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Physical Education and Exercise Science Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2021 2021.

Warming Up and Cooling Down: Perceptions and Behaviors Associated with Aerobic Exercise , Balea J. Schumacher

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

An Examination of Changes in Muscle Thickness, Isometric Strength, and Body Water Throughout the Menstrual Cycle , Tayla E. Kuehne

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Psychological Responses to High-Intensity Interval Training Exercise: A Comparison of Ungraded Running and Graded Walking , Abby Fleming

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Effects of Music Choice on Perceptual and Physiological Responses to Treadmill Exercise , Taylor A. Shimshock

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

The Effect of Exercise Order on Body Fat Loss During Concurrent Training , Tonya Lee Davis-Miller

Anti-Fat Attitudes and Weight Bias Internalization: An Investigation of How BMI Impacts Perceptions, Opinions and Attitudes , Laurie Schrider

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

The Effect of Music Cadence on Step Frequency in the Recreational Runner , Micaela A. Galosky

The Hypertrophic Effects of Practical Vascular Blood Flow Restriction Training , John Francis O'halloran

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

The Effects of Exercise Modality on State Body Image , Elizabeth Anne Hubbard

Perceptual Responses to High-Intensity Interval Training in Overweight and Sedentary Individuals , Nicholas Martinez

Comparisons of acute neuromuscular fatigue and recovery after maximal effort strength training using powerlifts , Nicholas Todd Theilen

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

The Impact of Continuous and Discontinuous Cycle Exercise on Affect: An Examination of the Dual-Mode Model , Sam Greeley

Systematic review of core muscle electromyographic activity during physical fitness exercises , Jason Martuscello

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

The Effect of Unexpected Exercise Duration on Rating of Perceived Exertion in an Untrained, Sedentary Population , Lisa M. Giblin

The Effect of Various Carbohydrate Supplements on Postprandial Blood Glucose Response in Female Soccer Players , Nina Pannoni

Middle School Physical Education Programs: A Comparison of Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity in Sports Game Play , Marcia Ann Patience

The Effects of Pre-Exercise Carbohydrate Supplementation on Resistance Training Performance During an Acute Resistance Training Session , Kelly Raposo

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

Effects of Fat-Free and 2% Chocolate Milk on Strength and Body Composition Following Resistance Training , Ashley T. Forsyth

Relationship Between Muscular Strength Testing to Dynamic Muscular Performance in Division One American Football Players , Johnathan Fuentes

Effects of Ingesting Fat Free and Low Fat Chocolate Milk After Resistance Training on Exercise Performance , Breanna Myers

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

Effects of a Commercially Available Energy Drink on Anaerobic Performance , Jason J. Downing

The Impact of Wearable Weights on the Cardiovascular and Metabolic Responses to Treadmill Walking , Kristine M. Fallon

Six Fifth Grade Students Experiences Participating in Active Gaming during Physical Eduction Classes , Lisa Witherspoon Hansen

The impact of wearable weights on perceptual responses to treadmill walking , Ashley T. Kuczynski

The Preference of Protein Powders Among Adult Males and Females: A Protein Powder Taste Study , Joshua Manter

Caloric Expenditure and Substrate Utilization in Underwater Treadmill Running Versus Land-Based Treadmill Running , Courtney Schaal

Theses/Dissertations from 2008 2008

A Survey of NCAA Division 1 Strength and Conditioning Coaches- Characteristics and Opinions , Jeremy Powers

Theses/Dissertations from 2007 2007

Perceptions of group exercise participants based on body type, appearance and attractiveness of the instructor , Jennifer Mears

Theses/Dissertations from 2006 2006

Be active! An examination of social support's role in individual vs. team competition in worksite health promotion , Lauren Kriz

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Effects of a Physical Education Program on Physical Activity and Emotional Well-Being among Primary School Children

Irina kliziene.

1 Educational Research Group, Institute of Social Science and Humanity, Kaunas University of Technology, Kaunas 44249, Lithuania

Ginas Cizauskas

2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Design, Kaunas University of Technology, Kaunas 51424, Lithuania; [email protected]

Saule Sipaviciene

3 Department of Applied Biology and Rehabilitation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas 44221, Lithuania; [email protected]

Roma Aleksandraviciene

4 Department of Coaching Science, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas 44221, Lithuania or moc.liamg@ednargallenamor (R.A.); [email protected] (K.Z.)

5 Sports Centre, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas 51211, Lithuania

Kristina Zaicenkoviene

Associated data.

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

(1) Background: It has been identified that schools that adopt at least two hours a week of physical education and plan specific contents and activities can achieve development goals related to physical level, such as promoting health, well-being, and healthy lifestyles, on a personal level, including bodily awareness and confidence in physical skills, as well as a general sense of well-being, greater security and self-esteem, sense of responsibility, patience, courage, and mental balance. The purpose of this study was to establish the effect of physical education programs on the physical activity and emotional well-being of primary school children. (2) Methods: The experimental group comprised 45 girls and 44 boys aged 6–7 years (First Grade) and 48 girls and 46 boys aged 8–9 years (Second Grade), while the control group comprised 43 girls and 46 boys aged 6–7 years (First Grade) and 47 girls and 45 boys aged 8–9 years (Second Grade). All children attended the same school. The Children’s Physical Activity Questionnaire was used, which is based on the Children’s Leisure Activities Study Survey questionnaire, which includes activities specific to young children (e.g., “playing in a playhouse”). Emotional well-being status was explored by estimating three main dimensions: somatic anxiety, personality anxiety, and social anxiety. The Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) was used. (3) Results: When analysing the pre-test results of physical activity of the 6–7- and 8–9-year-old children, it turned out that both the First Grade (92.15 MET, min/week) and Second Grade (97.50 MET, min/week) participants in the experimental group were physically active during physical education lessons. When exploring the results of somatic anxiety in EG (4.95 ± 1.10 points), both before and after the experiment, we established that somatic anxiety in EG was 4.55 ± 1.00 points after the intervention program, demonstrating lower levels of depression, seclusion, somatic complaints, aggression, and delinquent behaviours (F = 4.785, p < 0.05, P = 0.540). (4) Conclusions: We established that the properly constructed and purposefully applied eight-month physical education program had positive effects on the physical activity and emotional well-being of primary school children (6–7 and 8–9 years) in three main dimensions: somatic anxiety, personality anxiety, and social anxiety. Our findings suggest that the eight-month physical education program intervention was effective at increasing levels of physical activity. Changes in these activities may require more intensive behavioural interventions with children or upstream interventions at the family and societal levels, as well as at the school environment level. These findings have relevance for researchers, policy makers, public health practitioners, and doctors who are involved in health promotion, policy making, and commissioning services.

1. Introduction

Teaching in physical education has evolved rapidly over the last 50 years, with a spectrum of teaching styles [ 1 ], teaching models [ 2 ], curricular models [ 3 ], instruction models [ 4 ], current pedagogical models [ 5 , 6 ], and physical educational programs [ 7 ]. As schools provide benefits other than academic and conceptual skills at present, we can determine new ways to meet different goals through a variety of methodologies assessing contents from a multidisciplinary perspective. Education regarding these skills should also be engaged following a non-traditional methodology in order to overcome the lack of resources in traditional approaches and for teachers to meet their required goals [ 8 ].

Schools are considered an important setting to influence the physical activity of children, given the amount of time spent at school and the potential for schools to reach large numbers of children. Schools may be a barrier for interventions to promote physical activity (PA). Children are required to sit quietly for the majority of the day in order to receive academic lessons. A typical school day is represented by approximately 6 h, which may be extended by 30 min or longer if the child is provided motorized transportation and does not actively commute to and from school. Donnelly et al. [ 9 ] found that teachers who modelled PA by active participation in physical activity across the curriculum (i.e., promoted 90 min/week of moderate to vigorous physically active academic lessons; 3.0 to 6.0 METs, ∼10 min each) had greater SOFIT (a Likert scale from one to five, anchored with lying down for one and very active for five) scores shown by their students, compared to primary students with teachers using a lower level of modelling. Some studies have proposed the use of prediction models of METs for children, including accelerometer data. In such models, the slope and intercept of ambulatory activities (e.g., walking and running) differ from those of non-ambulatory activities, such as ball-tossing, aerobic dance, and playing with blocks [ 10 , 11 ]. Wood and Hall [ 12 ] found that children aged 8–9 years engaged in significantly higher moderate to vigorous physical activities during team games (e.g., football), compared to movement activities in PE lessons (e.g., dance).

It has been identified that schools which adopt two hours a week of PE and plan specific contents and activities to achieve development goals at the physical level can promote health, well-being, and healthy lifestyles on a personal level, including bodily awareness and confidence in one’s physical skills, as well as a general sense of well-being, greater security and self-esteem, sense of responsibility, patience, courage, and mental balance at the social level, including integration within society, a sense of solidarity, social interactions, team spirit, fair play, and respect for rules and for others, as well as wider human and environmental values [ 13 , 14 ]. Physical activity programs have been identified as potential strategies for improving social and emotional well-being in at-risk youth [ 15 ]. Emotional well-being permeates all aspects of the experience of children and has emerged as an essential element of mental health and reduction of anxiety, as well as a core component of health in general. Schools have a strong effect on children’s emotional development, and as they are an ideal environment to foster children’s emotional learning and well-being, failing to optimize the opportunity to do so could impact communities in negative ways [ 16 , 17 ]. Physical activity and exercise have positive effects on mood and anxiety, and a great number of studies have described the associations between physical activity and general well-being, mood, and anxiety [ 18 ]. Physical inactivity may also be associated with the development of mental disorders: some clinical and epidemiological studies have shown associations between physical activity and symptoms of depression and anxiety in cross-sectional and prospective longitudinal studies [ 19 ]. Low physical activity levels have also been associated with an increased prevalence of anxiety [ 20 ]. Levels of physical activity lower than those recommended by the World Health Organization are classified as a lack of physical activity or physical inactivity. Current guidelines on physical activity for children and adolescents aged 5–17 years generally recommend at least 60 min daily of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activities [ 21 ].

Therefore, we formulated the following research hypothesis: The application of a physical education program can have a positive impact on the physical activity and emotional well-being among primary school students.

The purpose of this study was to establish the effect of a physical education program on the physical activity and emotional well-being of primary school children.

Novelty of the work: For the first time, PE curriculum has been developed for second grade children, a new approach to physical education methodology. For the first time, anxiety is measured between first and second grades. Physical education has been a part of school curriculums for many years, but, due to childhood obesity, focus has increased on the role that schools play in physical activity and monitoring physical fitness [ 22 , 23 ].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. participants.

The schools utilized in this study were randomly chosen from primary schools in Lithuania. Four schools were chosen from different areas of Lithuania, which are typical of the Lithuanian education system (i.e., the state system), exercising in accordance with the description of primary, basic, and secondary education programs approved by the Lithuanian Minister of Education and Science in 2015. It ought to be noted that these schools structured classes without applying selection criteria; accordingly, it very well may be said that the students in the randomly chosen classes were additionally randomly allocated to the experimental and control groups. A non-probabilistic accurate sample was utilized in the study, where subjects were incorporated relying upon the objectives of the study.

The time and place of the study, with the consent of the guardians, were settled upon ahead of time with the school administration. This study was approved by the research ethics committee of the Kaunas University of Technology, Institute of Social Science and Humanity (Protocol No V19-1253-03).

The experimental group included 45 young women and 44 young men aged 6–7 years (First Grade) and 48 young women and 46 young men aged 8–9 years (Second Grade). The control group included 43 young women and 46 young men aged 6–7 (First Grade) and 47 young women and 45 young men aged 8–9 years (Second Grade). All children went to a same school.

2.2. Instruments

2.2.1. the evaluation of physical activity.

The Children’s Physical Activity Questionnaire [ 24 ] was utilized, which is based on the Children’s Leisure Activities Study Survey (CLASS) questionnaire, which includes activities explicit to small children, such as “playing in a playhouse.” The original intent of the proxy-reported CLASS questionnaire for 6–9 year olds was to evaluate the type, recurrence, and intensity of physical activity over a standard week [ 24 ].

2.2.2. The Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale

Enthusiastic well-being status was investigated by estimating three principal dimensions: somatic anxiety, personality anxiety, and social anxiety. The Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) contains 37 items with 28 items used to measure anxiety and an additional 9 items that present an index of the child’s level of defensiveness. We were only concerned with the factor analysis of anxiety; along these lines, only those 28 items used to gauge anxiety were utilized. The RCMAS comprises three factors: (1) somatic anxiety, consisting of 12 items; (2) personality anxiety, consisting of 8 items; and (3) social anxiety, consisting of 8 items [ 25 ].

The outcomes were estimated as follows: (1) physical anxiety (more than or equal to 6.0 points—high somatic level, from 5.9 to 4.5 points—typical somatic level, and from 4.4 to 1.0 points—low somatic level); (2) personality anxiety (from 2.0 to 2.5 points—low personality anxiety level, from 2.6 to 3.5 points—typical personality anxiety level, and from 3.6 to 4.5 points—high personality anxiety level); and (3) social anxiety (more than or equal to 5.5 points—high social anxiety level, from 5.4 to 4.5 points—typical social anxiety level, and from 4.4 to 3.3 points—low social anxiety level). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the subscales ranged from 0.72 to 0.73.

2.3. Procedure

In this study, a pre-/mid-/post-test experimental methodology was utilized, in order to avoid any interruption of educational activities, due to the random selection of children in each group. The experimental group (First and Second Grades) was trialled for eight months. The technique for the physical education program was developed, and a model of educational factors that encourage physical activity for children was constructed.

Likewise, the methodical material for the physical education program [ 7 , 24 ] was prepared. The methodology depended on the dynamic exercise, intense motor skills repetition, differentiation, seating and parking reduction, and the physical activity distribution in the classroom (DIDSFA) model [ 26 , 27 ] ( Table 1 ).

Dynamic exercise, intense motor skills reiteration, differentiation, seating and parking reduction, and physical activity distribution in the classroom (DIDSFA) model—expanding dynamic learning time in primary physical education.

A physical education program was designed in order to advance physical activity to a significant degree, show development skills, and be agreeable. The suggested recurrence of physical education classes was three days out of the week. A typical DIDSFA First Grade model exercise lasted 30 min and had three sections: health fitness activities (10 min), ability fitness activities (15 min), and unwinding, focus, and reflection (5 min). The Second Grade model exercise lasted 45 min and comprised four sections: health fitness activities (20 min), ability fitness activities (20 min), and unwinding, focus, and reflection (5 min). Ten health-related activity units were designed, including aerobic dance, aerobic games, strolling/running, and jump-rope. The movements were developed by changing the intensity, length, and intricacy of the activities.

