examples of research questions on autism

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100 Autism Research Paper Topics

Careful selection of autism research paper topics is very important. That’s because there are many autism topics that students can research and write about. The topic that a learner chooses dictates the direction that their research and writing process will take. As such, students should select their topic ideas based on their academic goals. Ideally, what a learner opts to write about should help them accomplish their study goals.

Autism can be defined as a spectral disorder that makes a child seem to have a world of their own. Many parents misinterpret this disorder and assume that the child does not notice them. However, this is usually not the case. Parents are the first people to notice this disorder. With more children being diagnosed with this disorder, educators are asking learners to write about autism essay topics.

If you’ve been asked to write about this subject, take your time to research this disorder. You can even read the autobiographies of autistic people. If possible, meet and interact with autistic people before you start writing. This will give you an idea of what this condition is all about. Our psychology topics may also come in handy. In most cases, you will be required to focus your paper or essay on the creation of more autism awareness. This article highlights some of the topics in autism that you can consider for your paper or essay.

Basic Autism Research Paper Topics

Autism is a broad research area. Researchers have delved into this field and came up with different findings. However, you can still pick a topic for your research in this field and come up with new information. Here are some of the most interesting research topics in autism that can form the basis of your academic paper or essay.

• Why some people autistic and others are not?
• Does being autistic have advantages?
• Why is being autistic disadvantageous?
• Some people have a good memory or recall skills, explain why
• Facts that people should know about autism
• Explain the chemical brain differences between autistic and non-autistic individuals
• Discuss some of major breakthroughs in autism research
• Why do people with autism have difficulty socializing with others?
• What can normal people learn from autistic people’s brains?
• What characteristics should a person with autism have?
• How should an autistic person be trained during care provision?
• What should caregivers understand about autism to do their job right?
• Explain the behavior of autistic individuals towards family members
• Provide an average autistic individual’s overview
• How can the social interactions of autistic people be improved?
• Explain what causes autism
• What educational programs do autistic people have?
• How to diagnose autism in the early stages
• Explain the role of music in an autistic person’s life
• Is there a treatment for reducing autistic people’s disadvantages?
• What are the employment limitations and opportunities for autistic people?
• Discuss the major stories about autism that have been shared in the media
• What is yet to be discovered about autism?
• Explain how healthcare workers can help autistic individuals go through their daily life
• Describe the top 5 autistic individuals that are best known in history

These are some of the most interesting autism topics for research paper or essay. However, you should research them extensively before you start writing. That’s because each of these topics requires you to include verifiable facts in your paper or essay.

Strong Autism Dissertation Topics

With so many children being diagnosed with autism, more learners are writing dissertations on this subject. And there are many autism research topics from which a learner can choose. Here are some of the best autism thesis topics to consider.

• Is there evidence to prove that environmental triggers are responsible for rising autism cases?
• Explain the relationship between stimming self-regulator for anxiety and autism
• Why is autism prevalence in western society greater?
• How is autism related to mental health?
• How can family doctors be supported to take care of autistic people?
• Discuss autism and childhood immunization
• Discuss some of the prominent individuals in history that were most likely autistic
• How can autistic people be supported at the workplace?
• How do autistic females differ from autistic males?
• Can autistic children adapt to mainstream education?
• What are the positives and negatives of special education for autistic children?
• Should autistic children attend special schools?
• Why do people consider autism a spectrum disorder?
• What diagnostic changes have raised the concern that Asperger’s Syndrome might no longer exist
• Does lifestyle play a role in autism?

Some of these topics on autism may seem complex to research and write about. However, you can find relevant and sufficient supporting evidence from different sources. You just need the time and resources required to write about any of these topics about autism.

Autism Parent Training Topics

Raising an autistic child is not easy. Parents and caregivers should learn about autism spectrum disorder and its effects on their children. They should also learn how this disorder affects the entire family. It’s for this reason that researchers focus on research topics in autism that educate parents and caregivers about taking care of autistic children. Here are some of the best autism social learning topics.

• How to manage the parenting challenges for people with autistic children
• How to enhance the communication skills of autistic children
• How to enhance the coping skills of autistic children
• How to address the negative behaviors of autistic children
• How to increase the play skills of autistic children
• How to diagnose autism early in children
• How to increase the independence of autistic children
• How to improve self-help in autistic children
• How does autism in one child affect the other family members?
• How to solve the daily problems of autistic children

Each of these topics is meant to produce a paper or essay that can help parents of autistic children cope with the disorder. The information can also help the parents make their children lead a better life despite their condition.

Paper Topics about Autism and Education

Since it’s a complex disorder that affects brain development, autism touches on education as well. Here are some of the good research paper topics on autism and education that you can write about.

• Why is autism worth researching?
• Discuss the causes of autism
• Discuss the development realms that are affected by autism
• What resources do autistic people have access to?
• Explain how autistic children learn
• Explain how autism affects the learning process
• Explain the struggles of autistic students
• Explain parent training autism
• Discuss the major types of autism
• How does learning differ between autistic and normal students?

These topics focus on the relationship between autism and learning or education. Just like the topics in the other categories, they require extensive research to write about too.

Autism Research Proposal Topics

A lot of information about autism is being discussed by researchers across the world. This makes it hard for some learners to pick proposal topics for their autism papers. Here are some of the topics to consider if struggling to pick your proposal topic.

• What is autism therapy?
• Is autism therapy helpful?
• How should caregivers provide care to autistic persons?
• What is the best way to work for an autistic person?
• Working with an autistic person- What are the major challenges?
• How do you cope with an autistic family member?
• How should autistic people be treated in social places?
• What limitations do autistic people have in modern society?
• Is the current society considerate of autistic people?
• How does modern technology benefit autistic people?

If you pick a research topic on autism from this category, take the time to research it extensively to write a brilliant paper or essay.

Thought-Provoking Autism Debate Topics

Perhaps, you want to write a paper or essay that can form the basis of a debate about autism. In that case, consider one of these topics.

