diagnosis (PTSD), without a measure of its severity.

Four different self-report measures were represented across the seven remaining studies. Four studies employed the PTSD checklist (PCL) [48] , [67] and the other three studies used the Impact of Events Scale–Revised (IES-R) [53] , the Trauma Screening Questionnaire (TSQ) [68] , and the PTSD Symptom Scale Self-Report (PSSSR) [69] , respectively. To maximize comparability, the four samples that reported PTS using the PCL were included in the current study: Hirschel & Shulenberg [35] ; Cieslak et al. [34] ; McLeish & Del Ben [63] ; and LaJoie, Sprang, & McKinney [64] .

Four of the nine studies included a self-report measure of GPD. Three studies used the K6 [70] and one study administered the Quality of Well­Being Self­Administered (QWB­SA) [71] . Two of the three studies that employed the K6 along with various DRS were included in the analysis: Hurricane Katrina Community Advisory Group Study (HKCAG) [12] , [65] and the Resilience In Survivors of Katrina study (RISK) [66] . To further ensure comparability of the two samples, the participants of the two studies who resided within the metropolitan area of New Orleans before Hurricane Katrina were selected. This yielded 594 participants from the HKCAG study (57.0% of original sample) and 354 participants from the RISK study (88.1% of original sample).

Measures. PTSD

Symptoms of PTSD were measured in the four included samples ( Table 4 ) using the PCL. The PCL is a 17-item, 5-point Likert-type self-report measure. Each of the 17 items directly corresponds to one of the PTSD diagnosis criteria of the DSM IV [72] . Respondents rated the severity of each symptom over the past 30 days. A severity score (range = 17 to 85) was created by summing scores on each item. Researchers have reported strong psychometric properties, including high internal consistency, convergent validity, and diagnostic efficiency across different populations [48] , [73] , [74] . A four-factor model [75] was tested using multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), in order to ensure measurement invariance (reported below).

General Psychological Distress

The K6 scale of nonspecific psychological distress [70] was used to assess DSM–IV mood and anxiety disorders within the previous 30 days. The K6 scale has been shown to have good psychometric properties [76] and has been used in previous research on the psychological functioning of Hurricane Katrina survivors [12] , [66] . It includes items such as “during the past 30 days, about how often did you feel so depressed that nothing could cheer you up?” Respondents answered on a 5-point rating scale ranging from 0 = “none of the time” to 4 “all the time”. Scale scores range from 0 to 24. A previous validation study [77] suggests that a scale score of 0–7 can be considered as probable absence of mental illness, a score of 8–12 can be considered as probable mild or moderate mental illness (MMI), and a score of 13 or greater can be considered as probable serious mental illness (SMI). Rhodes et al. [66] reported that the Cronbach's alpha of the K6 scale in the RISK study was α  = .80. Although no internal consistency was reported from the HKCAG studies, past epidemiological studies reported a similar level of internal consistency ( α  = .89) [77] .

Exposure Severity

A large degree of variability was found in the DRS included in the six studies. Only DRS that are directly related to the physical nature of the disaster were included; stressors such as loss of job were excluded from the current analyses. The range of DRS included both objective events (e.g., lacked food or water, injury) and subjective appraisals (e.g., fear). Delayed evacuation, defined as leaving the region during or after the storm, was coded and included in the analysis as a proxy of other unaccounted DRS. All the included DRS are reported in Table 5 .

Demographic Variables

Age, gender, race and ethnicity were included in the current study. Gender was dummy-coded as 1 = “female” and race/ethnicity was dummy coded as 1 = “White.” Because studies did not consistently record date of interview, time since Hurricane Katrina was not included in the analyses.

Statistical Analysis

Before data from multiple studies can be analyzed collectively, measurement invariance must be established by demonstrating that the outcome measures reflect the same construct (i.e., PTS and GPD) [62] . It is when the definition and measurement of constructs agree across studies that IDA becomes possible [62] . Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted using M plus 6 for both PCL and K6. For PCL, a four-factor model (re-experiencing, avoidance, numbing, and arousal) was specified [75] , whereas a one-factor model was specified for K6.

Linear and logistic regression analyses were conducted to estimate the association between DRS and symptoms of PTSD and GPD. All analyses were conducted using R .

Posttraumatic Stress

In order to determine if the different samples could be combined, measurement invariance was evaluated with the following steps: (1) configural model assessment, (2) test of equal factor loadings (i.e., weak measurement invariance), and (3) test of equal intercepts (i.e., strong measurement invariance). This procedure involves testing a series of nested models with a less restricted model compared to a more restricted model (i.e., more degrees of freedom). To assess the significance of each comparison, we evaluated if (a) the RMSEA value of the nested model fell within the RMSEA confidence interval of the comparison model [78] and (b) the change in CFI was ≤.01 [79] . A value beyond these specifications suggests that the imposed restrictions are not supported. A four-factor model was used based on previous psychometric studies of the PCL [75] . As shown in Table 6 , we failed to establish configural invariance with the four studies included in the current analysis. Nonetheless, when the sole clinical sample [63] was removed, strong factorial invariance was established across the remaining three studies. These three samples were thus combined as one pooled sample for the remaining analyses.

The pooled sample size was 647. Within the three samples, the PCL scores were M  = 34.47 ( SD  = 15.89), 40.88 ( SD  = 18.22), and 49.23 ( SD  = 20.51), respectively. The average PCL score across the three samples was M  = 38.47 ( SD  = 18.13). The correlation between the DRS, PCL, and demographic variables are presented in Table 7 .

Two linear regression models predicting PCL were estimated using DRS as predictors and demographic variables (age, gender, and race) as covariates ( Table 8 ). In Model 1, data from all three studies that measured PCL were included. Only two DRS were shared across all three studies: delayed evacuation and fear. The results indicated that fear but not delayed evacuation was predictive of PCL, β  = .269. Model 2 included data from Hirschel & Shulenberg [35] and Cieslak et al. [34] , with delayed evacuation, fear, injury, and home damage included as predictors. The results indicated that fear ( β  = .166) and injury ( β  = .153) were predictive of symptoms of PCL.

We were unable to establish factorial invariance across the two samples that measured GPD with K6. In fact, the one-factor model did not hold in either sample, suggesting that the one-factor specification might not be accurate. Because of the lack of measurement invariance, bivariate relationships (odds ratio and relative risk) are reported separately for the two samples ( Table 9 ).

The pooled sample size was 948. The pooled average K6 score across the two samples was M  = 7.49 ( SD  = 4.39). The average K6 score of the two studies was M  = 6.77 ( SD  = 5.27) and M  = 7.93 ( SD  = 3.70), respectively. The correlation between the DRS, K6, and demographic variables are presented in Table 10 .