Although our primary focus was creating cardiovascular stamina, brief activities to develop stomach and chest strength, as well as movement skills, were incorporated. To improve motivation, children self-estimated and recorded their fitness levels from month to month. Four game units which developed ability-related fitness were incorporated (basketball, football, gymnastics, and athletics), and details of healthy lifestyles and unconventional physical activities were introduced. These sports and games had the potential for advancing cardiovascular fitness and speculation in the child’s community (e.g., fun transfers); unwinding, focus, and reflection improving with regular exercise; and valuable impacts for meditation or unwinding, namely through children’s yoga ( Table 2 ).

Physical education program (First and Second Grades).

During the study, physical education activities were taught through physical schooling, by preparing a textbook comprising two interrelated parts: (a) a textbook and (b) children’s notes. The textbooks were filled with logical tasks, self-evaluation, and activities relating to spatial perception and self-improvement. The methodological devices provide strategies for practicing with textbooks. The physical education pack considers a “natural” kind of integration and dynamic learning, building awareness, encouraging sensitivity to nature, and supporting healthy styles of living. The physical education pack takes into consideration a “natural” kind of integration and dynamic learning, building awareness, encouraging sensitivity to nature, and supporting healthy styles of living. The instructor’s manual has a unified structure, which makes it simple to utilize. Its proposals and advice are clear. The advanced version helps educators in their planning and execution activities.

The material seriously assesses intercultural mindfulness and sensitivity. The gender description is balanced; the two personalities highlighted in the textbook support this methodology. Vaquero-Solís et al. found that mixed procedures in their interventions, executed using a new methodology, greatly affected the participants [ 30 ]. Once each month, the standard methodology was applied, during which the change from hypothesis to practice was continuous. During the first exercise of the month, the material in the textbook was analysed for the future, and undertakings for the month were presented. The hypothesis was set up during practical sessions. During the hypothetical exercises, the children additionally had the chance to move around, practising the physical tasks given in the textbook. During the last exercise of the month, the tasks introduced in the textbook were performed; the activities of the month were rehashed, recalled, summed up, and assessed; and the assignment of children’s notes were performed. Children from the control group attended unmodified physical education exercises.

2.4. Data Analysis

Graphic statistics are presented for all methodical factors as the mean ± SD. The impact size of the Mann–Whitney U test was determined using the equation r = Z / N , where Z is the z-score and N is the total size of the sample (small: 0.1; medium: 0.3; large: 0.5). Statistical significance was defined as p ≤ 0.05 for all analyses. Analyses were carried out by utilizing the SPSS 23 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

3.1. Physical Activity of 6–7- and 8–9-Year-Old Children in the Experimental Group

Analysing the physical activity pre-test results of the 6–7- and 8–9-year-old children, it turned out that both the First Grade (92.15 MET, min/week) and Second Grade (97.50 MET, min/week) children in the experimental group were physically active during physical education lessons. The analysis of physical activity types, such as cycling to school, showed no differences in age, according to the MET; however, there were differences in walking to school—First Grade (15.98 MET, min/week) and Second Grade (23.50 MET, min/week)—in terms of age, according to the MET. In the context of average physical activity, a higher indicator (805.95 MET, min/week) was detected in the First Grade of the experimental group, in comparison with the Second Grade (1072.12 MET, min/week). Statistically significant differences were found in average MET for the First Grade (931.60 MET, min/week), in comparison with the Second Grade (1211.55 MET, min/week; p < 0.05, Table 3 ). The post-test of the First Grade (115.83 MET, min/week) experimental group was carried out to analyse average physical activity, in comparison with the Second Grade experimental group (130.01 MET, min/week), during physical education lessons. In the post-test, walking to school—First Grade (16.07 MET, min/week) and Second Grade (30.37 MET, min/week)—showed differences in age, according to the MET. Statistically significant differences were found during the analysis of average MET for the First Grade (1108.41 MET, min/week), in comparison with the Second Grade (1453.62 MET, min/week; p < 0.05, Table 3 ). We found a statistically significant difference between experimental and control groups ( p < 0.05) and between pre- and post-test.

Physical activity levels determined using the MET method.

Note. *, p < 0.05 (according to the Mann–Whitney U test) between physical activity types; # , p < 0.05 (according to the Mann–Whitney U test) between experimental and control groups; $ , p < 0.05 (according to the Mann–Whitney U test) between First and Second Grades; § , p < 0.05 (according to the Mann–Whitney U test) between pre-test and post-test.

3.2. Physical Activity of 6–7- and 8–9-Year-Old Children in the Control Group

Analysing the results considering the physical activity of 6–7- and 8–9-year-old children, it turned out that in the control group, both the First Grade (91.68 MET, min/week) and Second Grade (95.87 MET, min/week) children were physically active in physical education lessons during the pre-test. The analysis of physical activity types, such as cycling to school, found no differences in age, according to the MET. We found that walking to school—First Grade (0.00 MET, min/week) and Second Grade (22.15 MET, min/week—showed differences in age, according to the MET. Statistically significant differences were found during the analysis of average MET for the First Grade in the control group (906.40 MET, min/week), compared to the Second Grade (1105.71 MET, min/week; p < 0.05, Table 4 ). The post-test results for the First Grade of the control group (98.10 MET, min/week) were determined by the analysis of average physical activity, in comparison with the Second Grade children of the same group (105.70 MET, min/week), when doing physical education lessons. Statistically significant differences were found in average MET for the First Grade (995.66 MET, min/week), in comparison with the Second Grade (1211.70 MET, min/week; p < 0.05, Table 4 ).

The physical activity level using the MET method (the pre-test/post-test results of the control group).

The study performed at the beginning of the experiment showed that in the pre-test, the level of somatic anxiety of the primary school children in the CG was average (4.95 ± 1.10 points). When exploring the results of the somatic anxiety in the EG (4.95 ± 1.10 points) before and after the experiment, after the intervention programme, somatic anxiety in the EG was 4.55 ± 1.00 points, indicating lower levels of depression, seclusion, somatic complaints, aggression, and delinquent behaviours (F = 4.785, p < 0.05, P = 0.540; Figure 1 a).

Pre- and post-test levels of somatic anxiety ( a ), personality anxiety ( b ), and social anxiety ( c ) in primary school children. # , p < 0.05 between experimental and control groups; $ , p < 0.05 between First and Second Grades; *, p < 0.05 between pre- and post-test.

3.3. Anxiety of 6–7-Year-Old Children (First Grade)

When dealing with the personality anxiety results, we established that in the pre- and post-tests, the results of CG students did not statistically significantly differ (3.63 ± 0.80 points and 3.48 ± 0.50 points, respectively; F = 0.139, p > 0.05, P = 0.041). When analysing EG personality anxiety results in the pre- and post-tests, after the intervention programme, the EG personality anxiety results significantly decreased (3.55 ± 1.10 points and 2.78 ± 0.90 points, respectively; F = 5.195, p < 0.05, P = 0.549; Figure 1 b).

In the pre-test, the level of social anxiety in the CG was 6.15 ± 1.30 points. The post-test CG result was statistically significantly lower (5.18 ± 1.20 points; F = 4.75, p < 0.05, P = 0.752). When analysing the levels of the social anxiety of the EG, pre- and post-test results decreased after the intervention programme (6.32 ± 1.10 points and 4.25 ± 1.40 points, respectively) and significantly differed (F = 8.029, p < 0.05, P = 0.673; Figure 1 c).

3.4. Anxiety of 8–9-Year-Old Children (Second Grade)

The research performed at the beginning of the experiment showed that in the pre-test, the level of somatic anxiety of the adolescents in the CG was average (4.63 ± 1.10 points). When exploring the somatic anxiety results in the EG (4.50 ± 0.90 points) before the experiment and after it, a decrease in somatic anxiety in the EG was established (4.10 ± 0.75 points), indicating lower levels of depression, seclusion, somatic complaints, aggression, and delinquent behaviours (F = 4.482, p < 0.05, P = 0.610; Figure 1 a).

When dealing with the personality anxiety results, we established that in the pre- and post-test, the results of CG students were not statistically significantly different (3.10 ± 0.85 points and 2.86 ± 0.67 points, respectively; F = 0.127, p > 0.05, P = 0.057). When analysing the pre- and post-test EG personality anxiety results, after the intervention programme, the EG personality anxiety results decreased (2.93 ± 0.93 points vs. 2.51 ± 1.00 points, respectively; F = 6.498, p < 0.05, P = 0.758; Figure 1 b).

In the pre-test, the level of social anxiety in the CG was 4.55 ± 1.30 points. The post-test CG result was statistically significantly lower (3.70 ± 1.40 points; F = 4.218, p < 0.05, P = 0.652). When analysing the levels of social anxiety in the EG, pre- and post-test results decreased after the intervention programme (4.65 ± 1.15 points and 3.01 ± 1.50 points, respectively) and were significantly different (F = 8.021, p < 0.05, P = 0.798; Figure 1 c).

4. Discussion

The outcomes of this study showed that the proposed procedure for a physical education program and educational model encouraging physical activity in children had an impact on three primary dimensions—somatic anxiety, personality anxiety, and social anxiety—for children aged 6–7 and 8–9 years. The procedure depended on dynamic exercise, intense motor skills reiteration, differentiation, seating and parking reduction, and physical activity dissemination in the classroom model. Following eight months of applying this study’s physical education program, anxiety decreased in the children. Schools provide an opportune site for addressing PA promotion in children. With children spending a substantial number of their waking hours during the week at school, increased opportunities for PA are needed, especially considering trends toward decreased frequency of physical education in schools [ 31 , 32 ]. Considering physical education curricula, Chen et al. [ 29 ] described the following:

• Aerobic activities: Most daily activities should be moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic activities, such as bicycling, playing sports and active games, and brisk walking.
• Strength training: The program should include muscle-strengthening activities at least three days a week, such as performing calisthenics, weight-bearing activities, and weight training.
• Bone strengthening: Bone-strengthening activities should also be included at least three days a week, such as jump-rope, playing tennis or badminton, and engaging in other hopping-type activities.

School-related physical activity interventions may reduce anxiety, increase resilience, improve well-being, and increase positive mental health in children and adolescents [ 33 ]. Increasing activity levels and sports participation among the least active young people should be a target of community- and school-based interventions in order to promote well-being. Frequency of physical activity has been positively correlated with well-being and negatively correlated with both anxiety and depressive symptoms, up to a threshold of moderate frequency of activity. In a multi-level mixed effects model, more frequent physical activity and participation in sport were both found to independently contribute to greater well-being and lower levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms in both sexes [ 34 ]. There does not appear to be an additional benefit to mental health associated with meeting the WHO-recommended levels of activity [ 9 ]. Physical activity interventions have been shown to have a small beneficial effect in reducing anxiety; however, the evidence base is limited. Reviews of physical activity and cognitive functioning have provided evidence that routine physical activity can be associated with improved cognitive performance and academic achievement, but these associations are usually small and inconsistent [ 35 ]. Advances in neuroscience have resulted in substantial progress in linking physical activity to cognitive performance, as well as to brain structure and function [ 36 ]. The executive functions hypothesis proposes that exercise has the potential to induce vascularization and neural growth and alter synaptic transmission in ways that alter thinking, decision making, and behaviour in those regions of the brain tied to executive functions—in particular, the pre-frontal cortices [ 37 , 38 ]. The brain may be particularly sensitive to the effects of physical activity during pre-adolescence, as the neural circuitry of the brain is still developing [ 8 ].

During their school years, about 33% of primary and secondary school students experience the adverse effects of test anxiety [ 39 ]. Anxiety is an aversive motivational state which occurs when the degree of perceived threat is viewed as high [ 40 ]. In the concept of anxiety, a frequently made differentiation is created between trait anxiety, referring to differences in personality dimensions, and state anxiety, alluding to anxiety as a transient mindset state. These two kinds of anxiety hamper performance, particularly during complex and intentionally requested assignments [ 41 ]. Mavilidi et al. [ 42 ] presented a study investigating whether a short episode of physical activity can mitigate test anxiety and improve test execution in 6th grade children (11–12 years). The discoveries of the study by the above authors expressed that, even though test anxiety was not decreased as expected, short physical activity breaks can be utilized before assessments without blocking academic performance [ 43 ].

Physical activity has been associated with physiological, developmental, mental, cognitive, and social health benefits in young people [ 36 ]. While the health benefits of physical activity are well-established, higher levels of physical activity have also been associated with enhanced academic-related outcomes, including cognitive function, classroom behaviour, and academic achievement [ 44 ]. The evidence suggests a decline in physical activity from early childhood [ 45 ]. The physical and psychological benefits of physical activity for children and adolescents include reduced adiposity and cardiometabolic risk factors, as well as improvements in musculoskeletal health and psychological well-being [ 33 , 46 , 47 ]. However, population based-studies have reported that more than half of all children internationally are not meeting the recommended levels of physical activity, with rates of compliance declining with age from the early primary school years [ 9 ]. Therefore, it is imperative to promote physical activity and intervene early in childhood, prior to such a decline in physical activity [ 48 ]. Schools are considered ideal settings for the promotion of children’s physical activity. There are multiple opportunities for children to be physically active over the course of the school week, including during break times, sport, physical education class, and active travel to and from school [ 49 ]. There exists strong evidence of the benefits of physical activity for the mental health of children and adolescents, mainly in terms of depression, anxiety, self-esteem, and cognitive functioning [ 35 ].

Physiological adaptation (e.g., hormonal regulation) of the body during physical exercise can be applied additionally to psychosocial stressors, thus improving mental health [ 48 ]. Subsequently, it has been stated that intense physical activity which improves health-related fitness may be expected to evoke neurobiological changes affecting psychological and academic performance [ 43 ].

The results of this review contribute to knowledge about the multifaceted interactions influencing how physical activity can be enhanced within a school setting, given certain contexts. Evidence has indicated that school-based interventions can be effective in enhancing physical activity, cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, psychosocial outcomes associated with physical activity (e.g., enjoyment), and other markers of health status in children. School- and community-based physical activity interventions, as part of an obesity prevention or treatment programme, can benefit the executive functions of children, specifically those with obesity or who are overweight [ 46 ]. Considering the positive effects of physical activity on health in general, these findings may reinforce school-based initiatives to increase physical activity [ 34 ]. This involves classroom teachers incorporating physical activity into class time, either by integrating physical activity into physically active lessons, or adding short bursts of physical activity with curriculum-focused active breaks [ 50 , 51 ]. It is widely accepted that physical inactivity is an important risk factor for chronic diseases; prevention strategies should begin as early as childhood, as the prevalence of physical inactivity increases even more in adolescence [ 52 ]. A physically active lifestyle begins to form very early in childhood and has a positive tendency to persist throughout life [ 52 ].