• How celebrities and pseudo-scientists have caused serious damage by claiming that autism is related to vaccinations
• How to educate society about autism
• How to change the future of autistic children with early interventions
• How school officials can help autistic children
• How to help autistic kids whose parents are uncooperative or in denial
• How autistic children can benefit from occupational therapy
• Discuss the DSM-V regarding autism
• How educational opportunities for autistic children compare to those of normal children
• How health officials can convince the public that shots don’t cause autism
• Should children that have not been vaccinated because parents believe that vaccines cause autism be taken to school?
• How to support siblings of an individual with autism
• How to transition a person with autism to community-based services from school-based services.
• How to fight for autistic people’s rights
• How to deal with the psychological struggles of autistic children
• How music affects autistic patients
• Social organizations for autistic people
• Why diagnosing autism early is important
• Can autism be prevented?
• How to interact with autistic people
• What employment options do autistic people have?
• How to manage autism in adults
• A brief history of autism
• How living with an autistic person can affect your life
• How genetics affect autism
• Can the environment cause autism?
• Can medical treatment cause autism?
• A review of autism in different countries
• A review of autism in different cultures
• What signs of autism should parents watch out for?
• How to develop a treatment plan for autism

This category has controversial topics autism researchers can explore too. Nevertheless, whether you choose parenting or autism biology topics for research paper, take the time to research extensively before you start writing. Don’t hesitate to contact us if you need thesis writing help .

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College of Education and Human Development

Department of Educational Psychology

Research topics: Autism

Identifying, preventing, and developing interventions related to autism spectrum disorder.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and autism are both general terms for a group of complex disorders of brain development. These disorders are characterized, in varying degrees, by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviors. Research in the Department of Educational Psychology focuses on early identification, prevention measures, and interventions related to ASD.

LeAnne Johnson

Johnson (special education) researches interventions to improve outcomes for a range of preschool and elementary school-aged children who are at high risk given social, emotional, behavioral, and communication needs. Johnson is focused on creating the next generation of intervention studies that support high fidelity implementation of evidence-based interventions within tiered intervention and prevention models. This includes research projects that are designed to test the efficacy of social-communication interventions for children with autism.

Jason Wolff

Wolff (special education) runs a lab funded funded in-part by the National Institute of Mental Health with two goals -- to leverage brain imaging data to characterize factors associated with the early emergence of behavioral excesses and deficits in autism spectrum disorder, and to identify potential neurodevelopmental moderators of response to early intervention. The ultimate goal of this work is to determine how brain and behavioral data may be used to inform the timing and content of early or even preventative interventions.

Panayiota Kendeou

Kendeou (psychological foundations of education) investigates how people learn new knowledge and revise pre-existing incorrect knowledge or misinformation during their reading experiences. She is currently investigating how misinformation that resists correction influences reasoning and decision making in health issues pertaining to ASD (e.g., reliance on ineffective treatments, withholding vaccinations), and explore ways for effective revision.

M.Y. Savana Bak

Bak's research focuses on measurement and analysis of language in children with ASD using language samples collected from the children’s natural environment. She strives to develop practical interventions and identify environmental factors that facilitate language development and increase social interaction in children with ASD.

Related degrees

Phd in special education.

Interested in conducting research in autism spectrum disorder? Learn more about earning your doctorate in special education .

Related labs and projects

• ALAB: A Lab for Autism Research
• Reading + Learning Lab
• Research lab: Jason Wolff

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A Guide to Identifying and Understanding Scientific Research About Autism

Whether you are an individual with autism or a parent to a loved one with an autism spectrum disorder, you may want to stay informed about scientific research related to ASD. You can find information on the internet and other media channels, but how accurate is that information? Knowing how to understand scientific research studies can help you find reliable and relevant information. 

This article is a tool to help you assess information about autism based on scientific principles. As you put these recommendations into practice, remember to use critical thinking and common sense when assessing any claim about autism. Combining an understanding of scientific research studies with your own powers of reasoning can help you: 

• Make evidence-based decisions
• Understand recommendations from your care team and discuss them knowledgeably
• Minimize overwhelm
• Advocate for yourself or your family member with autism. 

Good autism research – like all medical research – meets three criteria: It is based on scientific principles and procedures, it has been peer-reviewed, and the study is able to be replicated. We’ll explore each of these criteria in more detail below.

Special thanks to Anissa Ryland and the staff of The Johnson Center for Child Health and Development for helping to develop some of the guidelines and information included in this article. 

What is a peer-reviewed study?

Peer-review is a process that academic journals use to understand if the studies they publish are based on good research. Before including a study in their publication, the journal sends the research out to other experts in the field. 

Experts who were not involved in the original study check that the study design applies scientific principles and procedures. They also use their own knowledge of the subject to determine whether the results and conclusions make sense based on available data. The editor of the journal takes their recommendations into account when deciding whether to publish the study. 

Some scientific journals have been in print longer than others or are more respected in their field. Readers can use a metric called an impact factor to decide if the journal that printed a particular study is a reliable source of information. The Impact factor is the total number of times articles from that journal were cited, divided by the total number of citable articles in that journal during that span of time. 

The impact factors of various journals are calculated and printed yearly in Journal Citation Reports . You can find the current impact factor of most journals with a quick web search. Keep in mind that a journal must exist for at least two years before its impact factor can be calculated. 

Where to find research

Many groups, organizations, and individuals write about autism. Whenever you come across a new treatment or new information about autism, you can check the validity by seeking out original sources. 

Places to find original sources: 

• Google Scholar
• University websites
• Journal websites

Some of these research aggregation services are free, others cost money. For paid services, check with your local library to see if they can connect you with a free account. You can also ask your clinician to provide you with research related to specific treatments, comorbidities, and symptoms

Types of studies

You may come across several different types of studies as you read and learn about autism. Each study type can be used to investigate topics related to autism, but some have a wider application than others. Get to know the different study types so you can think critically about how the research applies to you or your child with autism. 