A linear regression model predicting K6 was estimated using DRS as predictors and demographic variables (age, gender, and race) as covariates. The results indicated that pet loss; death of a family member or friend; lacking food, water, or clothing; and lacking medication or medical care were all predictive of GPD ( Table 11 ). The standardized estimates ranged from β  = .116 (lacked medication or medical care) to β  = .200 (pet loss).

In their review of the literature, Norris and Wind [10] identified loss of life, bereavement, threat to life, injury, and fear, and witnessing of horror as potentially the most traumatic aspects to a disaster. Our findings, drawn from five independent samples of Hurricane Katrina survivors, are generally consistent with their conclusions. In particular, we found that, among different primary, disaster-related stressors, threat to physical integrity of self and others had the strongest association with posttraumatic stress (PTS) and general psychological distress (GPD). Furthermore, the lack of basic necessities, such as food, water, and medical care, and loss of pet were also found to be strongly associated with both PTS and GPD.

In this study, we included DRS at the item level to estimate each stressor's unique contribution to mental health. We included all DRS that were available in each dataset, both subjective and objective stressors. From the three studies that included PCL as a measure of PTS, our pooled results suggest that fear was the most consistent predictor of symptom severity. The effect size of experiencing intense fear dropped from .27 to .17 when one study was removed and physical injury was added as a predictor. Physical injury had a similar effect size, β  = .15, suggesting that both subjective and objective threat to one's integrity are associated with PTS.

This set of results was augmented by the inclusion of two samples with K6, a measure of general psychological distress. Our results suggest that a lack of basic necessities during the storm was associated with higher levels of psychological stress. In particular, the lack of medication or medical care, as well as food and water, can be interpreted as a source of threat to one's well being. Consistent with past finding [3] , bereavement was also associated with psychological distress. Notably, a strong association between pet loss and GPD was found in both samples. At the bivariate level, pet loss was associated with 2- to 3-fold increase in odds of having a serious mental illness. Once demographic variables and other DRS were accounted for, the loss of pet was associated with a 2.5 points increase on the K6 (range = 0 to 24). The impact of pet loss is understudied but given the current findings, which is consistent with the few past studies on the topic [80] , [81] , it should perhaps be included in future disaster studies.

To our knowledge, this study is the first to integrate multiple samples from the same disaster to form a larger dataset. The advantage of analyzing multiple samples, especially in the context of studying the impact of disasters, includes the opportunity to survey a larger range of DRS and higher statistical power. On the other hand, although an explicit effort was made to include as many studies and stressors as possible, the relative lack of between-study overlap in stressor inclusion and outcome measures made it challenging to conduct meaningful cross-study comparison. In particular, the relative lack of overlap in DRS across the three PSTD studies limited the number of stressors we were able to examine in the multivariate models.

Relatedly, it should be noted that we only included primary DRS and omitted secondary and chronic ones, such as financial, occupational, and marital stressors. Studies have found that these day-to-day stressors and chores can be more distressful in the long-run [82] .

Another major limitation of the current study was that the studies included in the current IDA were cross-sectional in design; only one [66] had pre-disaster measures of mental health. Without baseline levels, the estimation of the impact of disaster exposure, even multiple samples were pooled, would likely be biased. The vast majority of studies of disaster outcomes lack pre-disaster data [83] . Pre-disaster data allow researchers to better clarify the temporal order of the event and outcome variables, as well as to control for pre-existing levels of psychological health. Also, the DRS included in the current IDA were all based on self-report, which may be susceptible to subjective biases. DRS, even the ones based on objective events, might have been influenced by the respondent's post-disaster mental health, thus confounding the present findings. Compared with objective measures of trauma, however, subjective experiences of events might be more predictive of psychological functioning [84] .

General Discussion

The results from the meta-analysis of eight primary studies of Hurricane Katrina (Study 1) confirmed that there was a small-to-medium positive relationship between exposure severity and PTS. Moreover, the between-study heterogeneity in the magnitude of this relationship was partially explained by two sample and study factors, namely proportion of minority participants and number of questions asked about DRS. The latter was particularly relevant to the current project, as it suggest that the operationalization of exposure severity can likely affect (and bias) the estimations of other predictors.

What remained unclear, however, was what exactly drove this moderating relationship. Given that all the primary studies included in the meta-analysis created an exposure severity composite score using varying DRS, in many ways the construct itself was not identical across the studies. This was the motivation behind Study 2, in which DRS were examined at the item-level (vs. composite score) across five samples of Hurricane Katrina survivors. The results confirmed that specific events, such as injury or pet loss, as well as subjective perception of threat to the physical integrity of oneself and others were predictive PTS and GPD. Basic necessities, such as the lack of food, water, medicine, and medical care were also robust predictors. These findings reinforce the importance of providing necessities and medical care, as well as accommodation for pets, if possible, in the aftermath of a disaster. The results of this study shed light on to the current lack of consensus regarding the items (and number of items) of DRS to be included in a measure of exposure severity. As discussed earlier, perhaps researchers, when using the construct as a control variable, should include in the composite score the DRS that are generally found across studies to be robust in predicting outcome variables (e.g., PTS or GPD). A more or less standardized measure of exposure can facilitate better cross-study comparisons and, in turn, the generalizability of research findings.

In looking at the data reported in the published reports we examined, we recommend that future studies strive to include bivariate associations to facilitate systemic review and meta-analysis. Our findings indicate that they should also consider using composite scores of exposure severity with caution, given that there is great variability in the impact of each DRS. It might be advisable to separate different types of DRS and to include relatively understudied but evidently significant stressors such as pet loss. The use of objective measures might also help complement the subject self-report events.

As noted by Norris and Wind, “exposure to disaster is an inherently complex, multifaceted phenomenon” [10, p. 29] . The above studies provided evidence that a wide range of experiences can potentially affect post-disaster mental health. They represent a first step in identifying cross-cutting issues of relevance to the assessment of DRS. Given the importance of exposure severity in the impact of disasters, it is surprising that relatively little attention has been paid to the ways in which it is operationalized. The current study is but one of many possible ways to help begin to untangle this issue.

Supporting Information

Checklist s1.

PRISMA Checklist.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful for the fellow Hurricane Katrina researchers who generously shared their data that made this study possible: Hurricane Katrina Community Advisory Group (including Sandro Galea, Ronald Kessler and their colleagues), Patricia Kissinger, A. Scott LaJoie, Alison McLeish, David Swanson, the RISK group (including Chris Paxson, Mary Waters and their colleagues). We thank Kristen Tang, Ingrid Deller, and Lenward Gatison for their assistance in coding and Paul Nestor, Fran Norris, and Nathan Thoma for their comments on an earlier draft. Correspondences should be addressed to Christian Chan: kh.ukh@nylnuahs .