We all have an important role to play in increasing children’s physical activity. Schools must promote and influence a healthy environment for children. Most primary school children spend an average of 6–7 h a day at school, which is most of their daytime. A balanced and adapted physical education lesson provides cognitive content and training for developing motor skills and knowledge in the field of physical activity. Our 8-month physical education program can give children the opportunity to increase physical activity and improve emotional well-being, which can encourage children to be physically active throughout life.

5. Conclusions

Low physical activity in children is a major societal problem. The growing number of children with obesity is a concern for doctors and scientists. The focus of our study was to improve emotional well-being and physical activity in children. Since elementary school children spend most of their day at school, physical education lessons are a great tool to increase physical activity. A balanced and adapted physical education lesson can help to draw children’s attention to the health benefits of physical activity. It was established that the properly constructed and purposefully applied 8-month physical education program had an impact on the physical activity and emotional well-being of primary school children (i.e., 6–7 and 8–9 year olds) in three main dimensions: somatic anxiety, personality anxiety, and social anxiety. Our findings suggest that the 8-month physical education program intervention is effective for increasing levels of physical activity. Changes in these activities may require more intensive behavioural interventions in children or upstream interventions at the family and societal level, as well as at the school environment level. These findings have relevance for researchers, policy makers, public health practitioners, and doctors who are involved in health promotion, policy making, and commissioning services.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.K. and S.S.; methodology, I.K.; software, R.A.; validation, G.C.; formal analysis, K.Z.; investigation, K.Z.; resources, I.K.; data curation, G.C.; writing—original draft preparation, I.K.; writing—review and editing, S.S.; visualization, G.C.; supervision, R.A.; project administration, R.A.; funding acquisition, K.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. The time and place of the study, with the consent of the parents of the participants, were agreed upon in advance with the school administration. This study was approved by the research ethics committee of Kaunas University of Technology, Institute of Social Science and Humanity (Protocol No V19-1253-03).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• Open access
• Published: 02 April 2024

The effect of the Sport Education Model in physical education on student learning attitude: a systematic review

• Junlong Zhang 1 ,
• Wensheng Xiao 2 ,
• Kim Geok Soh 1 ,
• Gege Yao 3 ,
• Mohd Ashraff Bin Mohd Anuar 4 ,
• Xiaorong Bai 2 &
• Lixia Bao 1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  949 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Evidence indicates that the Sport Education Model (SEM) has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing students' athletic capabilities and fostering their enthusiasm for sports. Nevertheless, there remains a dearth of comprehensive reviews examining the impact of the SEM on students' attitudes toward physical education learning.

The purpose of this review is to elucidate the influence of the SEM on students' attitudes toward physical education learning.

Employing the preferred reporting items of the Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) statement guidelines, a systematic search of PubMed, SCOPUS, EBSCOhost (SPORTDiscus and CINAHL Plus), and Web of Science databases was conducted in mid-January 2023. A set of keywords associated with the SEM, attitudes toward physical education learning, and students were employed to identify relevant studies. Out of 477 studies, only 13 articles fulfilled all the eligibility criteria and were consequently incorporated into this systematic review. The validated checklist of Downs and Black (1998) was employed for the assessment, and the included studies achieved quality scores ranging from 11 to 13. The ROBINS-I tool was utilized to evaluate the risk of bias in the literature, whereby only one paper exhibited a moderate risk of bias, while the remainder were deemed to have a high risk.

The findings unveiled significant disparities in cognitive aspects ( n  = 8) and affective components ( n  = 12) between the SEM intervention and the Traditional Teaching (TT) comparison. Existing evidence suggests that the majority of scholars concur that the SEM yields significantly superior effects in terms of students' affective and cognitive aspects compared to the TT.

Conclusions

Nonetheless, several issues persist, including a lack of data regarding junior high school students and gender differences, insufficient frequency of weekly interventions, inadequate control of inter-group atmosphere disparities resulting from the same teaching setting, lack of reasonable testing, model fidelity check and consideration for regulating variables, of course, learning content, and unsuitable tools for measuring learning attitudes. In contrast, the SEM proves more effective than the TT in enhancing students' attitudes toward physical learning.

Systematic review registration

( https://inplasy.com/ ) (INPLASY2022100040).

Peer Review reports

Introduction

In recent years, the "student-centered" teaching model, as a more effective alternative to the traditional "teacher-centered" teaching model, has gained increasing attention and recognition from education scholars and departments worldwide [ 1 , 2 ]. Metzler [ 3 ] identified a series of "student-centered" teaching models based on constructivism and social learning theories, each developed for specific course objectives [ 4 , 5 ]. Furthermore, it is widely acknowledged that instructional models are in a constant state of development, involving the generation, testing, refinement, and further testing processes under different educational objectives. These instructional models are designed to enable students to acquire a depth and breadth of knowledge in physical education [ 6 ]. In this regard, a series of instructional models have been identified as effective means to achieve specific objectives. Consequently, numerous studies have established that placing students at the center of the instructional process is the most effective approach [ 7 ], allowing for the assessment of the impact of these models on students' learning in physical education. For instance, Cooperative Learning (CL), rooted in the idea of learning together with others, through others, and for others [ 8 ], aims to promote five essential elements [ 9 ]: interpersonal skills, processing, positive interdependence, promoting interaction, and individual responsibility. The underlying concept of Teaching Game for Understanding (TGFU) involves shifting the focus from technical aspects of gameplay to the context (tactical considerations) through modification of representation and exaggeration [ 4 , 10 ]. Emphasizing placing learners in game situations where tactics, decision-making, and problem-solving are non-negotiable features, despite incorporating skill practice to correct habits or reinforce skills [ 11 ], TGFU is structured around six steps: game, game appreciation, tactical awareness, decision-making, skill execution, and performance. Teaching for Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR), designed by Hellison [ 12 ], aims to cultivate personal and social responsibility in young people through sports activities, defining four major themes: integration, transfer, empowerment, and teacher-student relationships. It revolves around five responsibility goals: respecting the rights and feelings of others, effort (self-motivation), self-direction, caring (helping), and transferring beyond the "gym" [ 13 ]. The SEM comprises six key structural features: season, affiliation, formal competition, culminating events, record-keeping, and festivity. SEM seeks to provide students with authentic, educationally meaningful sporting experiences within the school sports context, aiming to achieve the goal of developing capable, cultured, and enthusiastic individuals [ 14 ]. This suggests a subtle intersection between SEM's developmental goals and enhancing students' learning attitudes (cognitive and emotional), laying the foundation for the selection of teaching model types in this study.

In previous SEM-centered reviews, the focus primarily centered on the model's positive impact on students' personal and social skills [ 15 , 16 ], motor and cognitive development [ 16 ], motivation [ 17 , 18 ], basic needs [ 18 ], prosocial attitudes [ 18 ], and learning outcomes [ 19 ], and it is concluded that the implementation of SEM has a positive effect on improving students' performance in these aspects. While these reviews contribute valuable insights, they exhibit certain limitations, such as a lack of comprehensive exploration of the model's impact on the cognitive and emotional dimensions in the context of school-based physical education. Therefore, our study attempts to bridge this gap by delving into the nuanced intersection between SEM and students' learning attitudes, aiming to provide a more comprehensive understanding of its impact on educational environments.

In the field of education, a focus on practical application and scholarly discourse is crucial and commendable [ 20 , 21 ]. From a practical perspective, research should offer valuable resources for curriculum designers, educators, and policymakers [ 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ]. In theoretical terms, the contribution of research lies in addressing gaps in the literature by elucidating dimensions within physical education that remain insufficiently explored [ 26 ]. Our study is dedicated to significantly impacting physical education teaching through the practical application and scholarly discourse surrounding SEM. By revealing the subtle interactions between SEM and attitudes, we aim to provide valuable curriculum implementation recommendations for designers, practitioners, and policymakers, filling the gaps in how SEM shapes learning attitudes in educational environments.

In the realm of attitude research, scholars have traditionally classified attitude components into three types: single-component, two-component, and three-component. Advocates of the single-component view contend that attitudes are confined to the emotional dimension. For example, Fazio and Zanna [ 27 ] define attitude as "an evaluative feeling caused by a given object" (p. 162). Two-component researchers posit that attitudes comprise cognition and emotion, with the affective component measuring emotional attraction or feelings toward the object, and the cognitive component representing beliefs about the object's characteristics [ 28 , 29 ]. Bagozzi and Burnkrant [ 30 ] compared the effectiveness of one-component and two-component attitude models, concluding that incorporating both cognitive and emotional dimensions enhances attitude effectiveness. On the contrary, proponents of the three-component perspective argue that attitudes encompass cognition, emotion, and behavior, suggesting that cognitive and emotional responses to an object influence behavior. However, the three-component view has faced skepticism, with some researchers finding that attitude measurement explains only about 10% of behavior variance. Studies reporting higher correlations often focus on attitudes and behavioral intent rather than explicit behavior itself [ 31 , 32 , 33 ]. Our research places a deliberate emphasis on investigating the intersection between the SEM and attitudes to address a noticeable gap in the existing scholarly landscape. While none of the reviewed literature approached the subject from an attitude theory perspective, we prioritize this theoretical framework, acknowledging that attitudes significantly influence student learning [ 16 , 34 ]. Consequently, the exploration of the interplay between SEM and attitudes is considered indispensable for attaining a thorough comprehension of SEM's potential impact in educational contexts. By integrating attitude theory into this inquiry, there is an aspiration to unveil nuanced insights into the cognitive and emotional dimensions influenced by SEM, thereby enriching the understanding of the model's pedagogical implications.

The chosen systematic review approach in this study aims to enhance the reader's understanding of the research methodology, thereby strengthening the overall scientific rigor of the study [ 35 ].

Protocol and registration

This review adheres to the guidelines set forth by the Preferred Reporting Project for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA). The review has been registered on the International Registry Platform for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Programmes (INPLASY) under the registration number INPLASY2022100040. More information about the review can be found at the following link: https://inplasy.com/ .

Search strategy

In October 2004, Siedentop initiated SEM workshops, attracting widespread attention from scholars both domestically and internationally, marking the beginning of SEM practices [ 36 , 37 ]. Subsequently, in many advanced countries such as the United States, New Zealand, Australia, and the United Kingdom, SE has become a mainstream approach in physical education instruction [ 38 ]. Therefore, the retrieval period for this review is set from October 2004 to December 2023, encompassing relevant articles published during this timeframe. A systematic search of four electronic databases was conducted for relevant articles: SCOPUS, PubMed, EBSCOhost (SPORT Discus and CINAHL Plus), and Web of Science. The search aimed to identify studies on the effects of SEM on attitudes toward physical education learning. We employed advanced search methods and added the following search terms: ("Sport Education Model" OR "Sport Education" OR "Sport season") AND ("learning attitude" OR "sports attitude" OR "cognitive" OR "cognition" OR "usefulness" OR "importance" OR "perceptions" OR "affective" OR "emotional" OR "enjoyment" OR "happiness" OR "well-being" OR "Blessedness" OR "subjective well-being") AND ("student" OR "pupil" OR "scholastic" OR "adolescent" OR "teenager"). The search expressions were combined using logical operators. We also sought assistance from librarians in the field to ensure comprehensive results. Furthermore, we manually examined the reference lists of the included studies to identify additional relevant literature and validate the effectiveness of our search strategy.

Eligibility criteria

We employed the Picos framework, encompassing Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, and Study Design, as the inclusion criteria for this systematic review (Table  1 ). Furthermore, the selected literature adhered to the following additional criteria: (i) it comprised full English texts published in peer-reviewed journals; (ii) the interventions were conducted within the context of physical education, with a comprehensive description of the intervention process and content; (iii) the effects of the SEM and TT on students' learning attitudes (cognitive and emotional) were compared on at least one dimension; (iv) quasi-experimental designs employing objective tests and measurements, along with studies presenting evaluation results, were considered. Exclusion criteria encompassed studies that combined physical education models with other teaching methods or models (hybrid or invasive). Initially, the search strategy was guided by a librarian, and duplications were eliminated by importing the retrieved literature into Mendeley reference management software. Subsequently, decisions regarding literature exclusion and retention were made through the screening of titles and abstracts. Ultimately, articles deemed highly relevant were read in full. The primary outcome aimed to assess attitudes (cognitive and affective) toward physical learning based on the SEM.

The search strategy was guided by a librarian, and the obtained literature was imported into Mendeley reference management software for duplicate removal. Decisions regarding literature inclusion and exclusion were made based on the screening of titles and abstracts. Articles that were deemed highly relevant were read in their entirety. The primary focus of this review was to assess attitudes (cognitive and affective) toward physical learning, specifically based on the SEM. The designation "not relevant" is employed to characterize articles subjected to thorough scrutiny, which fail to make substantive contributions to the fundamental focus of our research. More precisely, those articles deemed irrelevant were those that omitted consideration of the pivotal variables under examination, namely, cognitive and emotional dimensions. Furthermore, they were not situated within the milieu of a scholastic educational framework for physical education (SEM). This methodological approach has been instituted to uphold the establishment of a centralized and cohesive dataset requisite for subsequent analytical procedures [ 39 ] (See Fig.  1 ).

PRISMA summary of the study selection process

Study selection

Prior to conducting the search, consultation with an experienced librarian was sought to develop an effective retrieval strategy. Following this, two independent reviewers conducted the literature search. All retrieved studies were imported into Mendeley literature management software to identify and eliminate duplicates. Initially, the literature was screened based on the titles by two independent evaluators, who excluded irrelevant studies. Subsequently, the abstracts of the initially selected literature were reviewed against pre-established inclusion criteria to determine their eligibility for inclusion in the study. Finally, the full text of the included literature was reviewed by two authors, who extracted relevant information. In the case of any disagreements, a third author (K.G.S.) was involved in the review process.

Data extraction and quality assessment

The data extraction process involved collecting the following information: (1) author and year of publication; (2) research design, including the type of experiment or teaching project; (3) population details, such as student category, total number of students, age range, and gender distribution, as well as group size; (4) intervention characteristics, including the total number of interventions, weekly frequency of interventions, duration of each intervention, and consistency of intervention location; (5) a comparison group, typically involving the TT and country information; (6) results, which encompassed the measurement tools used, specific indicators measured, and the research findings. The collected data were independently summarized and reviewed by two authors, with the involvement of a third author to resolve any discrepancies or disagreements.

The methodological quality of the selected articles in this systematic review was assessed using the validated checklist developed by Downs and Black [ 40 ]. The checklist consisted of 27 items, which were categorized into three domains: reporting (items 1–10), validity (external validity: items 11–13; internal validity: items 14–26), and statistical power (item 27). Each item was scored, resulting in a total score ranging from 0 to 27, with higher scores indicating higher methodological quality.