• Animal and Cell Studies – Observe and test animals or cell cultures. These types of studies provide initial insight, but the application to humans may not be clear. 
• Case Reports – A written record on a single subject. Each case study represents an individual experience. This can be a starting point for research. It does not prove that what worked for one individual will work for others. 
• Case Series – A group of case reports that track multiple subjects. Remember that correlation is not causation. That means that two things can happen around the same time, but that doesn’t prove one caused the other. 
• Case-Control Studies – Look at the experiences of two groups of subjects, one group with autism and one without. The investigation is retrospective, meaning it looks at experiences in the past and attempts to draw conclusions. Causation is hard to prove with this type of study.
• Cohort Studies – Track two groups, ex. One group of people with autism and one group without or one group that receives treatment and one that does not. It notes differences in outcomes for the two groups.
• Randomized Controlled Trials – Randomly assigns subjects to either a test group or a control group. The test group receives the treatment while the control group receives a placebo. This type of study can be blind (study subjects don’t know which group they’re in) or double-blind (experimenters also don’t know which group the subjects are in).
• Systematic Review – Compares and contrasts the results of several randomized controlled trials and draws conclusions based on the quality of the study and on their results. 

Assessing information about autism and autism treatments

The following questions will help you use what you’ve learned to assess information about autism and autism treatments. Remember that critical thinking skills are your most valuable tools in assessing any claim about autism spectrum disorder. 

What is the source of this information? Blog posts, books, pamphlets, social media posts, websites, news stories, or other non-journal sources can bring information to your attention, but it’s up to you to check their sources. Is the information based on studies and research or is it the opinion of the author?

Who performed this research? What people, groups, universities, or businesses were involved in this study? Do they have a track record of producing reliable autism research? 

Who funded this research? Does the researcher or institution have any conflicts of interest that I should be aware of? What businesses, funding sources, products, or services, might benefit from the results of this study?

Has the research been peer-reviewed? Does it appear in a peer-reviewed journal? What is the impact factor of that journal? 

Has it been replicated? Have other scientists used the same method to achieve the same results? If not, why not? Be cautious about accepting any claim that has not been tested by other researchers or studies.

What other works are cited in the study? Are the researchers basing their work on good science? Have they cited earlier studies published in peer-reviewed journals?

Reading and assessing biomedical research studies takes practice. Navigating autism research can be overwhelming at first, but critical thinking and common sense, along with the knowledge you’ve gained in this article, can help you assess information. Stop and think whenever you read a new statement about autism treatments, possible causes, or potential outcomes. Before acting on any new information go to the source to check the validity of the claim. 

For more on understanding autism research, watch this webinar from The Johnson Center.

Scientific Research Glossary

Autism and Sleep – Research Updates

autismAdmin 2024-04-17T17:37:25-05:00 April 16th, 2024 | Autism Spectrum Disorders , Sleep Issues , Ways to Help , Webinar |

Learn research updates on co-occurring sleep disturbances and autism. To participate in the study mentioned in the presentation, see: Participate in our Research - Sleep, Cognition and Neuropsychiatry (SCAN)

Animal study reveals clues that developmental vitamin D deficiency may be associated with gut alterations in autism

Melanie Glock 2024-04-28T15:44:50-05:00 September 25th, 2023 | News |

Vitamin D deficiency is strongly implicated as a risk factor for autism spectrum disorders (ASD), and researchers in Australia report evidence that vitamin D deficiency during early development may increase the likelihood

New multi-national study adds to evidence linking alterations of the gut microbiome to autism

Melanie Glock 2024-04-28T15:46:00-05:00 August 29th, 2023 | News |

Strong new evidence linking alterations of the gut microbiome to autism spectrum disorders (ASD) comes from a new multi-national study by James Morton and colleagues. In the study, researchers in North America,

Editorial: Revisiting Two Lesser-Known Teaching Strategies to Enhance Speech Production in Autism

Melanie Glock 2024-04-28T15:46:44-05:00 August 29th, 2023 | News |

In this editorial, I would like to shed light on two methods for improving the speech production of individuals on the autism spectrum, discuss potential neurological factors that may underlie their effectiveness,

Sleep problems in infancy associated with ASD, autism traits, and social attention alterations

Melanie Glock 2024-04-28T15:47:35-05:00 July 20th, 2023 | News |

A new study from the United Kingdom indicates that sleep problems in infancy may help to predict later social skills deficits, autism traits, and autism diagnoses in children. Jannath Begum-Ali and colleagues

Constipation in infancy associated with higher likelihood of autism diagnosis

Melanie Glock 2024-04-28T15:48:23-05:00 June 26th, 2023 | News |

More evidence linking autism spectrum disorders (ASD) to gastrointestinal problems comes from a study by researchers in Taiwan and the United States, who report that ASD occurs at an elevated rate in

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144 comprehensive autism research paper topics that will help you.

July 28, 2021

Do you need autism research paper topics that will impress your educator to award you high grades? If yes, this article lists the best 140-plus ideas to consider for your papers and essays.

Simple  Autism Topics for Research Paper 

Perhaps, you want to write a paper about an easy topic. In that case, select the idea to work with from this category. Any of these topics can be a brilliant idea for an autism paper. Nevertheless, take your time to investigate it extensively, gather, and analyze data to develop a winning piece.