Funding Statement

This work was funded by a National PERISHIP award provided by the Natural Hazards Center and a Bollinger Memorial Research Grant awarded to Christian Chan by the Graduate Student Assembly at the University of Massachusetts Boston. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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Cécile Reinkingh

Adaptation and resilience after Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Sandy

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The Shortcomings of the Multiple Streams Approach in Explaining Policy Change after Natural Disasters: A Complementary Congruence Analysis

Climate change increasingly affects all regions around the world. The subsequent increased frequency and intensity of natural hazards poses risks to societies that have not yet adapted to this new reality. Hurricane Katrina and hurricane Sandy have served as examples for the importance and urgence of adaptation measures and simultaneously showed the importance of international communication when combatting these issues, as areas struck by change often lack resources to prepare and prevent for future events. Therefore, this research paper focuses on local impact of natural hazards but looks further than just local drivers of policy change, discovering international influences driving policy change. Although this master thesis tries to address this problem from a public administration perspective, it emphasizes the importance of a holistic, multidisciplinary approach in such matters. This paper thus seeks to create a complementary framework that explains policy change after natural disasters. It does so by applying the two theories of policy change that are assumed to have explanatory value in the case of policy change after hurricane Sandy and hurricane Katrina. The Multiple Streams Approach (MSA) and theory of policy transfer are used, both theories provide tools to analyze policy change, but singly seem insufficient to provide a comprehensive explanation of policy change after natural disasters. Whereas the Multiple Streams Approach has significant explanatory power for policy change, it fails to incorporate the importance of international knowledge which has become essential for creating resilience to climate change. Therefore, this research paper compares the explanatory power of both theories and seeks to solve the gaps in the Multiple Streams Approach (MSA) with results and insights provided by theory of policy transfer

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Essays on Hurricane Katrina

What makes a good hurricane katrina essay topics.

When it comes to writing an essay on Hurricane Katrina, choosing a topic that is both engaging and informative is crucial. With such a devastating event, there are countless angles and perspectives to explore. Here are some recommendations on how to brainstorm and choose an essay topic, what to consider, and What Makes a Good essay topic.

When brainstorming essay topics, it's important to consider the impact of Hurricane Katrina on various aspects of society. Topics could focus on the environmental impact, the response and recovery efforts, the social and economic implications, or the political fallout. Consider the different perspectives and voices that emerged in the aftermath of the hurricane, and think about how these can be woven into an engaging and informative essay.

A good Hurricane Katrina essay topic should be thought-provoking and offer a fresh perspective on the event. It should invite the reader to think critically about the issues surrounding the hurricane and its aftermath. Additionally, a good essay topic should be well-researched and provide the opportunity to delve into the complexities of the event.

Best Hurricane Katrina Essay Topics

• The Role of Climate Change in Hurricane Katrina
• The Impact of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans' Culture and Community
• The Failures of the Government Response to Hurricane Katrina
• The Long-Term Environmental Impact of Hurricane Katrina
• The Displacement and Resettlement of Hurricane Katrina Survivors
• The Racial and Socioeconomic Disparities in the Aftermath of Hurricane Katrina
• The Role of Social Media in Disaster Response during Hurricane Katrina
• The Psychological Impact of Hurricane Katrina on Survivors
• The Economic Fallout of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans
• The Media Coverage of Hurricane Katrina and its Effects on Public Perception
• The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in Hurricane Katrina Relief Efforts
• The Impact of Hurricane Katrina on the Healthcare System in New Orleans
• The Lessons Learned from Hurricane Katrina and their Application to Future Disasters
• The Influence of Hurricane Katrina on Climate Change Policy
• The Rebuilding and Revitalization of New Orleans in the Aftermath of Hurricane Katrina
• The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender in the Response to Hurricane Katrina
• The Role of the Arts in Healing and Rebuilding after Hurricane Katrina
• The Impact of Hurricane Katrina on the Education System in New Orleans
• The Ethical and Moral Dilemmas Faced by First Responders during Hurricane Katrina
• The Resilience and Strength of the New Orleans Community in the Face of Disaster

Hurricane Katrina essay topics Prompts

• Imagine you are a journalist reporting on the ground in New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina. Describe the challenges, ethical dilemmas, and emotional toll of covering such a devastating event.
• Write a letter from the perspective of a survivor of Hurricane Katrina, reflecting on the experience and the challenges of rebuilding and moving forward.
• Create a timeline of the events leading up to, during, and after Hurricane Katrina, highlighting the key moments and decisions that shaped the outcome.
• Design a public awareness campaign focused on the long-term environmental impact of Hurricane Katrina and the importance of sustainable disaster preparedness.
• Write a fictional story set in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, exploring the experiences of different individuals and communities as they navigate the challenges of rebuilding and recovery.

Hurricane Katrina: The Aftermath of a Natural Disaster

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The Devastation of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans and The Lack of Response by The Government

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Report on Natural Disaster: Hurricane Katrina

The role of american red cross in dealing with hurricane katrina, hurricane katrina and crisis counseling, role of social media during the hurricane katrina, hurricane katrina and flaws in american government.

$125 billion

1,836 total

August 23, 2005 - August 31, 2005

Louisiana, Gulf of Mexico, Mississippi, New Orleans, Eastern United States and Eastern Canada

The tropical depression that became Hurricane Katrina formed over the Bahamas on August 23, 2005, approximately 350 miles (560 km) east of Miami. Early in the morning on August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast of the United States. Katrina had become one of the most powerful Atlantic storms on record.

While the storm itself did a great deal of damage, its aftermath was catastrophic. The economic effects of the storm reached high levels. The Bush Administration sought $105 billion for repairs and reconstruction in the region. The emergency response from federal, state, and local governments was widely criticized. Katrina caused more than $125 billion in damage.

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Schrenk, Todd. "Les Bon Temps." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2007. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/353.

Skelley, Chelsea Atkins. "Re-visioning Katrina: Exploring Gender in pre- and post-Katrina New Orleans." Thesis, Virginia Tech, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/42432.

Asomaning-Asare, Samuel K. "Environmental health hazards spatial analysis of New Orleans after Katrina /." Diss., Online access via UMI:, 2008.

Morris, James. "An exploration of musician resilience in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina." Thesis, Tulane University, School of Social Work, 2013. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=3572788.