In this review, the cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys were scored in detail using the Downs and Black checklist to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each study [ 40 ]. The scoring process involved two primary assessors independently assessing the selected studies. In case of any ambiguity or disagreement, a resolution was reached through reconciliation. If disagreements persisted, the assessment was conducted by one of the co-authors until a consensus was reached.

The classification criteria for the scores were as follows: studies with a score below 11 were considered to have low methodological quality, scores ranging from 11 to 19 indicated medium quality, and scores higher than 20 indicated high methodological quality [ 41 ]. Upon assessment, it was found that all selected articles in this review fell within the medium-quality range (see Table  2 ).

The studies risk of bias

The Risk of Bias in Non-randomized Studies-of Interventions (ROBINS-I) tool encompasses seven evaluation areas, which are further divided into three distinct stages: pre-intervention, intervention, and post-intervention. The pre-intervention stage includes two evaluation areas: confounding bias and selection bias of participants. The intervention stage focuses on the evaluation of bias in the classification of interventions. The post-intervention stage comprises four evaluation areas: bias due to deviations from intended interventions, bias due to missing data, bias in the measurement of outcomes, and bias in the selection of reported results. Each evaluation area is composed of multiple signaling questions, amounting to a total of 34 signaling questions.

Methodical quality

The articles underwent assessment using the validated checklist developed by Downs and Black (1998): 11–13 (mean = 12.38; median = 12; mode = 12 & 13). All the articles demonstrated a medium level of quality, indicating their suitability for inclusion in this review. Furthermore, it suggests the potential for higher-quality articles in future studies. Among the thirteen included articles, five were published within the last three years, constituting one-third of the included literature. This observation highlights the ongoing research interest and significance of the SEM in the investigation of various teaching models. In terms of the Hypothesis/aim/objective, participant characteristics, interventions, main findings, data variability, probability values, statistical tests, detailed intervention descriptions, reliable outcome measures, participant source ( n  = 12), participant grouping ( n  = 11), and random allocation ( n  = 3) were adequately addressed. However, aspects such as reporting measurement outcomes in the introduction or methods section, confounder distribution, adverse events following the intervention, characterization of lost-to-follow-up patients, data analysis, blinding of participants and assessors, adjustment for confounding, and identification of chance results with a probability less than 5% ( n  = 0) were not thoroughly addressed. Although the implementation of blind subjects, therapists, and assessors in teaching experiments poses challenges, future research should strive for higher quality and stronger levels of evidence [ 23 ].

After a detailed reading of the literature that meets the inclusion criteria of this review and the extraction and sorting of important information, it is presented in Table  3 .

The bias risk assessment results are summarized in Table  4 , which includes information such as author/date, field of study, study type, risk assessment tool, and overall rating. The main sources of bias identified were confounding factors and outcomes measurement. The evaluation revealed that only two experimental studies in the Confounders field had a moderate risk of bias, while the rest had a high risk of bias. All included literature demonstrated low risk in terms of subject selection, classification of recommended interventions, and deviation from established interventions. Furthermore, one-third of the literature showed low-risk missing data [ 23 , 42 , 50 , 51 ], while other studies did not provide relevant information. Lastly, nearly a third of the literature showed missing data for low-risk.

Overview of sports and experiment design

All thirteen papers included in this review utilized a pre-posttest design. The sports covered in these studies encompassed basketball, volleyball, soccer, ultimate Frisbee, table tennis, hockey, Polskie ringo, ball games, and body movements. Some studies examined two exercise programs [ 23 , 43 ], while the majority of research focused on basketball [ 44 , 52 , 53 ]. The participants in the course experiments were primarily college and high school students, with a limited number of studies investigating primary and junior high school students. The distribution of participants included college students (3), high school students (8), primary school students (1), and junior high school students (1). The sample sizes in these studies ranged from 40 to 508. Since the selected studies were teaching experiments, most of them involved mixed-sex classes, with four studies not specifying the gender of the students. Only one study established three experimental classes and two control classes [ 50 ], while the remaining studies had one experimental class and one control class. The number of interventions ranged from 8 to 25, with each intervention lasting between 45 and 90 min.

The majority of studies in the selected literature directly applied the SEM as the intervention. Five of the studies incorporated constructivism theory [ 48 ], self-determination theory [ 23 , 44 , 47 ], and ARCS learning motivation theory [ 52 ]. None of the literature investigated from the perspective of attitude theory. Furthermore, none of the selected studies mentioned the teaching standards or syllabus used to design the course content, nor did they provide explanations for the rationale behind the experimental teaching content. The number of interventions in the trials ranged from 8 to 25, with up to half of the studies using fewer than 18 interventions [ 42 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 52 , 53 ], the recommended class hours for large unit teaching are not met [ 54 ]. The duration of each intervention was most commonly reported as 45 or 60 min [ 42 , 43 , 44 , 47 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ]. The frequency of weekly interventions varied from 1 to 5, but the majority of studies implemented interventions once a week [ 23 , 42 , 43 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ]. The intervention frequency was generally low, and there was a scarcity of studies with higher intervention frequency. With the exception of one article that conducted the intervention in two schools without providing an explanation [ 50 ], the remaining studies were conducted within the same school.

The control classes in the selected literature implemented similar TT and forms, despite variations in naming used by scholars from different countries or even within the same country. The TT employed in the control classes were mainly Direct Instruction in Australia [ 43 , 46 , 47 , 51 , 52 ], Morocco [ 50 ], and Spain [ 42 , 43 , 44 ], In China, the traditional teaching models were referred to as TT [ 48 , 52 ] and Latent Growth Model [ 49 ]; Traditional Style in the United States and England [ 42 ], American Skill-drill-game [ 44 , 45 ], and multiactivity model [ 23 ].

Measuring instruments and main outcomes

The findings of this investigation were classified based on the impact of the SEM on various aspects of students' attitudes toward physical education: cognitive and affective domains. Through the segregation of subjects and constituents from prior research, the favorable and unfavorable indicators of affective and cognitive dimensions were predominantly derived from the existing body of literature.

The effect of SEM on student cognitive

In this literature review, it was evident that all the included studies reached a unanimous conclusion that the overall effectiveness of the SEM surpassed that of the TT. Among these studies, eight of them specifically evaluated students' cognitive performance [ 23 , 42 , 43 , 45 , 48 , 50 , 52 ]. Various assessment instruments were employed, such as the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) [ 42 , 43 , 45 ], the Amotivation subscale of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) [ 23 ], the attitude questionnaire [ 48 ], the Spanish version of the Sport Satisfaction Instrument (SVSSI) [ 50 ], the ARCS Learning Motivation Scale, the Physical Education Affection Scale (PEAS) [ 52 ], and the ALT-PE data were collected using momentary time sampling for each team by trained coders [ 53 ].

The study participants encompassed junior high school students [ 43 ], high school students [ 23 , 42 , 45 , 48 , 50 ] and College students [ 52 , 53 ]. Most of these investigations revealed that following the intervention of the physical education course, the cognitive abilities of students in the intervention group exhibited significant improvement, surpassing those of the control group instructed through the TT. Conversely, no significant changes were observed within the control group before and after the experiment [ 23 , 42 , 48 , 50 ]. Nevertheless, one study reported a significant decrease in cognitive abilities among students in the control group before and after the experiment [ 54 ], the other two studies showed that both the experimental and control groups showed significant improvements, but the experimental group showed significantly greater improvements [ 52 , 53 ].

The effect of SEM on student's affective

In this comprehensive review, all the included studies examined students' affective aspects. The assessment instruments employed were as follows: Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) [ 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 47 ], Amotivation subscale of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) [ 23 ], Intention to be Physically Active Scale (IPAS) [ 46 ], the attitude questionnaire [ 48 ], Physical activity enjoyment scale (PACES) [ 49 ], the Spanish version of the Sport Satisfaction Instrument (SVSSI) [ 50 ], Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANASN) [ 51 ] and the Physical Education Affection Scale (PEAS) [ 52 ].

The study participants encompassed primary school students [ 51 ], Junior high school students [ 43 ], high school [ 23 , 42 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 50 , 51 ] and College students [ 49 , 52 ]. Out of the 12 studies, four reported positive and/or negative interests or enjoyment among students. Among these, two studies indicated that the experimental group students exhibited significantly higher positive affect than the control group students [ 47 , 51 ]. However, the measurement results varied within the control group. One study reported no significant improvement [ 47 ], while another study showed significant improvement, but the effect was significantly greater in the experimental group compared to the control group [ 51 ]. Furthermore, one study demonstrated no significant difference between the two groups as the test indicators did not exhibit significant changes before and after the experiment [ 46 ].

Regarding the investigation of negative affect, three studies reported that the experimental group students exhibited significantly lower negative affect compared to the control group [ 47 , 51 ], with a significant decrease in negative affect observed in the experimental group while no significant change was noted in the control group. Additionally, one study showed no significant difference and no significant improvement in the test results between the two groups before and after the experiment [ 46 ].

Among the remaining eight studies, it was not specified whether the investigation focused on positive or negative effects. Among them, two studies solely compared the improvement effects between the experimental and control groups without conducting intra-group comparisons before and after the experiment, and the results revealed that the experimental group exhibited significantly better outcomes than the control group [ 45 , 49 ]; the remaining six studies conducted comparisons not only between groups before and after the experiment but also within each group. Five studies demonstrated a significant increase in the affected index of the experimental group, while the control group exhibited no significant change [ 23 , 42 , 44 , 48 , 52 ], and one study revealed that the experimental group displayed a significant improvement, while the control group experienced a significant decline [ 43 ].

This paper presents a comprehensive review of the effects of the SEM on students' attitudes towards physical education. Its aim is to distinguish this study from other published research on the application of the SEM interventions among students. The findings indicate that the SE model has the potential to enhance students' attitudes toward physical education in terms of cognition and affect. However, certain factors such as the lack of data on junior high school students and gender differences, the frequency and duration of intervention per week, the variation in the learning environment across groups taught in the same setting, the rationale behind the course content, and the selection of tools for measuring learning attitudes may influence the experimental outcomes. Nonetheless, considering the positive results observed in these studies, is SEM an effective way to interfere with students' attitudes toward physical education learning? In conjunction with the information presented in the " Results " section, this review offers a detailed analysis of the impact of various dimensions of student attitudes toward physical education learning.

As anticipated, eleven out of the thirteen studies included in this review focused on ball games, which aligns with the competitive nature of these sports [ 55 ]. This choice is well-suited to the seasonal characteristics of the Sports Education Model (SEM) [ 56 , 57 ]. When considering gender comparisons, incorporating gender research can enhance the reliability of experimental findings [ 58 , 59 ]. However, in all the studies included, the majority of researchers only used mixed experimental and control groups, without comparing gender distinctions. If significant differences exist in the effect of SEM on the learning attitudes of students of different genders, it would significantly impact the accuracy of the experimental results.

Regarding the frequency, number, and duration of each intervention, some scholars have suggested that these factors may have different effects on the experimental outcomes [ 60 ], However, among the thirteen studies reviewed, the largest number of interventions was only 25 [ 23 ], and most studies had fewer than 20 interventions. Most studies had fewer than 18 interventions. This deviates from the use of large unit teaching advocated by some scholars to enhance students' systematic cognition and learning experience of a sports event [ 54 , 61 ]. In the reform of the school curriculum, the State Council of China issued the Curriculum Standards for Physical Education and Health for Compulsory Education (2022 edition) for students, which also clearly mentioned that the length of class hours for large units should not be less than 18 lessons.

In terms of the rationality of classroom teaching form and content, Hastie et al. [ 62 ] developed an Instructional Checklist to evaluate the effectiveness of the SEM and TT. However, only four of the included studies addressed this aspect [ 46 , 47 , 50 ]. Regarding the selection of measurement tools, none of the studies examined students' learning attitudes using scales developed based on attitude theory. According to the two-component proponents of attitude, attitude theory defines attitude as the affective and cognitive (positive or negative) evaluation of individuals toward the object of attitude [ 28 , 29 , 30 , 63 ]. Failing to assess student attitudes using survey instruments developed based on the structural composition of attitudes is problematic, as these instruments may not accurately measure attitudes [ 64 ]. The critical concern regarding the assessment of student attitudes using survey instruments developed based on the structural composition of attitudes requires a more thorough explanation. This is particularly important because relying on instruments that do not align with the multi-dimensional nature of attitudes, encompassing affective, cognitive, and conative components, may lead to inaccurate measurements [ 64 ]. To elaborate further, historical quantitative investigations in physical education pedagogy often utilized instruments such as Kenyon's [ 65 ] or Simon and Smoll's [ 66 ], which might not capture the complete construct of attitude. For instance, Kenyon's instrument conceptualizes physical activity rather than attitude as a multidimensional construct, while Simon and Smoll's instrument, developed for adults, may not be entirely valid for children. This unidimensional perspective on attitude, focusing solely on the affective dimension, is problematic, as it overlooks the multi-component nature of attitude, as acknowledged in studies by Gonzàles [ 67 ], Mohsin [ 68 ], and Oppenheim [ 69 ]. Therefore, future research endeavors should delve into the intricacies of attitude assessment tools, considering the developmental differences and the multidimensional nature of attitudes to ensure comprehensive and accurate measurement in the context of physical education pedagogy.

The existing literature provides sufficient evidence to support the significant superiority of physical education courses over TT in enhancing students' cognition of physical education learning. The cognitive dimension refers to individuals' evaluation of concepts and beliefs related to specific people, things, and objects, forming a multi-perspective system [ 32 , 49 ]. The development of ideas and beliefs relies on a solid foundation of knowledge about people and things. Students' cognition of physical education learning serves as a prerequisite for fostering positive attitudes toward physical education [ 70 ]. However, among the eight studies included in this review that examined the cognitive components of attitudes, seven studies concluded that SEM and TT had a more significant impact on improving students' perception of attitudes toward physical education learning [ 23 , 42 , 43 , 45 , 48 , 50 , 53 ]. Most of these studies indicated that students' perception of physical education learning did not change significantly under TT. Only one study found that both SEM and TT showed significant improvements before and after the experiment, with no significant difference in the degree of improvement between them [ 52 ]. However, it is noteworthy that the study by Chu et al. [ 49 ] lacked a thorough examination of the model fidelity for both the SEM and TT. The absence of a robust fidelity check raises concerns about the reliability and validity of the observed improvements reported in both SEM and TT groups before and after the experiment. Without ensuring that the implemented instructional models were faithfully executed as intended, it becomes challenging to attribute the observed improvements solely to the effectiveness of the instructional methods. Consequently, the study reports significant improvements in both SEM and TT without a discernible difference in the degree of improvement between them. This underscores the importance of conducting comprehensive model fidelity checks to enhance the credibility and interpretability of research findings, particularly when comparing the effectiveness of different instructional models in educational settings. Although most studies support the significant superiority of the SEM in enhancing students' perception of physical education learning compared to traditional instruction, it is important to note that five out of seven studies were conducted with high school students, limiting the generalizability of the findings to broader populations. This represents a crucial gap in the existing literature regarding learning cognition in physical education. Furthermore, despite having mixed-gender classes, the studies did not include a comparative analysis of students from different genders. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct additional comparative studies on the SEM and TT, encompassing various learning stages and considering the cognition of physical education learning among students of different genders, to enrich the breadth of results.