• Investigating the autism spectrum disorder’s prevalence
• Autism Diagnostic interview
• What are the primary causes of autism?
• Reasons for the increasing autism cases in children
• Effective learning and teaching methods for autistic children
• Mainstream education and autism
• Are there advantages of being autistic?
• What are the disadvantages of being autistic?
• Why are some individuals autistic while others are not
• Explain why some individuals have a good recall or memory skills
• What should people know about autism?
• Who are the top five most known autistic individuals in human history?
• How healthcare workers assist autistic persons in their daily lives
• What are humans yet to discover about autism?
• Discuss autism stories that people have shared on social media
• Describe the employment opportunities and limitations for autistic individuals
• Describe a treatment that can reduce autistic individuals’ disadvantages
• What is the primary cause of autism?
• What role does music play in the life of an autistic person?
• Explain autism diagnosis during the early stages
• Describe the educational programs for autistic persons
• What’s the average overview of an autistic person?
• Explain ways of improving autistic people’s interactions
• Explain an autistic individual’s behavior towards his family members?
• How the chemical brain of an autistic person differs from that of a non-autistic individual
• What are the most prominent research breakthroughs in autism?
• Why autistic persons struggle to socialize with others
• What normal individuals should learn from the brains of autistic persons
• Describe the characteristics of autistic persons
• Tips for training autistic persons when providing care
• Things caregivers should know about autism to do an excellent job
• How family members should behave towards autistic individuals

Autism Biology Topics Research Paper  Ideas

Students can also write autism biology papers and score top grades. If interested in autism biology, here is a list of topics to consider for your research paper. Any of these topics can be the basis of a debate because people have varying views towards them. You need sufficient and reliable information to support your argument.

• Is there sufficient evidence proving that environmental triggers are responsible for the rising autism cases?
• Why is western society reporting higher autism prevalence?
• Do literature and art help in raising awareness about autism?
• Reviewing films whose basis is an autism spectrum disorder
• How the media portrays autism and its effects
• Prominent public figures that lived with autism for years
• The impact of maternal age on autism
• Asperger’s syndrome and autism- An explorative study
• Analyzing the genome’s dark regions and their effect on autism mutation
• Gene expression control and its impact on autism mutation
• The connection between genetic variants and autism
• Obesity and autism- Is there a correlation?
• How a subtle genetic modification can affect an autistic person
• Autism and fragile x syndrome
• How brain homes affect autism
• Autism and vasopressin- What’s the link?
• Brain signature similarities with autism
• Investigating the unusual sensory response in an autistic person
• The effects of the cerebellum on an autistic person’s social behavior
• Anybody that loves biology will be interested in reading a paper on any of these ideas. However, make sure that your essay is on-point.
• Thought-Provoking Autism Controversial Issues to Write About
• Perhaps, you want to research and write about a thought-provoking topic about autism. In that case, consider one of these issues.
• Is autism a disorder or a difference?
• Timeline and history of autism
• Why are autism rates increasing dramatically?
• Things that scientists have disproven about autism causes
• Questionable and risky autism treatments
• The best autism treatments
• Should autistic children have a unique educational setting?
• Which are the best educational options for autistic children?
• Autistic children should have a unique home
• Autism and vaccinations- Is there any relations?
• Ways to raise autism awareness in society
• Changing the autistic children’s future through early interventions
• How educators can help children with autism
• Ways to help autistic children with uncooperative parents
• Can occupational therapy help autistic children?
• DSM-V and autism
• A comparison of autistic children’s and normal kids’ educational opportunities
• Ways health officials can convince their clients that vaccines don’t cause autism
• Should schools vaccinate children that haven’t received their shots because parents believe they cause autism?

Research Paper Topics Dealing with Autism  and Education

Experts recommend teaching people and caregivers about autistic persons. Through training, educators, parents, and other people can know how to treat autistic persons. Here are good research paper topics on autism and education. These topics relate expert advice with parenting and the daily life of autistic individuals. But like the other ideas, they need thorough research to come up with impressive papers.

• Ways to solve autistic children’s daily problems
• Why is autism research necessary?
• Differences in education among autistic kids and normal children
• Different autism types
• Understanding the struggles of students suffering from autism
• What are the possible autism causes?
• Managing parenting challenges when you have an autistic child
• Ways to improve autistic children’s communication skills
• How to enhance autistic kids’ coping skills
• Addressing negative behaviors among autistic children
• Increasing autistic children’s play skills
• Ways to diagnose autism early in children
• Ways to increase autistic children’s independence
• Effects of autism in a single child on family members
• Improving self-help among autistic children
• How autism affects different developmental realms
• Learning in autistic kids
• Resources available for autistic people
• Effects of autism on the learning process
• Why do parents need training about autism?

Autism Research Analysis Paper Topics 

Perhaps, you want to autism research topics you can analyze extensively in your paper or essay. If so, consider these ideas for your project. You can analyze any of these research topics on autism in your paper with proper references to impress the educator and earn the top grade in your class.

• Qualities of an effective autism treatment plan
• Autism signs that every parent should know
• Reviewing autism in various regions
• Analyzing the probability of medical treatment causing autism
• Analysis of the effects of genetics on autism
• Investigating the impact of an autistic person on a standard individual
• Analysis of autism history
• Ways adult patients can manage autism
• Analyzing the employment opportunities for autistic people
• Exploring parental education benefits in managing autism in children
• Analyzing the variations in social implications depending on autistic spectrum disorder and gender
• Analysis of the support autistic people need at the workplace
• Examining the socio-cultural effects of autism on understanding and behavior
• Do autistic children need special schools?- A detailed analysis
• Investigating the contextual drives affecting autism understanding in society
• Analyzing the peer group role in autism
• Investigating the increasing autism prevalence in western society
• Post-traumatic stress disorder- Analyzing its impact on parents with autistic kids
• Exploring the cross-cultural experiences of autistic persons
• Analyzing the role technology can play in improving autistic people’s social skills

Autism Research Questions 

One of the best ways to develop good research topics is by asking questions about the subject you find interesting. For instance, you can brainstorm autism thesis topics by asking questions about this illness. Here are some of the queries you can ask about autism, which can form the basis of your paper.