Considerable attention has been paid to the impacts of disasters on affected populations, with special attention to disaster mental health on vulnerable populations. When Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans in 2005, 80% of the city was flooded forcing a mandatory evacuation. At-risk and marginalized communities are the most vulnerable to the impacts of this disaster. The musicians of New Orleans are representative of such a community, and are dispersed across the city representing a wide range of disaster experiences. The experiences of musicians as an at-risk community in a disaster context across evacuation, displacement, and returning to the city have significant impacts on mental health and stress, but also on the social and cultural aspects of life as a musician. While being a member of an at-risk population increases vulnerability to the impact of a disaster, some musicians have proven resilient. This study sought to better understand the factors of resilient musicians in an effort to better inform how to assist this socially and culturally important population in subsequent disasters. Using a Variable-Generating Activity (VGA), 10 musicians were interviewed about their lived experiences before, during and after Hurricane Katrina to create items for a scale of musician resilience. Musicians were nominated as being resilient from a list of 502 musician contacts from the New Orleans Musicians Assistance Foundation, a 501(c)3 organization dedicated to assisting musicians since Hurricane Katrina. The VGA uses qualitative tenets of triangulation in videotaped interviews of musicians to identify factors associated with musician resilience. Analysis of the musician interviews yielded 155 original truisms associated with factors of musician risk and resilience in a post-Katrina context. 28 truisms were removed as duplicates or redundant, leaving 127 unique truisms spanning the themes of the musician experience including: Risk Factors, Stress and Mental Health; Protective Factors; Social Support; Psychological Impact of Music; and, Community Connection and Mentoring. Discussion of findings supported previous research on musicians, disaster mental health, and associated topics of disaster resilience, including community connection, social support, access to resources, and personal interpretation of disaster outcomes. This study further supports the appropriateness of Conservation of Resources as a useful model with at-risk populations affected by disaster.

Liebl, Andrea. "Chemical, Toxicological, and Microbial Characterization of New Orleans Sediments Following Hurricane Katrina." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2007. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/592.

Pohl, Reinhard. "Hochwasserschutz für New Orleans – 8 Jahre nach Katrina." Saechsische Landesbibliothek- Staats- und Universitaetsbibliothek Dresden, 2015. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:14-qucosa-160804.

Pohl, Reinhard. "Hochwasserschutz für New Orleans – 8 Jahre nach Katrina." Technische Universität Dresden, 2013. https://tud.qucosa.de/id/qucosa%3A28545.

Andrews, Lauren. "Spatial Mismatch for Low-Wage Workers in post-Katrina New Orleans." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2011. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/1292.

Jakobsson, Angelina. "Collapse and the City: The Breakdown of New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina, 2005." Thesis, KTH, Urbana och regionala studier, 2012. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-98691.

Shears, Andrew B. "Hurricane Katrina and New Orleans: Discursive Spaces of Safety and Resulting Environmental Injustice." Kent State University / OhioLINK, 2011. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=kent1311009183.

Geisz-Everson, Marjorie. "THE IMPACT OF HURRICANE KATRINA ON THE NURSE ANESTHESIA COMMUNITY IN NEW ORLEANS." VCU Scholars Compass, 2010. http://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd/2310.

Abel, Lyndsey E. "Evaluating a method for measuring community vulnerability to hazards a hurriane case study in New Orleans /." Ohio : Ohio University, 2008. http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/view.cgi?ohiou1213969721.

O'Connell, Peter. "Cause Lawyers and Social Movements: Perspectives from Post-Katrina New Orleans." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2008. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/660.

Montano, Samantha Lea. "Formation and Lifespans of Emergent Recovery Groups in Post-Katrina New Orleans." Thesis, North Dakota State University, 2014. https://hdl.handle.net/10365/27385.

Gilyot, Danielle J. "New Houston and Other Stories." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2011. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/1381.

Childs, Lauren. "A New Orleans State of Crime: Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Shifting Homicide Patterns In Post-Hurricane Katrina New Orleans, LA." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2009. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/974.

Waguespack, Travis. "Future-proofing the Past?: Digital History and Preservation in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2017. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/2393.

Schwartz, Kristin Ashby. "Race & Crime on the Evening News: New Orleans in the Days after Hurricane Katrina." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2007. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/520.

Ott, Kenneth Brad. "The Closure of New Orleans' Charity Hospital After Hurricane Katrina: A Case of Disaster Capitalism." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2012. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/1472.

Mitchell, Brandie Shauntelle. "Trinkets Left By Katrina: How Changes to New Orleans' Landscape Have Led to Personal Attachment." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2009. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/942.

Pignetti, Daisy. "Writing to (Re)New Orleans: The Post-Hurricane Katrina Blogosphere and Its Ability to Inspire Recovery." Scholar Commons, 2010. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3437.

Dawisha, Nadia Kathryn. "Framing Disaster: Hurricane Katrina and the National Media." Oxford, Ohio : Miami University, 2009. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=miami1248401886.

Brown, Christina A. "Latent newspaper functions during the impact phase of Hurricane Katrina." [Tampa, Fla] : University of South Florida, 2009. http://purl.fcla.edu/usf/dc/et/SFE0003277.

Keeney, Benjamin S. "Motion and Emotion, Urban Dwelling in New Orleans." Thesis, Virginia Tech, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/34848.

Jacobson, Amy M. "Hiding Behind the Mask of Contradiction: A Study of Mardi Gras and Race in New Orleans." Scholarship @ Claremont, 2011. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cmc_theses/162.

Goff, Sarah LeBlanc. "When Education Ceases to be Public: The Privatization of the New Orleans School System After Hurricane Katrina." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2009. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/911.

Herring, Alison M. "Social Vulnerability and Faith in Disasters: an Investigation Into the Role of Religion in New Orleans After Hurricane Katrina." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2012. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc115094/.

Peterson, Robert Charles. "Tenure Insecurity and Post-Disaster Housing: Case Studies in New Orleans and Tegucigalpa." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2009. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/954.

Bennett, Kay. "Equipping staff members of Baptist Friendship House, New Orleans, Louisiana, to minister to abused women post-hurricane Katrina." New Orleans, LA : New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.2986/tren.053-0345.

Carmichael, Katie. ""I never thought I had an accent until the hurricane": Sociolinguistic Variation in Post-Katrina Greater New Orleans." The Ohio State University, 2014. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1397673731.

Baginski, Jessie Guidry. "The Hurricane Katrina Volunteer Experience: Inclusion into the Life Narratives of Young Adults." Cleveland State University / OhioLINK, 2011. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=csu1304622716.

Nieto, Nicole K. "Recipes of Recovery and Rebuilding: The Role of Cookbooks in Post-Katrina New Orleans." The Ohio State University, 2015. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1437039887.