The majority of sports scholars hold the view that the SEM is superior to the TT in fostering students' emotional experiences in sports learning. The affective dimension pertains to the emotions and emotional experiences of individuals based on cognitive factors related to specific people, things, or objects, such as interest or enjoyment [ 32 , 49 ]. By comparing SEM and TT, eleven out of the thirteen studies analyzing improvements in student physical education learning confirmed that SEM significantly outperformed TT in enhancing student interest or enjoyment [ 23 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 ]. Only one study found that both SEM and TT did not lead to significant improvements in student interest or enjoyment, as there were no significant changes in test results before and after the learning social work experiment in both groups [ 46 ]. Notably, three of the studies involved opposite outcomes of positive and negative effects [ 46 , 47 , 51 ], and one study exclusively reported negative affect [ 50 ]. These divergent results underscore the complexity of the relationship between instructional models and students' attitudes towards physical education. Future research endeavors should delve deeper into the factors contributing to such variations, exploring potential moderating variables, instructional nuances, or contextual influences that may elucidate the observed disparities. These findings not only deserve attention for their immediate implications but also emphasize the need for nuanced investigations that can inform the refinement and optimization of instructional approaches in the field of physical education.

Moreover, among the four studies involving 20 or more interventions, three studies conducted within-group comparisons of SEM and TT before and after the experiment [ 23 , 43 , 45 ], and the frequency of weekly interventions varied. One study with a low intervention frequency found a significant decrease in emotional aspects among students in the TT group before and after the experiment [ 43 ]. However, two studies with high intervention frequency found no significant changes in the emotional aspects of students in the TT group before and after the experiment [ 23 , 44 ]. These results contradict Chen's argument (2019) that prolonged treatment may lead to adverse emotions such as anxiety and depression. However, these limited findings do not provide strong evidence and require further validation in future studies with larger sample sizes.

Limitations

In summary, this review presents substantial evidence supporting the superiority of the SEM over TT in enhancing students' attitudes toward physical education learning. However, there are several limitations to consider. Firstly, none of the included studies reported gender differences, which limits the richness and specificity of the research findings. Gender differences, if present, could potentially impact the accuracy of the overall results. Secondly, the studies did not address the influence of class size on teaching experiment outcomes. Determining the optimal number of students per group and the ideal number of groups is an important consideration for achieving optimal teaching effects. Inappropriate, insufficient, or excessive sample sizes can affect the quality and accuracy of experiments [ 71 ]. Thirdly, most studies did not account for the experimental environment or control participants' physical activities outside the experimental setting, which may influence students' attitudes toward physical education learning. Additionally, the studies generally did not consider the impact of factors such as climate and time on students' attitudes during the teaching experiments. Lastly, none of the studies included in this review conducted any short-term or long-term follow-up of students after the trial, making it challenging to determine the long-term effects of SEM on students' attitudes toward physical education learning.

The systematic review conducted provides compelling evidence supporting the positive impact of the SEM on students' attitudes toward physical education learning. However, it is important to note that most of the literature included in this review focused on high school and college students, while there were fewer findings for other school age groups. Urgently needed are comprehensive research initiatives that prioritize investigating the impact of the SEM on attitudes towards physical education learning across diverse age groups, including primary and middle school students. This will contribute to a more inclusive understanding of SEM's effectiveness, ensuring that its benefits are explored and validated across various educational stages, thus providing a solid foundation for evidence-based instructional practices in physical education. Additionally, although SEM is an established teaching model, recent research has shown an increase in its popularity in physical education, with five out of the thirteen studies published in the last three years. Nevertheless, it is crucial to approach the results with caution due to the limitations identified in this study.

To further deepen our understanding of the effectiveness of SEM in improving students' attitudes toward physical education learning, it is imperative to address the issue of model fidelity checks for both SEM and TT. The study highlighted the absence of a thorough examination of the model fidelity in certain investigations, which raises concerns about the reliability and validity of the observed improvements reported in both SEM and TT groups before and after the experiment. Future research should prioritize rigorous fidelity checks to enhance the credibility and interpretability of research findings when comparing the effectiveness of different instructional models.

Moreover, the identified divergent outcomes in some studies, including those with opposite positive and negative effects, as well as studies reporting exclusively negative affect, underscore the complexity of the relationship between instructional models and students' attitudes towards physical education. Therefore, future investigations should explore potential moderating variables, instructional nuances, or contextual influences contributing to such variations. This comprehensive approach will not only help refine our understanding of SEM's impact on attitudes but also aid in the selection of teaching models that align with the demands of contemporary times.

To optimize the study of SEM's influence on students' physical education learning attitudes, it is recommended to increase the number and frequency of interventions appropriately. Additionally, future research endeavors should consider demographic factors such as the gender and age of the students, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of SEM's impact across different populations. This continued exploration will not only verify the advantages of SEM in promoting students' physical education learning but also enrich the research outcomes concerning the influence of SEM on students' attitudes, addressing the identified gaps and fostering advancements in physical education pedagogy.

Availability of data and materials

The data set supporting the conclusions of this article is included within the article.

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Zhang, J., Xiao, W., Soh, K.G. et al. The effect of the Sport Education Model in physical education on student learning attitude: a systematic review. BMC Public Health 24 , 949 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18243-0

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The purpose of this study was to investigate physical education teachers’ perceptions of implementing online physical education during the COVID-19 pandemic as well as to explore their needs with regard to support for future teaching experiences. A total of 4,302 teachers completed four open-ended questions as part of a larger survey. Deductive and inductive qualitative analysis led to three themes: (a) Teachers’ Proud Moments, (b) Help! So Many Obstacles, and (c) Future Challenges. Teachers stated many successes and challenges that they experienced through the COVID-19 pandemic. Many items specifically focused on use and access to technology, student participation, and meeting students’ needs in various ways. Results can provide guidance for how to address the essential components of physical education in the online environment. In addition, results may provide insight to those who educate, train, and prepare teachers to teach in a virtual and/or physically distanced environment.

COVID-19, the respiratory disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, emerged as a global pandemic during spring 2020, forcing schools across the world into changing the ways in which they delivered instruction. As schools have been suggested as a place to help children obtain 60 min or more of physical activity (PA; IOM, 2013), moving to an online environment caused concern for not only educational outcomes ( Eyles, Gibbons, & Montebruno, 2020 ) but also current and future health outcomes of children ( Rundle, Park, Herbstman, Kinsey, & Wang, 2020 ). Initial studies on the impact of COVID-19 suggest decreased levels of children’s PA and increased rates of children’s obesity ( An, 2020 ; Dunton, Do, & Wang, 2020 ; Guerrero et al., 2020 ; Rundle et al., 2020 ). These studies indicate increased sedentary behaviors, lack of PA opportunities outside of school time, and lack of physical education (PE) as contributing factors to the identified undesirable health outcomes.

PE is a natural place to address public health concerns ( McKenzie & Lounsbery, 2014 ) including decreases in PA resulting from the pandemic—especially in light of the current goal of PE to assist students in acquiring “the knowledge, skills and confidence to enjoy a lifetime of healthful physical activity” ( SHAPE America [Society of Health and Physical Educators], 2020 ). The pandemic-initiated shift to online instruction provided numerous challenges to PE teachers. In PE, a traditionally marginalized subject ( Richards, Gaudreault, Starck, & Woods, 2018 ), teachers, with little to no training, lacked expertise in remote PE instruction and resorted to “trial-and-error” methods ( Jeong & So, 2020 ). Though research on effective or quality instruction in PE, aligned with student learning outcomes and promoting achievement of standards has been presented previously ( Rink, 2013 ), the overwhelming majority of this research focuses on in-person PE instruction. Research suggests that oftentimes, there is a different focus or goal of in-person PE versus online PE, with in-person PE primarily focusing on achieving competency in a variety of motor skills as compared with the primary focus online of improved health behaviors and fitness levels ( Goad & Jones, 2017 ). The benefits that students receive from online PE have been identified; however, research in this area has been limited, and issues with teacher training, student accountability, and the lack of a comprehensive focus have been presented ( Daum & Buschner, 2012 ; Mohnsen, 2012 : Williams, 2013 ). Therefore, it is important that we understand how online PE occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic and although it is situation-specific, we need to document it and use this information to inform the future of online PE.

At the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, schools were shut down with little notice and teachers were expected to move their curriculum online. We anticipate that PE teachers were no different from other subject area teachers, as many were struggling to not only figure out how they were going to disseminate information in an online format, but also to determine what segments of their current curriculum could “transfer” to an online environment ( Marshall, Shannon, & Love, 2020 ). Although no known research is conducted on the topic, the authors imagine that teachers were considering best practices in PE; however, they were juggling what they know in a general setting with how to effectively disseminate in this “new to them” online environment.

While research concerning quality in-person PE instruction is well established, much remains unknown regarding remote PE instruction. The current pandemic has forced many schools to embark on an online journey, with remote or hybrid instruction imminent for most of the 2020–2021 school year. It seems extremely likely that some form of remote instruction in PE will remain even after the pandemic passes. An important first step in identifying effective remote instruction methodologies and modalities is speaking with PE teachers, who were forced to “learn on the go” during the pandemic. Although the pandemic presents a unique situation, understanding the initial experiences of teachers in moving to a remote learning environment and identifying the challenges and facilitators to successful remote instruction is needed to help teachers and other PE professionals design effective learning experiences in the future. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate PE teachers’ perceptions of implementing PE during the COVID-19 pandemic as well as to explore their needs with regard to support for future teaching experiences.

A total of 4,302 PE teachers participated in the study, of which 2,238 (52%) taught elementary, 597 (14%) middle school, 469 (11%) high school, and 998 (23%) multilevel. Multilevel was any combination that spanned across both the elementary (K–5) and secondary (6–12) grade bands. Teachers were categorized as 23% rural, 35% suburban, and 42% urban. All 50 U.S. states were represented, with 23% of teachers from the Northeast, 25% from the Midwest, 33% from South, and 19% from the West.

• Data Collection and Data Sources

University of Hawai’i at Mānoa institutional review board approval was received to conduct secondary data analysis of a survey distributed by the Online Physical Education Network (OPEN) www.openphyed.org . OPEN provides standards-based PE curricula in a free online environment. During the COVID-19 pandemic, OPEN provided weekly PE content for teachers that focused on getting children active while quarantined at home.

To better understand the needs of teachers using their resources, OPEN initiated a survey to start planning how to support teachers and schools during the following school year. As this is a secondary analysis of data, the survey was designed for professional development (PD) and to gather information to guide resource development. In addition to multiple choice questions that focused on planning for next year ( Mercier et al., 2021 ), the survey included four open-ended questions that were the focus of this research. The open-ended questions focused on teachers’ successes, barriers, PD, and concerns. The questions were: “What has been your biggest struggle in a distanced learning environment?” “What has been your biggest success in a distanced learning environment?” “What is your biggest PD need for next school year?” and “What is your biggest overall concern as you plan and prepare for next school year?” The survey, which was designed using Google forms, was distributed in OPEN’s weekly online newsletters. The link was included in the newsletter for a total of 2 weeks in May. The OPEN platform consisted of teachers, parents, administrators, higher education faculty, preservice teachers, and other groups, but only data from teachers who taught PE in a K–12 setting were included in the current study. As of May 31, 2020, the OPEN database showed 83,988 registered users (people who sign up for free access to content and email notices). It was difficult to calculate a response rate given limitations with the database (e.g., open-ended answers for occupation) as well as knowing how many OPEN users are currently active and viewed the newsletter. We estimate that there are approximately 58,000 PE teachers in the database, resulting in an estimated response rate of 13.48%. Although this response rate is fairly low, given the unprecedented time, coupled with the uniqueness of the data collected and the broad representation of teachers, we proceeded with the qualitative analysis.

Quantitative survey results from this survey have been reported elsewhere ( Mercier et al., 2021 ). Open-ended survey responses constitute the qualitative data for this study. Although the data source for this study is singular, it does consist of a large sample of teachers that provided over 17,000 data points. Given the substantial amount of data, the unprecedented time in the world with COVID-19, and the rigorous analysis and strategies to enhance trustworthiness explained below, the research team moved forward with this one data source, and this is acknowledged as a study limitation.

• Data Analysis and Trustworthiness

Using a collaborative data analysis approach ( Richards & Hemphill, 2018 ), three researchers worked together to analyze the data from the four open-ended questions that were included in the questionnaire. The collaborative qualitative analysis technique used a six-step process that included preliminary organization and planning, deductive and inductive coding, development of a preliminary codebook, pilot testing of the codebook, final coding process, and reviewing the codebook and finalizing themes. Researchers decided to use deductive coding upfront where all of the data were left affiliated with the specific questions determined by the survey. Because the questions were very pointed, leaving the data within these four categories or deductive codes made sense. Acknowledging the deductive coding, researchers began inductive coding where they read the data multiple times and developed initial codes within each topic based on the deductive codes. A researcher team meeting was conducted to discuss the initial themes and codes. Using the first version of the codebook, the researchers piloted the codebook and coded 1% of the database. During the second meeting, all 1% of the data were examined by each specific code and discussions were had about discrepancies. In addition, the codes were discussed and revised at this time. In the first round of pilot testing of the codebook, researchers had interrater reliability of 77%. Based on the revised codebook, the researchers coded an additional 1% of the data. On the second round of data coding, the researchers achieved an 85% interrater reliability. At this point, the researchers coded the remaining 98% of the database. If questions arose throughout the coding process, researchers immediately discussed the questions as a group, made a decision, and continued coding. Once all data were coded, the research team gathered to review the coded data and create a thematic structure that was representative. There were approximately 10 inductive codes within each deductive coding category, and a total of 17,208 data points were coded.

In order to create the thematic structure, researchers reviewed the coded data in two unique ways. First, each selective coding group was analyzed quantitatively by counting the number of codes for each category. A number was tabulated for each code to determine which codes emerged as the most mentioned topics by teachers. Based on the quantitative counts and inductive coding, themes were created. In addition, Wordle was used to confirm the themes that were created but not included in the published manuscript due to space limitations.