• Which is the most accepted theory about autism spectrum disorder’s pathophysiology?
• How can caregivers improve service delivery when dealing with autistic persons?
• How can ordinary people understand sensory processing among autistic persons?
• How can companies encourage ordinary people to support autistic employees?
• How can employers implement person-centered intervention to support autistic employees?
• How can companies maximize the performance and potential of autistic people at the workplace?
• How can hospitals improve autism diagnostic procedures?
• How can hospitals ensure the appropriate diagnosis of autistic adults?
• How can family members and parents provide quality care for autistic kids?
• How can ordinary people support families and parents with autistic kids?
• What support is ideal for autistic children?
• Which environments are suitable for helping autistic persons achieve quality education and life skills?
• How can society help autistic persons get the most from life?
• Which interventions can enhance mental health in autistic persons?
• How can caregiver reduce mental health issues among autistic persons?
• How can caregivers adapt mental health interventions for autistic individuals?
• Which interventions work in developing language skills in autistic persons?
• How can society support social care for autistic adults?
• Which intervention work in reducing anxiety among autistic people?
• Is autism treatable?
• Who suffers more, an autistic child or their family?
• What facts do most people not know about autism?
• Which brain part does autism damage?
• Does autism escalate with age?
• Is autism the same as brain damage?
• How can you tell that your kid is not autistic?
• Can a person inherit autism?
• Does an autistic person have a higher risk of having an autistic child?
• Is autism a disability?
• How does level I differ from level II autism?
• Which questions does the doctor ask during an autism assessment?

Students have many autism spectrum disorder research topics and questions to consider as titles for their papers. However, learners should pick exciting topics to develop outstanding pieces. If you are unable to select a topic and write an essay, seek professional writing help online. Expert writers can help you with topic selection or even write a high-quality, custom paper for you.

Take a break from writing.

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165 Autism Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Struggle with writing a research paper topics on autism? We’ve got your back covered! Below, you will find a list of 147 topics about autism as well as autism research paper examples!

🏆 Best Research Autism Topics & Essay Examples

👍 good autism essay topics, 💡 psychology research autism topics to write about, ⭐ simple & easy autism essay titles, ❓ research questions about autism.