Morris, Benjamin Alan. "Culture après le déluge : heritage ecology after disaster." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2010. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/226856.

Mosby, Kim. "Returning to post-Katrina New Orleans: Exploring the processes, barriers, and decision-making of African Americans." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2012. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/1506.

Ferris, Mika. "Mama D's 2 Blocks: A Documentary Film." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2007. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3674/.

Smallwood, Betty A. "Milneburg, New Orleans: An Anthropological History of a Troubled Neighborhood." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2011. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/1393.

Lief, Aram P. "Spatial Analysis of Post-Hurricane Katrina Thermal Pattern and Intensity in Greater New Orleans: Implications for Urban Heat Island Research." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2014. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/1820.

Williams, Richard A. Sr. "Post-Katrina Retention of Law Enforcement Officers: A Case Study of the New Orleans Police Department." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2018. https://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/2500.

Jencik, Alicia. "Deconstructing Gender in New Orleans: The Impact of Patriarchy and Social Vulnerability Before and After a Natural Disaster." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2010. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/1136.

Huff, Patrick W. "Movement Against Disaster: An Ethnography of Post-Katrina Volunteerism in the Lower Ninth Ward of New Orleans, Louisiana." unrestricted, 2008. http://etd.gsu.edu/theses/available/etd-04202008-134847/.

Moore, Erin Christine. "Between Logos and Eros: New Orleans' Confrontation with Modernity." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2008. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc6073/.

Simons-Jones, David Hamilton. "Who Owns O. Perry Walker High School?: A Case Study of Contested Ownership and Survival in the New Orleans Public Schools after Hurricane Katrina." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2006. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/375.

Haynes, Brandon D. "A Gateway for Everyone to Believe: Identity, Disaster, and Football in New Orleans." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2013. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/1712.

Higgins, Matthew B. "A House Divided: The Evolution of the Louisiana Superdome from a Divisive Concept into a Symbol of New Orleans and the Surrounding Areas." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2009. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/947.

Lastrapes, Lauren E. "Casa Samba: Twenty-One Years of Amerizilian Identity in New Orleans1." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2008. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/891.

Wilson, Holly J. "Constructing Catastrophe: Public Rhetoric in Response to the Katrina Disaster via Letters to the Editor Published in New Orleans Local Newspaper, The Times-Picayune." Ohio University / OhioLINK, 2012. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ohiou1337356904.

Kalapos, Beth A. "Breaking the Cycle of Disaster Damage. Transfer of Development Rights as Fair Compensation to Homeowners in New Orleans." [Kent, Ohio] : Kent State University, 2007. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=kent1185328012.

Garrett, Ashley. "Reassessment of a Community Mitigation Plan Post-Disaster: A Case Study of the University of New Orleans Disaster Resistant University Project." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2006. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/363.

King, Jamesia J. "Recovery & Recognition: Black Women and the Lower Ninth Ward." Digital Archive @ GSU, 2011. http://digitalarchive.gsu.edu/aas_theses/6.

Fontnette, Alicia M. "Buried Above the Ground: A Study of the Impact of Hurricane Katrina on African-American Women in the Lower 9th Ward and the Case of Underdevelopment." DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2018. http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/cauetds/156.

Hurricanes Causes and Effects Research Paper

Introduction, eye of the hurricane, causes of hurricanes, effects of hurricanes, works cited.

Thesis statement: A hurricane can be the most terrifying storm, people as well as the land can ever experience. The devastation caused by hurricanes is immense and the effects are felt for a long time after it is over. Hurricanes have brought destruction, loss of many lives and will remain etched in the minds of everyone who will have been affected by it, by the time it ends.

A hurricane’s ability to cause immense damage to everything it comes across leaves people all over the world in awe, even those who do not expect to have to go through the effects of such a storm ever in their lives. Reports of Hurricane Katrina and the devastation it caused in New Orleans, the coast of Louisiana, parts of Mississippi and Alabama, in 2005, reflected just how much destruction both people and land could face in a hurricane (Leatherman & Williams 56).

This was because they lacked some form of caution and preparation in handling an attack of a storm having been given warning of its coming. This hurricane showed everyone just how powerful hurricanes usually are. Hurricanes might not really be the main storms on the earth, but their mixture of size and strength make them fatal and the most disparaging storms on earth.

‘ The eye of the hurricane’ is a round area, which has lighter winds in the middle of tropical cyclone. This is at the axis, where precipitation is often lower as compared to the surroundings. It has less surface pressure with warmer temperatures as compared to the surroundings. They differ in size although they allegedly have a diameter of thirty to sixty kilometers. It is outlined by an ‘eye wall, ‘which has intense convection while the sunken air results to compression and warming in the eye.

The eye occurs in the midst of wild tropical storm and is characterized by clear sky, calm air and warmer breeze. As hurricane gains its strength, the winds swirl wildly and an eye is created, which is circular and radiate like a chimney amid the storm. Several legends have been associated with the eye such as they only affect coastal areas but it is not true since they have been known to be affected by hurricanes, thus the eye of the hurricane may also occur there.

Others maintain that within the eye, one is safe from any damages and can therefore move outside freely. This is however not accurate since eye of the hurricane is not permanent and may change anytime. Therefore, it is advisable to keep indoors even when one is within the e eye of the hurricane.

It was traditionally perceived as being spiritual and often regarded as a save haven, which meant blessings for the individuals within the eye. In some places, it was regarded as an eye of God, able to see all places. Today, these perceptions have changed due to ample scientific knowledge in place. The eye of the hurricane is now perceived as just a natural occurrence, which can be explained scientifically.

In a typical year, the Atlantic Ocean can usually come up with at least six hurricanes. At the beginning of the year 2010, the predictions made were that the Atlantic would produce at least seven or eight hurricanes. Researchers were very pessimistic about the conditions being observed during the year and that is why they likened the hurricane season of 2010 to the one experienced in 2005, when hurricane Katrina occurred.

Hurricanes have baffled researchers over the years as no one has yet to discover a way of preventing them from happening. Studying about hurricanes can be very beneficial as one gets to learn just how interesting, though dangerous some of the world’s phenomenon can be. Hurricanes are at times compared to tornadoes, which are storms that occur on land because of heavy thunderstorms. They both compare in the way they form in a whirlwind sort of way.

A number of atmospheric conditions have to occur simultaneously to form a hurricane. There must be a disturbance that has been there for a period of time, warm water in the ocean, unsteady levels of pressure in the atmosphere, which are low enough forces known as Coriolis forces , moist mid atmosphere and varying upper atmosphere levels.