It was difficult for traditional trustworthiness strategies to be applied due to the nature of the de-identified secondary data analysis coupled with the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the use of multiple data analysts that occurred is a recognized strategy for enhancing trustworthiness ( Elo et al., 2014 ), and in addition to the rigorous data analysis process, researchers kept an audit trail and researcher journal during the data coding and thematic analysis process. They also searched for negative cases throughout the data analysis process, including once final themes were set, in order to ensure the themes that emerged were representative of the data.

We present the Results section in three overarching themes based on the initial deductive coding: (a) Teachers’ Proud Moments; (b) Help! So Many Obstacles, and (c) Future Challenges.

• Theme 1: Teachers’ Proud Moments

When teachers were asked to share what successes they had while teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic, many had plenty of things that they spoke of. Teachers most commonly spoke of about three specific areas including overcoming and learning technology (28%), engaging students in online learning (20%), and their ability to create good content for students (15%).

Over 28% of teachers said overcoming and learning technology was one of their biggest successes during the COVID-19 pandemic. One teacher stated simply that their biggest success was “learning how to use technology in PE” (Teacher 1733), while another went into more detail to say, “My growing knowledge of the technology available (still have so much to learn) and discovering the resources other teachers are willing to share” (Teacher 537). Teachers often cited the use of external learning platforms that they learned to use, such as Zoom, Flipgrid, Google Classroom, and YouTube. These platforms allowed teachers to post and record videos to share with students and were a common theme within this category. For example, one teacher stated, “My biggest success was figuring out some technology basics to video, upload to YouTube, work in Google Classroom and Dojo” (Teacher 2664), while another stated that their biggest success was “FlipGrid! I’ve had great student response… . It’s also an easy way to teach a basic skill and for them to show me them practicing said skill (i.e. hockey, juggling, throwing)” (Teacher 1833).

Many teachers also reported teaching through video conferencing apps like Zoom to run live classes and cited learning to navigate this new form of teaching as a victory. One teacher stated, “Connecting with students via Zoom [was their biggest success] and the OPEN at-home lessons have provided excellent resources to use/send to students” (Teacher 4132). Finally, one teacher talked about the digital experience more broadly stating that “being able to transition to a digital learning environment has been my success. To go from the normal teaching style and switching with little preparation has been a learning experience” (Teacher 2397).

Another success that many teachers (20%) mentioned was engaging students in online learning . Teachers were enthusiastic about receiving videos and assignments from their students demonstrating activities and showing them being physically active at home. Many teachers were happy to have students engage in synchronous video classes, as well as participating in the daily activities. One teacher stated their biggest success “was being able to reach most of my students either through written communications such as messaging or email as well as live chats and zoom/meet software” (Teacher 3834). Another was encouraged as they stated that “my students that have been participating are giving me really good feedback about the types of activities they enjoy and that is helping me find resources to keep them engaged” (Teacher 4042). Similarly, Teacher 1390 stated, “I have had at least 70% engagement and have received videos of students learning to ride bikes, learning to ride without training wheels, learning to skate or improving their skating skills, and the creativity of my families is incredible!” Yet another gave their student options, which they reported as successful because “the number of students who sign on to my live zoom classes [is my biggest success]. I provide it as an added feature. The students have an additional assignment that they get at the beginning of the week. Parents have also emailed me about how much their children love the interaction” (Teacher 3351). However, as will be noted in the next section, not all teachers were able to connect with all of their students.

Finally, the teachers’ ability to create good content for students also seemed to be a major accomplishment for them. Good content was described by teachers in many different ways and included content like engaging and inspiring videos, custom videos for their own PE classes, challenge activities, and resources from peers and companies (including OPENPhysEd which provided content and ran a virtual field day). One teacher mentioned, “Finding activities for every age level to complete using household items and still being able to meet grade level standards” (Teacher 302). Another stated, “I believe my lessons have been a big success. The students that are doing them are enjoying them. They really loved the OPEN virtual field day” (Teacher 3504). Teacher 346 shared, “being able to use resources that have been shared by others as well as creating and adapting things on my own to create video lessons.” Another teacher stated, “joining weekly meetings with all my classes, providing a monthly PE interactive calendar, hosting fitness Friday’s videos showing the PE staff introducing fun fitness ideas and just being silly” (Teacher 3308). Overall, the teachers noted that good content was “fun,” “engaging,” and typically consisted of some type of video activity.

• Theme 2: Help! So Many Obstacles

The second theme focuses on issues that teachers faced while teaching during the pandemic and the needs that they have for PD to help better prepare them for PE in the future. In teacher responses, there was an abundance of calls for help in relation to how to best provide quality PE during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond.

As stated above in Theme 1, teachers were happy with the amount of participation that they received from their students who logged on and attended class or turned in assignments given the situation and what was going on in the world. However, there was also a significant number of teachers who expressed concern over the lack of participation of students . The concern revolved around teachers not knowing if students were engaging in their lessons as well as the lack of trust demonstrated by teachers regarding their students’ submission of work. Teachers were assigning work, but the response rate of their students was low, and this was a hard concept to deal with. For example, one teacher stated, “I am only getting 35–40% response rate—PE is NOT graded. We use S (satisfactory)/U (unsatisfactory) categories only. Therefore, unless they click on our folder in their learning management system, the assignment goes unnoticed” (Teacher 505).

Similarly, another teacher noted that they struggled with “receiving assignments back from students and student participation for assigned tasks” (Teacher 1180). Others talked about how it was hard to get students to turn in assignments: “Kids not doing the assignments, exercises” (Teacher 2492) and “getting students to do the assignments” (Teacher 2053). Many teachers attributed poor student engagement to a lack of clear school, district, or state-level policies, either specific to PE or across-the-board for all subject areas. With the lack of policy or a mechanism for enforcement, it was hard to hold students accountable. Teacher 237 stated, “Participation. After administration said it wasn’t for a grade, participation went downhill fast!” Another teacher stated, “My biggest struggle is the number of participants from week to week. I saw a big drop in attendance once my state announced that elementary schools wouldn’t be giving grades” (Teacher 835). Accountability seemed to be an underlying issue here; thus, many students did not participate, and the teachers found it nearly impossible to hold students accountable for completing any of the work or participating in the lessons.

Meeting the needs of all students was also on the minds of teachers when it came to concerns that they had when teaching during COVID-19. Teachers expressed concern about “reaching” or getting the content to students, especially in areas where many did not have Internet. For example, one teacher stated their biggest struggle was, “Reaching all students; Lack of data/proof students are active and actually completing assignments” (Teacher 2183) and others expressed concern about the lack of Internet. One teacher stated that “only 40% of children have internet” (Teacher 1332), while another said “lack of students that have access to technology/internet” (Teacher 488). Some teachers demonstrated that they found a way to try and meet the needs of students by printing hard copies of assignments and tasks for students to complete, however, then this presented more barriers as they had no way to collect the information as it was distributed, “I have struggled with communicating with students that do not have technology. However, I printed them out the activity sheets you provided. Those sheets were sent to the student by the district; however, I have no way of checking in on them” Teacher (864).

Using various platforms to deliver instruction. We were told to deliver via Class Dojo. I also used Facebook. Facebook does not allow the upload of pdf files. Many other districts used google classroom, Seesaw and other platforms. Grading as well. We have to give grades A–F. Not getting a lot of direction from my Admin. (Teacher 2138)

A unified, district-wide, format [such as Google Classroom] that all teachers will use to push out information to students and parents [is what is needed for PD]. PD would cover education on how to use all of the technologies available to us through that format. As well as education about how to teach our students and parents how to use it.

Another area that teachers expressed as a need in relation to PD was around PE in general. Even in the midst of COVID-19, it was apparent that PE teachers didn’t receive the same access to content-specific PD that their classroom teacher peers were afforded. Many (13% or ∼550 teachers) stated that they just wanted PD that was PE-specific. For example, “The more free webinars the better. Our school district doesn’t provide anything for specials. Every time there is PD it is geared toward the grade level teachers and then we are required to attend and get nothing out of it” (Teacher 2157). Similarly, other teachers stated, “Courses that are designed for PE teachers. My district doesn’t do any kind of specialty PD for PE or any specials. It’s not a high priority in such a small district” (Teacher 1578). Another added, “Having PD geared towards us as physical educators! Most of ours in our district is in a setting with Academic Teachers!” (Teacher 3915). Whether it was training to overcome issues with technology directly and meeting the needs of their students, or the need for future focused PD, teachers expressed that they needed help in providing quality PE for students.

• Theme 3: Upcoming Challenges

Theme 3 focused on the upcoming challenges that teachers faced in the spring/summer of 2020 and moving into the fall semester. Teachers had a lot of concerns about how to teach effectively through COVID-19, and many of their fears focused on the unknown , teaching in a socially distanced manner , and keeping the kids and themselves safe .

The fear of the unknown was frustrating and all-consuming for teachers. Over 35% expressed that the greatest concern they had about the upcoming year was not knowing what their situation was. Teacher 345 stated that “my district isn’t giving us any idea what it might be like so we can begin to prepare in any sort of way,” and another stated, “I don’t know what to plan [for the fall] because I don’t know what the plan is” (Teacher 2235). Other teachers stated how they were in the dark because they didn’t know “what the parameters will be” (Teacher 1640) or “if classes will be in-school, distance learning, or a combination of both” (Teacher 1489). Many others, like Teacher 1372, just stated that their biggest concern was “the unknown.” These feelings of not knowing what was going to happen were evenly distributed among all levels of teachers with a narrow range of 34% of mixed-level teachers to 37% of high school teachers.

The second biggest area of concern for teachers was teaching with social distancing and the logistics that went into making that happen successfully. Teachers really struggled with understanding how they were going to be able to provide PE in a physically distanced environment. Their worries centered around logistically figuring out the space that they would be able to use, as well as how to facilitate the use and cleaning of equipment. Teachers stated their biggest concerns were “trying to keep the kids separated, but active, and having fun safely!” (Teacher 505), or “how to teach PE while maintaining distance between kids and a safe environment” (Teacher 906). Another stated that “a concern was social distancing and face masks in a gym that is not air-conditioned” (Teacher 1270) and how that would play out with students in the classroom.

Finally, teachers were focused on safety of students . Although there were only about 11% of respondents across the United States who prioritized safety of students as their top concern, this is still about 500 teachers in total. Keeping students safe through distancing, mask wearing, and cleaning equipment was something that teachers were thinking about and concerned about heading into the fall semester. This is evidenced by comments such as, “How to follow CDC’s guidelines for social distancing and keeping equipment sanitized” (Teacher 2636) or “what restrictions will need to be implemented for students and myself to stay safe” (Teacher 358). It is important to keep in mind that in May 2020, guidelines were still being developed and information about the virus was still unknown, which could have influenced the teachers’ prioritization of this concern. Safety of students prior to COVID-19 largely encompassed making sure space was safe to move in, but adding a virus where teachers lacked the knowledge as well as the resources to safely contain spread among students was worrisome.

In the spring of 2020, educational systems were forced into a halt with a series of shutdowns, and schools scrambled to move to an online environment to continue learning in some capacity ( Young & Donovan, 2020 ). Understanding how PE teachers experienced and perceived this shift to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic is important as it has implications for how to successfully teach online PE in the future. This study sought to examine teachers’ perceptions of their experiences as well as concerns that they had for moving forward into the next school year.

There were three themes that emerged as part of the data analysis process: Teachers’ Proud Moments , Help! So Many Obstacles, and Future Challenges . Overall, teachers were proud of how they adapted, but they experienced obstacles and needed help. They also anticipated challenges for the future. It is also important to note that there were concepts that could be seen converging across all of the themes. The concepts of technology, student participation, and meeting students’ needs dominated teachers’ responses. Teachers viewed technology as a major barrier because many had to acquire new knowledge to be successful in implementing an online curriculum. However, technology was also noted as a source of success because once teachers were able to overcome certain barriers, they were able to use technology to successfully connect with students and provide meaningful experiences of PE and PA. This was consistent with other data collected during the pandemic around the same time by SHAPE America ( SHAPE America, 2020 ). Teachers also demonstrated a need for continued PD on the effective use of technology in the virtual PE classroom and this follows trends in the literature around effective teaching in PE ( Rink, 2013 ). Student participation also cut across most of the major themes. Teachers discussed participation as a barrier because they were unable to require students to participate; however, many teachers also reported that the students who did participate in their classes were very engaged and enthusiastic about the activities. Finally, meeting the needs of all students was mentioned many times across the themes. Teachers acknowledged this as one of their biggest barriers, as it was hard to meet all students’ needs, whether it was providing online accommodations and modifications or simply connecting with them online or through a paper packet.

Although several physical educators felt unprepared and unsupported ( SHAPE America, 2020 ), many rose to the occasion and worked together to provide online PE for their students. As teachers taught PE during the pandemic, there were many questions about what PE would look like in this online or hybrid format. Although there has been research conducted regarding best practices in online PE ( Killian, Kinder, & Woods, 2019 ), online PE was not something that existed to a large degree in most states pre-COVID. In understanding how PE rolled out during the pandemic, it is important to also look to the future of online PE and how the experiences of teachers can impact how the world of online PE moves forward postpandemic. The lessons learned from these experiences teaching online will not only prepare the educational system, including PE, for future pandemics and global crises alike, but will also have long-term implications for the future of remote instruction.

The authors will use the Essential Components of PE to further consider the study’s results in the context of recommended practices for quality physical education programming and to explore the implications for moving forward in an online PE environment. The Essential Components of PE is focused on four key areas: (a) policy and environment, (b) curriculum, (c) appropriate instruction, and (d) student assessment ( SHAPE America, 2015 ). The framework is designed to help schools and districts meet the SHAPE America PE standards ( SHAPE, 2013 ) and create well-designed PE programs that are student-centered, keep youth active, teach self-management, emphasize the knowledge and skills that youth need to be active, and are enjoyable.

Policy and environment, the first component of the framework, focuses on eight important guidelines for districts and schools to have in order to offer appropriate PE and PA experiences during the school day. Curriculum, the second component, suggests three guidelines on which to focus for appropriate PE curriculum: (a) written, sequential, and comprehensive; (b) based on the national standards and grade-level outcomes; and (c) designed specifically for a school or district and revisited in a timely manner. The third component of the framework is appropriate instruction, which focuses on four key areas including using appropriate instructional practices, being evaluated for teacher effectiveness, engaging students in moderate to vigorous PA for at least 50% of class time, and ensuring the inclusion of all students. Finally, the fourth component of the framework is student assessment. SHAPE America sets forth four key guidelines to follow which cover the areas of standards-based grading, evidence-based practices, alignment to the lesson objectives, and communicating progress to teachers and students ( SHAPE America, 2015 ).