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Autism is a serious disorder that has the potential to disrupt the success of people living with it. This is to mean that the theory of causation regarding autism is not complete as yet.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in a Child At the moment, M.is more verbal with his parents and siblings and reacts adequately to them, especially in repeated day-to-day situations.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children and Its Impact on the Family Manning, Wainwright and Bennet argue that children with autism are faced with a big challenge because of the nature of the symptoms the disorder.
• How Christopher’s Autism Affect His Life In spite of the fact that the issue of autism is not clearly explained in the story, the condition of the narrator is referred to as high-functioning autism or Aspersers Syndrome on the cover of […]
• Analysis of Children Autism in “The Black Balloon” It is imperative to note that Charlie’s emotions are not regulated and as such, manifest in immature behaviors such as flapping of his hands.
• “Let Me Hear Your Voice: A Family’s Triumph Over Autism” by Catherine Maurice The book was published in 1994, and it was a success as parents of autistic children were waiting for someone to prove that autism was not an incurable disorder.
• Autism and Educational Process Owing to these adverse effects that can stem from autism and the shear prevalence of the condition in the country’s population, a lot of research effort has been dedicated to the early diagnosis and treatment […]
• Exploring Autism in the Drama Film Rain Man Charlie Babbitt, the brother to Raymond, is the actor who portrays Raymond’s autism on the way to Los Angeles to secure his fair share in the Babbitt’s $3 million fortunes in form of inheritance.
• Autism. Sensory Integration. Tactile Desensitization The poor development that is recorded at the early stages in life is likely to affect the development of different skills by the individuals even in the adult stages The signs that are associated with […]
• Inclusion Curriculum for Children With Autism In the given paper, the issue of children autism, the developmental issues that autism triggers and the educational prospects for children with autism are going to be considered.
• Autism Programs to Enhance Students’ Outcomes In addition to social and behavioral challenges, ASD typically hinders a learner’s ability to gain and process the necessary academic information.
• Impact of Autism Disorder on Adolescents This essay discusses the impact of autism disorder on adolescents in the community and a nursing intervention that can be used to assist adolescents in becoming prominent society members.
• Progression of Reading Ability in a Child Diagnosed With Autism The battery of assessments and interviews with parents on the participant’s socialization and early reading ability indicates the study applied the Psychometric and Social Contextual approaches.
• Analysis of Behavior of Preschool Age Child With Autism The child’s behavior in the video differs from that of a mentally healthy child, and these differences lie in the child’s other emotional state and degree of interest in talking to people.
• Autism and Disability Advocacy People with autism can contribute to the diversity of disability culture by expanding understanding of what disability is and how it can be accepted.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis According to DSM-5, to fit the diagnostic criteria for ASD, a child must have evident deficits in three major areas of social communication as well as 2 out of the 4 restricted or repetitive behaviors.
• Thinking in Pictures: Autism and Sensory Problems The chapter “The Squeeze Machine: Sensory Problems in Autism” in Grandin’s Thinking in Pictures presents a series of life perspectives of various individuals, including her own, regarding the sensory problems they experienced. They postulated that […]
• Therapeutic Programs for Children With Autism in K-12 Institutions In the paper, the gaps in the research of effective treatments for children with ASD are explored, after which the efficacy of a multi-system aquatic therapy and standardized equine-assisted therapy program is argued.
• Societal Issue Research Project: Autism Spectrum Disorder The first factor is the significant risk that the genetics of siblings who had ASD diagnosis will increase the chance of the disorder.
• Child-Centered Play Therapy and Autism The purpose of the discussed research was to investigate the effects of CCPT on the sample of children with autism, establishing and describing the connection between CCPT and social and emotional growth.
• Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Training Program for Caregivers The latter means that many caregivers take care of children with ASD, hence the importance of equipping them with the necessary skills for effective and smooth parenting and coping with various difficulties.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder’s Impact on Child’s Learning In regards to the public-school setting, standardized testing demands youngsters to grasp and react to spoken as well as written communication at an anticipated pace and level.
• Laboratory Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders The purpose of my study is to discover which of these methods is more accurate, with the reason being the importance of early diagnosis of ASD, which leads to better treatment outcomes.
• Autism and Related Cognitive Concepts It has been suggested that children with autism show a general deficit of cognitive skills in multilevel planning and in the regulation of behavior.
• Bullying and Autism Spectrum Disorder In fact, bullying as a social phenomenon can be characterized as a social and interaction issue; therefore, it is possible to analyze the connection between autism and acts of bullying and inappropriate behavior.
• Aspects of Autism Spectrum Disorder Overall, for children with autism spectrum disorder, it is quite complicated to learn the norms within society around them, as they are having difficulties comprehending other people’s emotions and behavior.
• Face Emotion Recognition in Autism Phenotype One critical aspect of social communication is the capability to apprehend the emotions and intentions of another person. In conclusion, Autism Spectrum Disorder makes the interpretation of facial expressions difficult.
• How Does Having a Child With Autism Affects Parents’ Lifestyle? The creation of a system of psychological, pedagogical and social support can reduce the risk of a complete family life dedication to a child with autism.
• Misrepresentation of Autism in the ‘Music’ Film While the film was not centered on the topic of autism as its message, the stereotype-heavy portrayal and a lack of research make it a harmful piece of media.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Prevalence and Impact in Society It has therefore been impossible to determine the level of increase in autism cases that is as a result of improved diagnostic measures and that which can be attributed to the real increase in autism […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Diagnosis, Impact, Treatment The main diagnostic element for ASD is the evidence of difficulties, either in the present or past, which are different across the age groups.
• Autism and Vaccination Refusal Management Among Somalian Parents Somalian parents in their community in Minnesota refuse from their children being vaccinated, as they believe that vaccination causes autism.
• Everyone Has the Power to Effect Positive Change Within the Autism Community This paper presents what is autism, how every one reacts to the problem, what is the difference between the rich and the poor in their response towards the problem.”Autism is one of five developmental disorders […]
• Reducing Off-Task Behaviors Using a Token Economy System in Children With Autism Token economy is a strategy of positive reinforcement that can be provided to children in the form of tokens for completing the assigned tasks.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Key Points The requirement to meet these needs is supported by the fact that the rate of students with ASD is high: according to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, more than 83 per cent of […]
• “Theoretical Aspects of Autism” by Helen Ratajczak On the whole, it is possible to say that the standards set by Austin Hill cannot be always met, in part because the physiological aspects of this disease have not been fully investigated.
• Dr. Temple Grandin’s Argument on Visual Thinking and Autism A more in-depth analysis of visual activities can reveal the all imagery can be mentally processed and modified by children so that images are rotated and analyzed to make the brain map expand.
• Intellectual Disability: Autism In their adulthood, and because of the communication issues that most individuals with autism tend to have, they will naturally have difficulty in finding and keeping jobs.
• Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy for Children With Autism On the positive side, it fastens the production of different types of reactive oxygen used in the body. It is arguable that the size of the samples used in the study was small.
• Occupational Therapy for Children With Autism The main reason for the appearance of autism is the disturbance of the development of the patients brain which results in the appearance of various symptoms.
• The Mitochondria and Autism – Results and Main Function The results are important in health because children with autism were more probable to have dysfunctions and abnormalities of the mitochondria such as over replication and deletion of mitochondrial DNA compared to those without the […]