The major means that contributes to the growth of a hurricane is known as the “monsoon trough”. It comes out of the Inter-Tropical Zone (ITCZ), where a swirl known as the cyclonic spin has already formed. This zone is a depression of low force caused by the coming together of the northeast and southeast trade winds (Christopherson 235).

Another cause of hurricanes can be observed as per what happens in the north Atlantic side. Here, waves known as easterly waves that have low forces usually form over North Africa then move towards the Atlantic. This can also happen with a wave from the eastern side. These waves are of extreme strength and the force that pushes them towards the coastline forms them into storms that later occur as hurricanes.

A façade that occurs in the ocean can also bring about the formation of a hurricane. When the winds that form above the water are favorable with not so much strength and little movement, rains and storms increase and this may bring about the formation of a hurricane. Finally, a structured collection of storms can move off the land and flow into the warm waters of the ocean. These storms contain a small whirlpool, which causes very favorable conditions for the formation of hurricanes.

The occurrence of hurricanes can bring both positive and negative impacts on people and the environment as research has shown. When the storm is forming in the water body, mostly the ocean, the air is cleaned up and due to the force of the storm; it is then distributed all around making the air around void of pollution. The occurrence of a hurricane also helps to bring people together during evacuation efforts and rebuilding of the area that has been destroyed. This helps to foster togetherness.

The negative impacts of a hurricane however, outweigh the positive ones. This is due to the trail of destruction that hurricanes leave in their wake. From the environment, to the human beings, nothing is left unharmed wherever a hurricane occurs. Population along the coastlines is always affected in the event of a hurricane.

Loss of lives and property is usually observed here. Most of these areas near the coastline have a large population and this at times proves it difficult for rescuers to clear out everybody in time, as people have to be moved to higher ground to escape the effects of the rising waters.

Storms are usually a source of great rainfall. However, this kind of rain is considered destructive because it causes flooding. Once the hurricane has destroyed the coastline, the storms usually move towards land and this is where the floods occur. These floods are a cause of many deaths and destruction to the environment.

Water sources are also polluted such that the residents do not have access to enough clean water for their consumption during and after the floods. The road and rail network as well as communication cables are also destroyed when hurricanes occur.

Some secondary effects are felt mostly by the economy in that the country ends up spending a lot of taxpayer’s money in rebuilding the destroyed areas and reimbursing the affected people who incur losses caused by the hurricanes (Pielke 5). Diseases, such as typhoid and cholera also befall this population affected by hurricanes. This is usually due to the lack of clean water for drinking, and the stagnant water left behind after the flooding.

Researchers have been trying to come up with means of reducing the intensity of the hurricanes that are experienced nowadays. Climate change being a natural occurrence cannot really be avoided it therefore remains that humans reduce the activities that interferes with the natural phenomenon such as hurricanes through climate mitigation.

If such efforts are invested, then there will be a decrease in the strength of hurricanes expected to happen in times to come (Keim & Muller 188). Americans are also being encouraged to adhere to warnings given about the coming of a hurricane to reduce the damage caused in future. When people are put on alert about an incoming hurricane, they should move to higher ground that is far from the coastline. This would all go into at least reducing the number of casualties recorded due to a hurricane attack.

Christopherson, Robert. Elemental Geosystems . Pennsylvania: Prentice Hall. 2001. Print.

Keim, Barry and Muller, Robert. Hurricanes of the Gulf of Mexico . Louisianna: LSU Press. 2009. Print.

Leatherman, Stephen and Williams, Jack. Hurricanes: causes, effects and the future . Mineapolis: MBI Publishing company. 2008. Print.

Pielke, Roger. “ Trends in hurricane impacts in the united states: Environmental and Societal Impacts Group .” National Center for Atmospheric Research Boulder, CO. Web.

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IvyPanda. (2018, September 12). Hurricanes Causes and Effects. https://ivypanda.com/essays/physical-geography-2/

"Hurricanes Causes and Effects." IvyPanda , 12 Sept. 2018, ivypanda.com/essays/physical-geography-2/.

IvyPanda . (2018) 'Hurricanes Causes and Effects'. 12 September.

IvyPanda . 2018. "Hurricanes Causes and Effects." September 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/physical-geography-2/.

1. IvyPanda . "Hurricanes Causes and Effects." September 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/physical-geography-2/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Hurricanes Causes and Effects." September 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/physical-geography-2/.

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News Roundup Spring 2024

CEGE Spring Graduation Celebration and Order of the Engineer

Forty-seven graduates of the undergraduate and grad student programs (pictured above) in the Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo- Engineering took part in the Order of the Engineer on graduation day. Distinguished Speakers at this departmental event included Katrina Kessler (MS EnvE 2021), Commissioner of the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, and student Brian Balquist. Following this event, students participated in the college-wide Commencement Ceremony at 3M Arena at Mariucci. 

UNIVERSITY & DEPARTMENT

The University of Minnesota’s Crookston, Duluth, and Rochester campuses have been awarded the Carnegie Elective Classification for Community Engagement, joining the Twin Cities (2006, 2015) and Morris campuses (2015), and making the U of M the country’s first and only university system at which every individual campus has received this selective designation. Only 368 from nearly 4,000 qualifying U.S. universities and colleges have been granted this designation.

CEGE contributed strongly to the College of Science and Engineering’s efforts toward sustainability research. CEGE researchers are bringing in over $35 million in funded research to study carbon mineralization, nature and urban areas, circularity of water resources, and global snowfall patterns. This news was highlighted in the Fall 2023 issue of  Inventing Tomorrow  (pages 10-11). https://issuu.com/inventingtomorrow/docs/fall_2023_inventing_tomorrow-web

CEGE’s new program for a one-year master’s degree in structural engineering is now accepting applicants for Fall 2024. We owe a big thanks to DAN MURPHY and LAURA AMUNDSON for their volunteer work to help curate the program with Professor JIA-LIANG LE and EBRAHIM SHEMSHADIAN, the program director. Potential students and companies interested in hosting a summer intern can contact Ebrahim Shemshadian ( [email protected] ).

BERNIE BULLERT , CEGE benefactor and MN Water Research Fund founder, was profiled on the website of the University of Minnesota Foundation (UMF). There you can read more about his mission to share clean water technologies with smaller communities in Minnesota. Many have joined Bullert in this mission. MWRF Recognizes their Generous 2024 Partners. Gold Partners: Bernie Bullert, Hawkins, Inc., Minnesota Department of Health, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, and SL-serco. Silver Partners: ISG, Karl and Pam Streed, Kasco, Kelly Lange-Haider and Mark Haider, ME Simpson, Naeem Qureshi, Dr. Paul H. Boening, TKDA, and Waterous. Bronze Partners: Bruce R. Bullert; Brenda Lenz, Ph.D., APRN FNP-C, CNE; CDM Smith; Central States Water Environment Association (CSWEA MN); Heidi and Steve Hamilton; Jim “Bulldog” Sadler; Lisa and Del Cerney; Magney Construction; Sambatek; Shannon and John Wolkerstorfer; Stantec; and Tenon Systems.