Policy and environment for PE is often a struggle in states and school districts as many marginalize PE and don’t prioritize it the same as “core” subject areas ( McKenzie & Lounsbery, 2009 ; Slater, Nicholson, Chriqui, Turner, & Chaloupka, 2012 ). This was no different throughout the pandemic; as teachers reported in theme two, Help! So Many Obstacles, the lack of accountability was a major obstacle to their ability to implement and carry out their PE program in an online environment. These reactions and feelings from teachers are somewhat expected as the global pandemic wreaked havoc on the world. These feelings were not exclusive to PE teachers as there was a lack of accountability in schooling across the board, with students not being required to be in attendance, turn in homework, or take standardize tests that are typically required ( Reich et al., 2020 ).

As we move into a postpandemic world, it is important to keep in mind the successes and struggles of teachers in the online environment. Having a plan and policy in place for online PE at both the state and local levels is important as it will help structure and guide online PE for the future. Currently the Essential Components of PE do not address policies in the online environment, but now that we know more about how teachers rolled out curricula online, maybe it is time to think about what the best policies and procedures should be for online PE both now and in the future.

Curriculum as outlined in the Essential Components of PE was not very evident in the data that were analyzed. Teachers were worried about the logistics of carrying out a curriculum and adapting curricula that they traditionally taught in a face-to-face environment. Theme 3, future challenges , discussed the need for resources to help them develop activities to teach in an online environment and the PD to teach them how to use those resources. They also struggled with meeting standards given the challenges that were presented. There was no “set curriculum” that teachers could follow to ensure they were offering quality PE. It may be time to prioritize specific standards and/or content to be taught in an online environment. This is an area that could be enhanced in the future as schools and districts work to integrate how online schooling will be applicable in the future.

Appropriate instruction was an area that teachers were working to achieve during the pandemic. Many teachers reported embracing new skills, such as teaching “live” through video software platforms, posting assignments for students to complete on their own at home, and even learning many media skills to enhance their teaching practices. The successes that teachers faced in regard to instruction, described in Theme 1 , Teachers’ Proud Moments , bring many new questions to the forefront. How will technology be used in PE moving forward, postpandemic? Now that teachers have been forced to learn technology skills for an online environment, will flipped classrooms be more prevalent in a traditional PE environment? Will bad weather days be nonexistent? Will PE class be structured differently, allowing more space for PA homework and holding students accountable for reaching goals of 60 min of PA per day? Previously identified shortcomings of online PE, such as a lack of a comprehensive program and a lack of research on best practices (Daun & Buschner, 2012; Mohnsen, 2012 ), may be addressed with the increased focus on remote instruction. Although many questions remain about the future, we know that, in general, teachers learned a lot more about online technologies in PE than they ever had before, and this should have implications moving forward.

Teachers also expressed a desire for PD specific to instructional strategies in an online PE environment. As discussed in Theme 2, Help! So Many Obstacles, many asked for effective ways to teach material online, how to engage students with little equipment, and so forth. There was also a general need for instructional best practices, even beyond COVID-19, as some teachers expressed the need for learning about classroom management and motivating students. This is similar to previous research by Rink et al., but should be explored more in an online environment ( Rink, 2013 ). As districts and researchers plan to support teachers throughout the continuing pandemic as well as postpandemic, appropriate instruction in the online environment should be further investigated.

The final Essential Component of PE is assessment. Teachers reported struggling with assessment and holding students accountable during the pandemic. As described in Theme 2, Help! So Many Obstacles, this was due to various reasons including lack of participation and lack of policy requiring students to engage. Although teachers felt successful in overcoming such challenges as technology, assessment and meeting the standards were still of concern. Teachers had a hard time tracking and evaluating student participation in a virtual environment. Although this is not parallel to experiences in online PE that took place prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, it does make one wonder what objectives/outcomes/standards should be prioritized and addressed in an online post-COVID era. There were significant barriers to reaching all students which further exacerbated the issues of assessment and holding students accountable. With levels of PA identified as already in decline at the pandemic onset ( Dunton et al., 2020 ; Xiang, Zhang, & Kuwahara, 2020 ), this is of grave concern if PE moves forward in an online or hybrid environment as many struggled to overcome this common barrier. If left unaddressed, a significant number of students could be excluded from PE experiences, or not properly assessed while participating in online PE, and this could have long-term effects on not only their health but on their academic achievement as well.

In addition, teachers called for additional PD that would focus on integrating technology, improving instructional practice, and conducting assessments in the online and hybrid PE environments. As we move forward into a postpandemic world, it will be important to provide teachers support and PD that integrates effective practices in online and hybrid teaching with common best practices in PE.

There are limitations present in this study that are important to acknowledge. First, the sample was specific to teachers who used OPEN’s curriculum and signed up on their website. This is important to note as it could mean that respondents were representative only of teachers who were connected through an online community, in which case the themes that emerged might not be similar for those who are not connected with the OPEN community. In addition, survey questions were designed to improve resources and PD opportunities; therefore, there are a number of limitations with the survey including they were not theoretically informed, nor were they piloted and validated before use. Finally, this study relied only on a single source of data. However, even with multiple limitations, there are still strengths within the data that were collected and presented, including the fact that data from over 4,000 elementary and secondary teachers located in multiple regions of the United States was collected. Results should be interpreted with caution and applied where the reader sees similarities within their own context. Even with these limitations present, the authors believe this research is significant and should help inform the field of PE in understanding and implementing the essential components of PE in an online environment.

Understanding what teachers experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic is important and helps inform our thoughts around the future of PE and specifically online PE moving forward. Although the hope is that much will move “back to normal” in the future, the possibility exists that physical educators will be faced with this situation again and will need quality, evidence-based techniques. Ignoring this possibility and hoping that it goes away is not an option if we want to provide the best PE environment for all students. Preparing for PE in an online environment and ensuring alignment with the Essential Components of PE is important. It is comforting to know that teachers are more willing than ever to embrace an online PE environment and the implications this willingness could have for improving instruction in both online and face-to-face PE in the future is one glimmer of hope to take away from the terrible situation that presented itself in the spring of 2020.

• Acknowledgments

The authors thank OPENPhysEd.org for sharing their data to help tell the story of what happened during the COVID-19 pandemic. We express our deepest sympathies to all of those who were impacted by the pandemic. We are stronger together.

An , R. ( 2020 ). Projecting the impact of the coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic on childhood obesity in the United States: A microsimulation model . Journal of Sport and Health Sciences, 9 ( 4 ), 302 – 312 . doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2020.05.006

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Daum , D.N. , & Buschner , C. ( 2012 ). The status of high school online physical education in the United States . Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 31 ( 1 ), 86 – 100 . doi:10.1123/jtpe.31.1.86

Dunton , G.F. , Do , B. & Wang , S.D. ( 2020 ). Early effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on physical activity and sedentary behavior in children living in the U.S . BMC Public Health, 20 ( 1 ), 1351 . PubMed ID: 32887592 doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09429-3

Elo , S. , Kaariainen , M. , Kanste , O. , Polkki , T. , Utriainen , K. , & Kyngas , H. ( 2014 ). Qualitative content analysis: A focus of trustworthiness . SAGE Open, 4 ( 1 ), 2158244014522633 . doi:10.1177/2158244014522633

Eyles , A. , Gibbons , S. , & Montebruno , P. ( 2020 ). Covid-19 school shutdowns: What will they do to our children’s education? London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK . Retrieved from http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/104675/

Goad , T. & Jones , E. ( 2017 ). Training online physical educators: A phenomenological case study . Education Research International, 2017 1 – 12 . doi:10.1155/2017/3757489

Guerrero , M.D. , Vanderloo , L.M. , Rhodes , R.E. , Faulkner , G , Moore , S.A. , & Trembley , M.S. ( 2020 ). Canadian children’s and youth’s adherence to the 24-h movement guidelines during the COVID-19 pandemic: A decision tree analysis . Journal of Sport and Health Sciences, 9 ( 4 ), 313 – 321 . doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2020.06.005

Jeong , H.C. , & So , W.Y. ( 2020 ). Difficulties of online physical education classes in middle and high school and an efficient operation plan to address them . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17 ( 19 ), 7279 . doi:10.3390/ijerph17197279

Killian , C.M. , Kinder , C.J. , & Woods , A. ( 2019 ). Online and blended instruction in K-12 physical education: A scoping review . Kinesiology Review, 8 ( 2 ), 110 – 129 . doi:10.1123/kr.2019-0003

Marshall , D.T. , Shannon , D.M. , & Love , S.M. ( 2020 ). How teachers experienced the COVID-19 transition to remote instruction . Phi Delta Kappan, 102 ( 3 ), 46 – 50 . doi:10.1177/0031721720970702

McKenzie , T.L. , & Lounsbery , M.A.F. ( 2009 ). School physical education: The pill not taken . American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 3 ( 3 ), 219 – 225 . doi:10.1177/1559827609331562

McKenzie , T.L., & Lounsbery , M.A.F. ( 2014 ). The pill not taken: Revisiting physical education teacher effectiveness in a public health context . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 85 ( 3 ), 287 – 292 . PubMed ID: 25141081 doi:10.1080/02701367.2014.931203

Mercier , K. , Centeio , E.E. , Garn , A. , Erwin , H. , Marttinen , R. , & Foley , J. ( 2021 ). Physical education teachers’ experiences with remote instruction during the initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic . Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 40 ( 2 ), 337 – 342 . doi:10.1123/jtpe.2020-0272

Mohnsen , B. ( 2012 ). Implementing online physical education . Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 83 ( 2 ), 42 – 47 . doi:10.1080/07303084.2012.10598727

Reich , J. , Buttimer , C.J. , Coleman , D. , Colwell , R.D. , Faruqi , F. , & Larke , L.R. ( 2020 ). What’s Lost, What’s Left, What’s Next: Lessons learned from the lived experiences of teachers during the 2020 novel Coronavirus pandemic . doi:10.35542/osf.io/8exp9

Richards , K.A.R. , Gaudreault , K.L. , Starck , J.R. , & Woods , A.M. ( 2018 ). Physical education teachers’ perceptions of perceived mattering and marginalization . Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 23 ( 4 ), 445 – 459 . doi:10.1080/17408989.2018.1455820

Richards , K.A.R. , & Hemphill , M. ( 2018 ). A practical guide to collaborative qualitative data analysis . Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 37 ( 2 ), 225 – 231 . doi:10.1123/jtpe.2017-0084.

Rink , J. ( 2013 ). Measuring teacher effectiveness in physical education . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84 ( 4 ), 407 – 418 . PubMed ID: 24592771 doi:10.1080/02701367.2013.844018

Rundle , A.G. , Park , Y. , Herbstman , J.B. , Kinsey , E.W. , & Wang , Y.C. ( 2020 ). COVID-19-related school closings and risk of weight gain among children . Obesity, 28 ( 6 ), 1008 – 1009 . PubMed ID: 32227671 doi:10.1002/oby.22813

SHAPE America . ( 2013 ). National Standards for K-12 Physical Education. SHAPE America . Retrieved from https://www.shapeamerica.org/standards/pe/

SHAPE America . ( 2015 ). The Essential Components of Physical Education. SHAPE America . Retrieved from https://www.shapeamerica.org/upload/TheEssentialComponentsOfPhysicalEducation.pdf

SHAPE America . ( 2020 ). Survey results reveal back to school readiness and concerns of nation’s health and physical education teachers . Retrieved from https://www.shapeamerica.org/pressroom/2020/Survey_Results_Reveal_Back_to_School_Readiness_and_Concerns_of_Nations_Health_and_PE.aspx

Slater , S.J. , Nicholson , L. , Chriqui , J. , Turner , L. , & Chaloupka , F. ( 2012 ). The impact of state laws and district policies on physical education and recess practices in a nationally representative sample of US public elementary schools . Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 166 ( 4 ), 311 – 316 . PubMed ID: 22147763 doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.1133

Williams , L. ( 2013 ). A case study of virtual physical education teachers’ experiences in and perspectives of online teaching . Retrieved from https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/4962/

Xiang , M. , Zhang , Z. , & Kuwahara , K. ( 2020 ). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on children and adolescents’ lifestyle behavior larger than expected . Progress in Cardiovascular Disease, 63 ( 4 ), 531 – 532 . doi:10.1016/j.pcad.2020.04.013

Young , J. , & Donovan , W. ( 2020 ). Shifting to online learning in the COVID-19 Spring. Pioneer Education . Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED604252

* Centeio is with the Department of Kinesiology and Rehabilitation Science, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA. Mercier is with the Health and Sport Sciences, Adelphi University, Garden City, NY, USA. Garn is with the School of Kinesiology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA. Erwin is with the Department of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA. Marttinen is with the College of Education and Human Development, George Mason University, Manassas, VA, USA. Foley is with the Department of Physical Education, State University of New York at Cortland, Cortland, NY, USA.