• Autism Etiology, Symptoms, Beliefs, and Management To date, debate on the cause or etiology of autism still remains divided, with extant literature demonstrating that “although many hypotheses have been proposed, a singular or specific combination of causes has yet to be […]
• Quantitative Assessment of Neuromotor Function in Adolescents With High Functioning Autism: Critique The study authors did not give the benefits and/or risks associated with the study participation. The authors indicated that the ZNA was appropriate for collecting the data because it could measure the 11 parameters of […]
• Critical Appraisal on the Impact of Autism Spectrum Disorders on the Family: A Qualitative Study of Mothers’ Perspectives The study researchers established the significance of the study by outlining the social and financial implications of taking care of children with ASD.
• Autism: External Forces, Causes and Treatment The increasing prevalence of Autism in the United States and across the world is attracting great attention from the healthcare sector to design critical programs tailored to stem the disorder in terms of prevention, treatment, […]
• The Importance of Services for Children With Autism The plea of the majority of Americans for the reverse of healthcare budget allocation is well because it is wrong to interfere with services offered to children with autism. With childcare initiative in place, the […]
• Autism: General Information and Treatment She argues that the treatment of autism is through scientific proven medication that aids in controlling aggressive behaviors and that Trisperidone is the commonly used antipsychotic.
• The Issue of Autism: Task-Group Project The role of B.N.in the meeting can be seen as a summarizer, providing a summary of the minutes of the previous meeting.
• Concepts of Autism and Williams Syndrome The disorder manifests itself in the early years of a child’s life, with long-lasting effects that are not curable but controllable and easy to deal with on condition that, the concerned parties take the necessary […]
• Autism Program’s Impact Across Contexts In other words, a detailed overview of the issues that administrators face when designing the program and which the teachers have to deal with when addressing the needs of children with autism must be carried […]
• Autism: Teaching Plan for Taking All the Features Into Account For the first child, caregiver training was done at child’s bedroom, and for the second child it was done at living room, and for the third child with severe mental retardation it was carried out […]
• Education Considerations for Students With Autism Two articles under consideration consider the opposite views regarding the education of students with autism; on the basis of the information obtained from these articles, it can be stated that none of the perspectives is […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorders: Diagnostic Procedure In general, this journal is very interesting and it is an important contribution to the development of appropriate screening and identification procedures for children with ASD.
• Developmental Psychology: Autism and Vaccination Vaccination of infants is widely used today as the pattern of endemic diseases can be explained in terms of interplay of social, physical and biological factors in an area that is conducive to a continuous […]
• Social Work Methods to Treat the Child Who Is Suffering From Autism This is a clear indicator that alcohol intake by the family is costing the members and it is an issue that needs to be looked into.
• Proposal for the Organization of the Concert in Autism Support The paper will be focused on the organizational aspects of the autism support concert and the people to be invited to this meeting attendance.
• The Development of Autism Analysis The paper will disclose the interviews of this famous and significant person whom managed to give all her efforts to the development of autism charitable programs and contribute to autism support all over the world. […]
• Autism and Immunization: Vaccines and the Changing Epidemiology The interest and attention invoked by this paper were largely due to the fact that it appeared to provide a biological means through which MMR vaccine resulted in autism.
• Do Vaccinations Cause Autism in Children? Autism is defined by the Autism Society of America as ” a complex developmental disability that typically appears during the first 3 years of life and is the result of a neurological disorder that affects […]
• Autism. Child and Family Assessment The other common disorder associated with autism is that of mutism whereby it also lies under the category of speech disorder and in many cases it is difficult to be diagnosed and at the same […]
• Autism and False Belief in Psychology The theories are found to be covering the deficits of an individuals’ mind and factors relating to autism, research further indicates that a child’s behavior may be influenced by the executive functions this, therefore, brings […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder and Interventions However, the negative side of it is that such an intervention is limited to those patients who are verbal and have limited vocabulary.
• Autism: Methods of Diagnosing and Treatment Analysis A malfunction in the neural circuitry of the brain of those with autism is the likely cause of their perceptions regarding social interaction and lack of adequate cognitive abilities.
• Autism: Symptoms, Forms, Diagnostic Instruments Autism is basically a developmental disorder of the human brain that its first symptoms are initially manifested in infancy and it follows a steady cause without relapse.
• Mercury, Vaccines and Autism: One Controversy, Three Histories In due course of time, the emergence of organomercurials as effective agents in combating bacterial contamination of vaccines slowly resulted in the research on and inclusion of thimerosal, a white crystalline powder in the form […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Features in Children One of the causes for the appearance of these issues is an inborn disability that might presuppose the need for specific methods to educate a child and guarantee a chance for integration with society.
• Autism Occurrence by Measles Vaccine Status The organization of information in the text follows a logical format by introducing the background for the vaccine, incorporating the issue of ASD connection, and leading up to the primary research question.
• Parental Report of Vaccine Receipt in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder In the introduction, which is the first section, the study’s research problems and their significance to nursing are stated. The discussion section covers how the authors relate the findings to the research objective and the […]
• Teenagers With Autism Disorder Autism is seen as a spectrum disorder since its severity and symptoms vary greatly among affected individuals – from mild and occasional to persistent and interfering with all aspects of life.
• Impact of Autism Spectrum Disorders on Life However, between the ages of two and three, his lack of verbal activity and inability to “echo” simple sounds and syllables were found to be very concerning by the family.
• Risperidone in Children With Autism: ANOVA Article The variables used in the article are sufficient for the investigation, and they would not be changed. The study authors assume that risperidone and placebo treatments would have significant variations in the mental abilities of […]
• Autism Should Not Be Viewed as a Disability A good example is that the treatment of autism as a mental disorder makes it possible for pharmaceutical companies and clinics to invent new health systems or procedures that will meet the needs of the […]
• Autism Spectrum and Features of Health Conditions Nevertheless, the manifestations of the autism spectrum also depend on the intellectual abilities of the person and his or her age.
• Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder For instance, the researchers have reviewed the findings by the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention and the Government Accountability Office to present the statistics on children with ASD and the increase in the number […]
• Autism: Main Symptoms and Research Major symptoms of the disorder are repetitive behavior, abnormal communication development, and motor skills development. Major symptoms of autism are repetitive behavior, abnormal motor skills, and communication development.
• Autist Student’s Behavior and Remedial Plan In the process of reading, I would pay attention to the student’s concentration and ability to integrate what she was reading. She also took long in doing this and did not want to stop the […]
• Autism Treatment, Its Methods and Results It was appropriate to focus on the use of the DSE intervention and examine if addressed most of the challenges facing many ASD patients.
• The Physiological Impact of Autism on Children and Parents It is possible to speak about the physiological impact of ASD on children and their parents in the UK, and the detailed examination of this issue is required. To review the literature on possible barriers […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Programs Effectiveness The purpose of this PE, therefore, is to evaluate and analyze the efficiency of the programs implemented by the Day Support Services.
• Autism: Characteristics, Prevalence and Interventions The symptoms of autism are noticeable in the early years of childhood. Occupational therapy is one of the non-educational interventions used to assist kids with autism.
• Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders The main goal of this paper is to present a review of relevant literature addressing the issue of helping college students with ASD prepare for workforce readiness and job placement.