After retiring from Baker-Tilly,  NICK DRAGISICH  (BCE 1977) has taken on a new role: City Council member in Lake Elmo, Minnesota. After earning his BCE from the University of Minnesota, Dragisich earned a master’s degree in business administration from the University of St. Thomas. Dragisich retired in May from his position as managing director at Baker Tilly, where he had previously served as firm director. Prior to that, he served as assistant city manager in Spokane, Washington, was the city administrator and city engineer in Virginia, Minnesota, and was mayor of Chisholm, Minnesota—all adding up to more than 40 years of experience in local government. Dragisich was selected by a unanimous vote. His current term expires in December 2024.

PAUL F. GNIRK  (Ph.D. 1966) passed away January 29, 2024, at the age of 86. A memorial service was held Saturday, February 24, at the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology (SDSM&T), where he started and ended his teaching career, though he had many other positions, professional and voluntary. In 2018 Paul was inducted into the SDSM&T Hardrocker Hall of Fame, and in 2022, he was inducted into the South Dakota Hall of Fame, joining his mother Adeline S. Gnirk, who had been inducted in 1987 for her work authoring nine books on the history of south central South Dakota.

ROGER M. HILL  (BCE 1957) passed away on January 13, 2024, at the age of 90. His daughter, Kelly Robinson, wrote to CEGE that Roger was “a dedicated Gopher fan until the end, and we enjoyed many football games together in recent years. Thank you for everything.”

KAUSER JAHAN  (Ph.D. 1993, advised by Walter Maier), PE, is now a civil and environmental engineering professor and department head at Henry M. Rowan College of Engineering. Jahan was awarded a 3-year (2022- 2025), $500,000 grant from the U.S. Department of Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). The grant supports her project, “WaterWorks: Developing the New Generation of Workforce for Water/Wastewater Utilities,” for the development of educational tools that will expose and prepare today’s students for careers in water and wastewater utilities.

SAURA JOST  (BCE 2010, advised by Timothy LaPara) was elected to the St. Paul City Council for Ward 3. She is part of the historic group of women that make up the nation’s first all-female city council in a large city.

The 2024 ASCE Western Great Lakes Student Symposium combines several competitions for students involved in ASCE. CEGE sent a large contingent of competitors to Chicago. Each of the competition groups won awards: Ethics Paper 1st place Hans Lagerquist; Sustainable Solutions team 1st place overall in (qualifying them for the National competition in Utah in June); GeoWall 2nd place overall; Men’s Sprint for Concrete Canoe with rowers Sakthi Sundaram Saravanan and Owen McDonald 2nd place; Product Prototype for Concrete Canoe 2nd place; Steel Bridge (200 lb bridge weight) 2nd place in lightness; Scavenger Hunt 3rd place; and Aesthetics and Structural Efficiency for Steel Bridge 4th place.

Students competing on the Minnesota Environmental Engineers, Scientists, and Enthusiasts (MEESE) team earned second place in the Conference on the Environment undergraduate student design competition in November 2023. Erin Surdo is the MEESE Faculty Adviser. Pictured are NIKO DESHPANDE, ANNA RETTLER, and SYDNEY OLSON.

The CEGE CLASS OF 2023 raised money to help reduce the financial barrier for fellow students taking the Fundamentals of Engineering exam, a cost of $175 per test taker. As a result of this gift, they were able to make the exam more affordable for 15 current CEGE seniors. CEGE students who take the FE exam pass the first time at a rate well above national averages, demonstrating that CEGE does a great job of teaching engineering fundamentals. In 2023, 46 of 50 students passed the challenging exam on the first try.

This winter break, four CEGE students joined 10 other students from the College of Science and Engineering for the global seminar, Design for Life: Water in Tanzania. The students visited numerous sites in Tanzania, collected water source samples, designed rural water systems, and went on safari. Read the trip blog: http://globalblogs.cse.umn.edu/search/label/Tanzania%202024

Undergraduate Honor Student  MALIK KHADAR  (advised by Dr. Paul Capel) received honorable mention for the Computing Research Association (CRA) Outstanding Undergraduate Research Award for undergraduate students who show outstanding research potential in an area of computing research.

GRADUATE STUDENTS

AKASH BHAT  (advised by William Arnold) presented his Ph.D. defense on Friday, October 27, 2023. Bhat’s thesis is “Photolysis of fluorochemicals: Tracking fluorine, use of UV-LEDs, and computational insights.” Bhat’s work investigating the degradation of fluorinated compounds will assist in the future design of fluorinated chemicals such that persistent and/or toxic byproducts are not formed in the environment.

ETHAN BOTMEN  (advised by Bill Arnold) completed his Master of Science Final Exam February 28, 2024. His research topic was Degradation of Fluorinated Compounds by Nucleophilic Attack of Organo-fluorine Functional Groups.

XIATING CHEN , Ph.D. Candidate in Water Resources Engineering at the Saint Anthony Falls Laboratory is the recipient of the 2023 Nels Nelson Memorial Fellowship Award. Chen (advised by Xue Feng) is researching eco-hydrological functions of urban trees and other green infrastructure at both the local and watershed scale, through combined field observations and modeling approaches.

ALICE PRATES BISSO DAMBROZ  has been a Visiting Student Researcher at the University of Minnesota since last August, on a Doctoral Dissertation Research Award from Fulbright. Her CEGE advisor is Dr. Paul Capel. Dambroz is a fourth year Ph.D. student in Soil Science at Universidade Federal de Santa Maria in Brazil, where she studies with her adviser Jean Minella. Her research focuses on the hydrological monitoring of a small agricultural watershed in Southern Brazil, which is located on a transition area between volcanic and sedimentary rocks. Its topography, shallow soils, and land use make it prone to runoff and erosion processes.

Yielding to people in crosswalks should be a very pedestrian topic. Yet graduate student researchers  TIANYI LI, JOSHUA KLAVINS, TE XU, NIAZ MAHMUD ZAFRI  (Dept.of Urban and Regional Planning at Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology), and Professor Raphael Stern found that drivers often do not yield to pedestrians, but they are influenced by the markings around a crosswalk. Their work was picked up by the  Minnesota Reformer.

TIANYI LI  (Ph.D. student advised by Raphael Stern) also won the Dwight David Eisenhower Transportation (DDET) Fellowship for the third time! Li (center) and Stern (right) are pictured at the Federal Highway Administration with Latoya Jones, the program manager for the DDET Fellowship.