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Home > USC Columbia > Education, College of > Educational Studies > Educational Studies Theses and Dissertations

Educational Studies Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

Centering the Teacher: How an Autonomy-Supportive Environment Impacts Arts Educators’ Sense of Agency and the Collaborative Culture of Their Education Networks , Kyle Andrew Anderson

Effects of a Self-Monitoring Tracking System Combined With Blended Learning Intervention Time on Students’ Self-Regulated Learning Skills And Academic Performance , Jennifer E. Augustine

The Integration Of Simulation-enhanced Interprofessional Education Into Undergraduate Clinical Laboratory Science Curriculum , Dana Powell Baker

Reading Strategies: Impact on Fifth Grade African American Males’ Reading Comprehension and Motivation to Read , Patrice Antoinette Barrett

Tip of the Iceberg in Changing School Culture: Acknowledging and Addressing Microaggressions , Nicole Lauren Becker

The Impact of Ability Grouping on Academic Achievement in Elementary Reading , Kristi Bissell

Impacts of Technology-Enhanced Dual Enrollment Mathematics Course on Rural High School Students’ Intentions of Going to College , Nicolae Bordieanu

Educative Curricular Supports Used to Improve High Cognitive Demand Task Implementation in High-Dosage Mathematics Tutorial , Halley Bowman

Creating a Culturally Inclusive American Literature Classroom , Holly R. Bradshaw

The Impact of a Series of Professional Development Sessions on Culturally Responsive Pedagogy (CRP) on the Awareness Level of Seven Teachers at a Suburban High School , Charity Jo Brady

The Effects of Gamified Peer Feedback on Student Writing in High School English Language Arts , Kerise Amaris Broome

Evaluating the Impact of Personalized Professional Learning on Technology Integration in the Classroom , Angela Bishop Burgess

An Exploration of Perinatal Stress and Associated Mental Health of Transitioning First-Time Fathers , Timothy Reed Burkhalter

A Study of Computational Thinking Skills and Attitudes Towards Computer Science with Middle School Students , Lorien W. Cafarella

Using Critical Reflection to Mitigate Racial Implicit Bias and Enhance Cultural Humility: A Nursing Faculty Action Research Study , Teresa Stafford Cronell

Mitigating Student Anxiety in the Secondary Classroom: A Culturally Sustaining Approach , Erin Hawley Cronin

Daily Activities and Routines: A Comparative Case Study of the Home Language and Literacy Environment of Spanish-Speaking Toddlers With and Without Older Siblings , Eugenia Crosby-Quinatoa

Supporting Improvement In Academic Outcomes And Self-efficacy For Black Male Varsity Athletes , Katherine Currie

Online Professional Development’s Effect on Teachers’ Technology Self-Efficacy and Continuance Intention to Use Pear Deck , Katherine Shirley Degar

Empowering Teachers to Support MTSS Students: An Action Research Study , Sahalija Dentico

Multisensory Phonics Instruction in Struggling Readers , Amanda M. Dixon

Student Engagement Action Research a Focus on Culturally Relevant Instructional Methods , Amia Dixon

Instructional Coaching: A Support for Increasing Engagement in Middle School Mathematics , Christi Ritchie Edwards

A Holistic View of Integrated Care Within Counselor Education: A Multi-Manuscript Dissertation , Alexander McClain Fields

Faculty Perceptions of Readiness and Confidence for Teaching Online: An Evaluation of Online Professional Development , Kevin Brent Forman

The Effect Of Instructionally Embedded Cognitive Reframing On Students’ Self-beliefs Of Their Mathematical Competence , Kelly Eyre Frazee

An Examination of Physical Literacy: Learning Through A Technology Integrated, Flipped Classroom Approach. , Euan M. S. Frew

Increasing Phonemic Awareness in Intellectually Impaired Students by Using Wilson’s Fundations Phonics Program in a Self-Contained Classroom , Theresa Lynne Garcia

A Causal Comparative Study of the Effects of Physical Activity Course Enrollment on College Students’ Perceived Wellness, Mental Health, and Basic Psychological Needs , Genee’ Regina Glascoe

The Effect of Computer-Based Learning Modules on Pre-Algebra Student Proficiency and Self-Efficacy in Manipulating Math Expressions Involving Negative Signs , Brian Charles Grimm

Exploring Literary Responses to Culturally Relevant Texts Through an AsianCrit Lens: A Collective Case Study of Chinese American Students in a Community-Based Book Club , Wenyu Guo

Building Leadership Capacity to Support International Educators: A Professional Learning Series , Amanda Hajji Minnillo

Unveiling The Lifeworld Of Educators' Social Justice Journeys: A Phenomenological Investigation , Maria Rocas Halkias

The Influence and Impacts of Critical Literacy Intervention in Preservice Teachers Culturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy: A Mixed Methods Study , Heather Lynn Hall

Stories From North Carolina Teachers of Color: An Inquiry of Racialized Experiences in the Workplace. , Deborah Stephanie Harrison

Electronic Portfolios in a High School Community of Practice: Action Research Exploring Writing Experiences in an Advanced Placement Writing Course , Archibald Franklin Harrison IV

The Effects of Problem-Based Learning on Mathematics Motivation in a Flipped Classroom Instructional Environment , Joshua David Harrison

University, City, and Community: Athletics Urban Renewal Projects and the University of South Carolina’s Carolina Coliseum and Blatt Physical Education Center, 1964–1971 , Theresa M. Harrison

Stories from North Carolina Teachers of Color: An Inquiry of Racialized Experiences in the Workplace. , Deborah Stephanie Harrisson

Examining The Perceptions And Knowledge Of School Administrators In Special Education , Maranda Hayward

Supporting Black Students in Sixth-Grade Science Through a Social Constructivist Approach: A Mixed-Methods Action Research Study , Kirk Anthony Heath

Effects of Choice Reading on Intrinsic Motivation in Underperforming Sixth-Grade Students , Heather M. Henderson

Academic Success and Student Development in the Health Professions: An Action Research Study , Molly Ellen Higbie

Deficit Thinking in Teacher Course Level Recommendations , Andrew Hogan

Increasing English Progress Proficiency of Multilingual Learners Utilizing Improvement Science , Stephanie Corley Huckabee

The Impact of Cognitive Coaching on High School English Teachers’ Implementation of Metacognitve Reading Strategies , Charrai Hunter

Digital Literacy Integrated Into Academic Content Through the Collaboration of a Librarian and a Core Content Teacher , Jeri Leann Jeffcoat

The Effects of Hip-Hop and Rap Music Intervention to Improve the Wellbeing of Black and African American Men , Lanita Michelle Jefferson

The Effects of Learner-Centered Professional Development and Supporting Effective Teaching Practices in Elementary-Level Professional Learning Communities , Lisa Suther Johnson

Examining the Relationship Between Multicultural Training and Cultural Humility Development in CACREP-Accredited Counselor Education Programs , Sabrina Monique Johnson

Multimodal Digital Literacy Practices: Perspectives of L2 Academic Writing Instructors , Priscila Jovazino Bastos Medrado Costa

Using Yoga, Meditation, and Art Therapy to Combat Complex Trauma and Promote Social–Emotional Learning in the Art Room , Karen Emory Kelly

Perspectives, Motivations, and Resistance: Investigating Employee Responses to Employer-Sponsored Diversity Training , Robert Kerlin

STEM Educators’ Perceptions of Gender Bias and the Contributing Factors That Persist for Women in STEM Education , Haleigh Nicole Kirkland

A Qualitative Study Examining and Comparing Families’ and Teachers’ Perceptions of School Readiness , Shalonya Cerika Knotts

The Impact of Differentiated Affective Curriculum on the Asynchronous Social and Emotional Development of Gifted Elementary Students , Michelle Koehle

Supporting Self-efficacy Through Mindset: The Impact Of A Growth Mindset Innovation On The Self-efficacy Of Middle School Students In A Teen Leadership Course , Shannon J. Kojah

The Evolution of Contextualized, Discourse-based Professional Development to Support Elementary Teachers in the Implementation of Conceptual Mathematical Teaching Practices , Jennifer Aren Kueter

A Critical Examination Of An in Class Tabata Based Physical Fitness Protocol on Student Engagement Levels in a Sixth Grade Math Class , Justin R. Kulik

Mathematics Teachers’ Attitudes and Intentions Towards Instructional Videos as Part of a Flipped Learning Model , Jessica Lee Lambert

Reimagining Parent-teacher Relationships Through Human Centered Design , Andrea Lynn Lance

Increasing Math Knowledge in 3 rd Grade: Evaluating Student Use & Teacher Perceptions of Imagine Math , Paoze Lee

Utilizing Case Studies to Increase Critical Thinking in an Undergraduate Anatomy & Physiology Classroom , Sarah E. Lehman

Exploring Chinese International Students’ Motivational Factors in Non-Mandatory Event Participation , Aimin Liao

Preparing In-Service Elementary Teachers to Support English Language Learners: A Qualitative Case Study of a Job-Embedded Professional Development Using TPACK , Rachel Theresa Lopez

Impact of Virtual Models on Students’ Multilevel Understanding of an Organic Reaction , Eli Martin

Weathering the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Study Examining How the Lived Experience Affected English Learners , Mary Kathryn Maxwell

Racial Orientations: A Phenomenological Approach , Nicholas Mazur

Measuring the Impact of Peer Coaching on Teacher Effectiveness at Friendship County High School , Whittney Michele McPherson

The Effects of Technology Integration on Academic Performance and Engagement of Third Grade Social Studies Students: A Mixed Methods Study , Ashley Megregian

Beyond The Acronym Of Stem: Experiential Learning Professional Development For Integrative Stem Education , Christine Mitchell

Counter-Stories From Former Foster Youth: College Graduates Disrupting the Dominant Narrative , Amanda May Moon

Supporting LGBTQ+ ELA Students Through Action Research , Nicole Mustaccio

What Are They Thinking?: A Qualitative Study of Secondary Students’ Critical Thinking in Online Classes , Scott Allan Nolt

Impact of the Engineering Design Process on Rural Female Students’ Achievement and Self-Efficacy , Whitney Lowery Oberndorf

Shakespeare in Virtual Reality: Social Presence of Students in a Virtual Reality Book Club , John Funchess Ott Jr.

Teacher Observations as Professional Development Opportunities , Ashton Carrie Padgett

Reading Motivation and Retrieval Practice of United States Undergraduates Aged 18 to 23 , Robyn M. Pernetti

A Descriptive Study of Factors That Support and Hinder Classroom Discourse With English Learners , Jillian Camille Plum

Implementing Meaningful Problem-Based Learning in a Middle School Science Classroom , Celestine Banks Pough

Coaching to Success: Moving From a Fixed Mindset to a Growth Mindset Through Positive Motivation , Shannon Dianna Ramirez

Critical Literacy and Student Engagement: Disrupting the Canon in the Secondary English Classroom , Katherine Burdick Ramp

Pursuing Culturally Responsive Math Teaching By Secondary Math Educators: A Professional Development Action Research Study , Emily Bell Redding

The Impact of a Literacy Program on Summer Reading Setback: Providing Access to Books and Project-Based Learning , Tiffany Gayle Robles

Decentering the White Gaze: The Effects of Involving African-American Students in Curricular Decision-Making in an Independent School Library , Michelle Efird Rosen

Critical Literacy And Self Efficacy Among Secondary Students Repeatedly Engaged In Literacy Intervention , Haley Rowles

Transforming Lessons And Those Who Write Them: Professional Development For Educational Content Writers To Integrate Technology Into Lessons Using The Tpack Framework , Rachael Patricia Santopietro

An Examination of Semester-Long Review of Behavior Referral Data at a High School in a Southeastern State , Shalanda L. Shuler

Instructional Hub: Bridging the Gap in Teacher Preparation for Online Instruction , Charity Beth Simmons

The Impact of the Flipped Classroom Model on Elementary Students’ Achievement and Motivation for Learning Geometry , Kimberly M. Smalls

If Not Me, Then Who? A Study of Racial and Cultural Competence in a High School English Department , DiAnna Sox

“So, the World Isn’t Just Old White Guys?”: Student and Teacher Experiences in a Culturally Relevant Advanced Placement Chemistry Class , James Thomas Sox

1, 2, 3: Counting on Problem Based Learning to Improve Mathematical Achievement in African American Students , Kelley P. Spahr

The Use of Project-Based Learning to Scaffold Student Social and Emotional Learning Skill Development, Science Identity, and Science Self-Efficacy , Michelle Sutton Spigner

How Do the Students Feel? Long-Term English Learners and Their Experience Under the ESL Label , Molly M. Staeheli

My Journey Toward A Culturally Relevant Music Pedagogy , Adam Michael Steele

Implementation of Digital Flashcards to Increase Content-Specific Vocabulary Knowledge and Perceptions of Motivation and Self-Efficacy in an Eleventh-Grade U.S. History Course: An Action Research Study , Jill Lee Steinmeyer

Family Therapy, K-12 Public Education, and Discipline Risk: A Scoping Review and Relationship Analysis Multiple Manuscript Dissertation , Cara Melinda Thompson

The Impact of Extended Professional Development in Project-Based Learning on Middle School Science Teachers , Margrett Caroline Upchurch-Ford

A Qualitative Study on Mental Health Resource Utilization of Enlisted Airmen During the COVID-19 Pandemic , Hassahn Khali Wade

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Physical Education

Physical education is the foundation of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program. 1, 2 It is an academic subject characterized by a planned, sequential K–12 curriculum (course of study) that is based on the national standards for physical education. 2–4 Physical education provides cognitive content and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors for physical activity and physical fitness. 2–4 Supporting schools to establish physical education daily can provide students with the ability and confidence to be physically active for a lifetime. 2–4

There are many benefits of physical education in schools. When students get physical education, they can 5-7 :

• Increase their level of physical activity.
• Improve their grades and standardized test scores.
• Stay on-task in the classroom.

Increased time spent in physical education does not negatively affect students’ academic achievement.

Strengthen Physical Education in Schools [PDF – 437 KB] —This data brief defines physical education, provides a snapshot of current physical education practices in the United States, and highlights ways to improve physical education through national guidance and practical strategies and resources. This was developed by Springboard to Active Schools in collaboration with CDC.

Secular Changes in Physical Education Attendance Among U.S. High School Students, YRBS 1991–2013

The Secular Changes in Physical Education Attendance Among U.S. High School Students report [PDF – 3 MB] explains the secular changes (long-term trends) in physical education attendance among US high school students over the past two decades. Between 1991 and 2013, US high school students’ participation in school-based physical education classes remained stable, but at a level much lower than the national recommendation of daily physical education. In order to maximize the benefits of physical education, the adoption of policies and programs aimed at increasing participation in physical education among all US students should be prioritized. Download the report for detailed, nationwide findings.

Physical Education Analysis Tool (PECAT)

The  Physical Education Curriculum Analysis Tool (PECAT) [PDF – 6 MB] is a self-assessment and planning guide developed by CDC. It is designed to help school districts and schools conduct clear, complete, and consistent analyses of physical education curricula, based upon national physical education standards.

Visit our PECAT page  to learn more about how schools can use this tool.

• CDC Monitoring Student Fitness Levels1 [PDF – 1.64 MB]
• CDC Ideas for Parents: Physical Education [PDF – 2 MB]
• SHAPE America: The Essential Components of Physical Education (2015) [PDF – 391 KB]
• SHAPE America: Appropriate Instructional Practice Guidelines for Elementary, Middle School, and High School Physical Education [PDF – 675 KB]
• SHAPE America: National Standards and Grade-Level Outcomes for K–12 Physical Education 2014
• SHAPE America: National Standards for K–12 Physical Education (2013)
• SHAPE America Resources
• Youth Compendium of Physical Activities for Physical Education Teachers (2018) [PDF – 145 KB]
• Social Emotional Learning Policies and Physical Education
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A Guide for Developing Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs . Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Department of Health and Human Services; 2013.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. School health guidelines to promote healthy eating and physical activity. MMWR . 2011;60(RR05):1–76.
• Institute of Medicine. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2013. Retrieved from  http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=18314&page=R1 .
• SHAPE America. T he Essential Components of Physical Education . Reston, VA: SHAPE America; 2015. Retrieved from   http://www.shapeamerica.org/upload/TheEssentialComponentsOfPhysicalEducation.pdf  [PDF – 392 KB].
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance . Atlanta, GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Department of Health and Human Services; 2010.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Health and Academic Achievement. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2014.
• Michael SL, Merlo C, Basch C, et al. Critical connections: health and academics . Journal of School Health . 2015;85(11):740–758.

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