The Three Minute Thesis Contest and the Minnesota Nice trophy has become an annual tradition in CEGE. 2023’s winner was  EHSANUR RAHMAN , a Ph.D. student advised by Boya Xiong.

GUANJU (WILLIAM) WEI , a Ph.D. student advised by Judy Yang, is the recipient of the 2023 Heinz G. Stefan Fellowship. He presented his research entitled Microfluidic Investigation of the Biofilm Growth under Dynamic Fluid Environments and received his award at the St. Anthony Falls Research Laboratory April 9. The results of Wei's research can be used in industrial, medical, and scientific fields to control biofilm growth.

BILL ARNOLD  stars in an award-winning video about prairie potholes. The Prairie Potholes Project film was made with the University of Delaware and highlights Arnold’s NSF research. The official winners of the 2024 Environmental Communications Awards Competition Grand Prize are Jon Cox and Ben Hemmings who produced and directed the film. Graduate student Marcia Pacheco (CFANS/LAAS) and Bill Arnold are the on-screen stars.

Four faculty from CEGE join the Center for Transportation Studies Faculty and Research Scholars for FY24–25:  SEONGJIN CHOI, KETSON ROBERTO MAXIMIANO DOS SANTOS, PEDRAM MORTAZAVI,  and  BENJAMIN WORSFOLD . CTS Scholars are drawn from diverse fields including engineering, planning, computer science, environmental studies, and public policy.

XUE FENG  is coauthor on an article in  Nature Reviews Earth and Environment . The authors evaluate global plant responses to changing rainfall regimes that are now characterized by fewer and larger rainfall events. A news release written at Univ. of Maryland can be found here: https://webhost.essic. umd.edu/april-showers-bring-mayflowers- but-with-drizzles-or-downpours/ A long-running series of U of M research projects aimed at improving stormwater quality are beginning to see practical application by stormwater specialists from the Twin Cities metro area and beyond. JOHN GULLIVER has been studying best practices for stormwater management for about 16 years. Lately, he has focused specifically on mitigating phosphorous contamination. His research was highlighted by the Center for Transportation Studies.

JIAQI LI, BILL ARNOLD,  and  RAYMOND HOZALSKI  published a paper on N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) precursors in Minnesota rivers. “Animal Feedlots and Domestic Wastewater Discharges are Likely Sources of N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) Precursors in Midwestern Watersheds,” Environmental Science and Technology (January 2024) doi: 10.1021/acs. est.3c09251

ALIREZA KHANI  contributed to MnDOT research on Optimizing Charging Infrastructure for Electric Trucks. Electric options for medium- and heavy-duty electric trucks (e-trucks) are still largely in development. These trucks account for a substantial percentage of transportation greenhouse gas emissions. They have greater power needs and different charging needs than personal EVs. Proactively planning for e-truck charging stations will support MnDOT in helping to achieve the state’s greenhouse gas reduction goals. This research was featured in the webinar “Electrification of the Freight System in Minnesota,” hosted by the University of Minnesota’s Center for Transportation Studies. A recording of the event is now available online.

MICHAEL LEVIN  has developed a unique course for CEGE students on Air Transportation Systems. It is the only class at UMN studying air transportation systems from an infrastructure design and management perspective. Spring 2024 saw the third offering of this course, which is offered for juniors, seniors, and graduate students.

Research Professor  SOFIA (SONIA) MOGILEVSKAYA  has been developing international connections. She visited the University of Seville, Spain, November 13–26, 2023, where she taught a short course titled “Fundamentals of Homogenization in Composites.” She also met with the graduate students to discuss collaborative research with Prof. Vladislav Mantic, from the Group of Continuum Mechanics and Structural Analysis at the University of Seville. Her visit was a part of planned activities within the DIAGONAL Consortium funded by the European Commission. CEGE UMN is a partner organization within DIAGONAL, represented by CEGE professors Mogilevskaya and Joseph Labuz. Mantic will visit CEGE summer 2024 to follow up on research developments and discuss plans for future collaboration and organization of short-term exchange visits for the graduate students from each institution. 

DAVID NEWCOMB  passed away in March. He was a professor in CEGE from 1989–99 in the area of pavement engineering. Newcomb led the research program on asphalt materials characterization. He was the technical director of Mn/ROAD pavement research facility, and he started an enduring collaboration with MnDOT that continues today. In 2000, he moved from Minnesota to become vice-president for Research and Technology at the National Asphalt Pavement Association. Later he moved to his native Texas, where he was appointed to the division head of Materials and Pavement at the Texas A&M Transportation Institute, a position from which he recently retired. He will be greatly missed.

PAIGE NOVAK  won Minnesota ASCE’s 2023 Distinguished Engineer of the Year Award for her contributions to society through her engineering achievements and professional experiences.

The National Science Foundation (NSF) announced ten inaugural (NSF) Regional Innovation Engines awards, with a potential $1.6 billion investment nationally over the next decade. Great Lakes ReNEW is led by the Chicago-based water innovation hub,  Current,  and includes a team from the University of Minnesota, including PAIGE NOVAK. Current will receive $15 mil for the first two years, and up to $160 million over ten years to develop and grow a water-focused innovation engine in the Great Lakes region. The project’s ambitious plan is to create a decarbonized circular “blue economy” to leverage the region’s extraordinary water resources to transform the upper Midwest—Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin. Brewing one pint of beer generates seven pints of wastewater, on average. So what can you do with that wastewater?  PAIGE NOVAK  and her team are exploring the possibilities of capturing pollutants in wastewater and using bacteria to transform them into energy.

BOYA XIONG  has been selected as a recipient of the 2024 40 Under 40 Recognition Program by the American Academy of Environmental Engineers and Scientists. The award was presented at the 2024 AAEES Awards Ceremony, April 11, 2024, at the historic Howard University in Washington, D.C. 

JUDY Q. YANG  received a McKnight Land-Grant Professorship Award. This two-year award recognizes promising assistant professors and is intended to advance the careers of individuals who have the potential to make significant contributions to their departments and their scholarly fields. 

Professor Emeritus CHARLES FAIRHURST , his son CHARLES EDWARD FAIRHURST , and his daughter MARGARET FAIRHURST DURENBERGER were on campus recently to present Department Head Paige Novak with a check for $25,000 for the Charles Fairhurst Fellowship in Earth Resources Engineering in support of graduate students studying geomechanics. The life of Charles Fairhurst through a discussion with his children is featured on the Engineering and Technology History Wiki at https://ethw.org/Oral-History:Charles_Fairhurst#00:00:14_INTRODUCTION

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