• Autism Treatment Network in the PEACE Program In order to use these resources in PEACE, it is necessary to establish a budget that will cover expenditures on training courses for specialists involved in the program, educational materials, seminars, and individual counseling.
• Association Between Vaccination and Autism The study examined whether there is a link between the toxic effects of exposure to thimerosal-containing vaccines and the risk of developing ASD.
• Olfaction and Autism Spectrum Disorder Relationship These findings reveal that the sniff test can reveal both the presence and severity of ASD in young children. The link between ASD and olfaction can be used in diagnosing young children with autism.
• Vaccination Contrubution to Autism Development This anxiety has led to a civic health dispute about the civil liberties of parents to decide whether to vaccinate their children, along with the state regulation on vaccinations to guard the wellbeing of its […]
• Abu Dhabi Autism Center The Abu Dhabi Autism Center has to operate within the laws and regulations of the Zayed Higher Organization for Humanitarian Care and Special Needs.
• Applied Behavior Analysis Treatment for Autism It is the most commonly applied autism treatment remedy in the United States and several other countries in the world and the major method that schools and therapists embrace and use.
• Involving Adults With Autism Plus Learning Disability Since the method is interviewing, a particular aspect of the study that should be addressed with attention is the researchers’ perspective.
• Inclusive Education: Child With Autism and Spina Bifida It is worth mentioning that Ted’s mother is willing to cooperate with teachers, and her participation can be of great assistance to the teacher.
• Bright Not Broken: Gifted Kids, ADHD, and Autism It is possible to state that the book provides rather a high-quality review of the issues about the identification, education, and upbringing of the 2e children.
• Case Law and Case Study of a Student With Autism On reviewing the evaluation results in the presence of the student’s mother, an agreement was reached on the general education placement for the student.
• Children With Autism’ Communication in Saudi Arabia Parents of children with autism in Saudi Arabia have complained that the government has neglected the needs of autistic children by failing to finance their education and research to detect the effectiveness of the digital […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorders: Testing and Measurement It will begin with the rationale that explain why the issues are critical, followed by the reasons for unavailability of the solutions to the issues and the consequences of the issues.
• Autism Spectrum Disorders and Educational Interventions From this point, this paper aims to discuss the definition of Autism Spectrum Disorders, examine the etiology and incidence of the disorder, focus on the prevalence of autism, and analyze the effectiveness of the DTT […]
• Autism Expressed: Branding Strategy and Marketing The promise that the brand offers to the public should be in line with the desires of the clients. This firm will need to prepare this branding strategy in a way that will meet its […]
• Vaccines and Autism: Separating Facts From Fiction The advocacy groups say that thimerosal, a preservative used in vaccines, is toxic to the central nervous system and responsible for an alarming rise in rates of autism among children in the United States and […]
• Self-Injury in Autism: Applied Behavior Analysis Applied behavior analysis incorporates the utilization of direct perception, estimation, and useful investigation of the relations in the middle of the environment and conduct.
• Lesson for Learners With Autism: Reflection Observation The essay identifies the instructional methods used by the teacher during the exercise. The teacher also guided the learners to solve the mathematical problems using different visual objects.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Concept Besides, Temple often explores her own experiences and attempts to understand the feelings of others that are unavailable to her by visualizing herself as other creatures people and animals.
• Dubai Autism Center’ Quality Management TQM employs strategies and effective communication within the organization to incorporate the quality principles into the culture and activities of the organization to ensure that all the activities are geared towards satisfying the customers.
• Vaccination and Autism in Children The problem with this case is that while it may be true that the cause for the development of autism in children have yet to be fully determined, the fact remains that there have been […]
• Video Modeling for Individuals With Autism The video model will be developed according to the needs of autistic children, with the focus on the role of visual and auditory stimuli in the teaching process.
• The Effects of Vaccines on Autism From their study, the findings demonstrate that the presence of thimerosal is one of the causes of the disorder. It is imperative to state that they have used many studies that have indicated that there […]
• Vaccination as a Cause Autism This paper borrows on the arguments of Monica Prasad and Washington and Haydn when they argue that the belief about vaccinations as a primary cause of autism stems from emotional, psychological, and behavioral barriers, as […]
• Youth With Autism Disorder: Education and Employment This includes the communication patterns of the teenager, the extent of social relations and the unusual behavioral characteristics of the teenager in the environment.
• Autism Children Education Inclusion Policy in Private Schools: Compulsory Enrollment Policy 2011 The following are the main areas will be addressed by the policy: Prohibited Private schools will be prohibited from ignoring the needs of children suffering from autism; they will be compelled by the act to […]
• Autism: Pathogenesis and Intervention Similarly, a person with autism has to be trained on the process of communicating normally and forming a relationship with objects, events and people in their lives.
• The Real Causes of Autism However, the main problem is that this association or correlation does not imply that autism is triggered by a vaccine. This is the main argument that can be put forward.
• Applied Behavior Analysis and Autism The primary subject of this study is applied behavior analysis while the secondary subject is applied behavior analysis and its effects on autism in children.
• Autism Effect on Children It is crucial to understand the behavior of children with autism in the school set up in order to understand how autism affects children and their social interactions. It is up to the teacher to […]
• Autism and Its Effects on Social Interaction The article “Social Impairment in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder” identifies the major challenges facing many people with autism. The authors wanted to examine the social problems and difficulties encountered by individuals with Autism Spectrum […]
• Older Dads More Likely to Have Kids With Autism The author highlights autism as one of the main outcomes of late fatherhood following the release of the results of a study involving the counting of the mutations corresponding to a father’s age at the […]
• Evidenced-Based Practice: Autism Management in Children Autism largely is connected to communication abilities of a child, a situation that later results into the child experiencing disability problems in effectively encoding and decoding communicative messages.
• Miami Dance Project for Autistic Children For me, what the Miami dance project represents is in line with what is known as the concept of confidence building wherein through the development of certain talents children with autism will begin to have […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorders and Family Impact One of the greatest fears of a parent with such a child is the fact that such a child would be taken care of until the advanced stages of their lives.
• Program Models in Autism The DTT technique has been designed in such a way as to target the individual behavior of an autistic child using the available curriculum.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Relation to Education Attending to students having ASD in the regular classrooms requires specialized teachers and supplementary staff in order to aid in the realization of the needs of the students having ASD.
• Critical Analysis of Published Articles: Autism It was therefore the goal of the research to find out if the negative attitude of people towards autistic children can be altered to the benefit of the parents.
• Autism in Saudi Arabia This support may come in the form of modification of the curriculum to cater for the special needs of the autistic children.
• Analysis of Autism Disorder This disorder affects the brain of the child during growth so that it does not develop in the right way thus affecting the social and communication skills of the child. This is especially to the […]
• One-To-One Programs: Supporting Autistic Children The purpose of conducting this essay will be to examine the educational intervention of one-to-one support programs during normal school times within a mainstream classroom and also to discuss the challenges faced by teachers and […]
• Psychological Disorders and Their Treatment: An Overview of the Recent Progress and the Current Challenges in Treating Autism in Children In the given paper, the issue of psychological disorders is being addressed in reference to the ideas expressed in Chapter 11 “Psychological Disorders” in Carole Wade and Carol Tavris’s Invitation to Psychology.
• Early Intervention for Young Adults With Autism This is due to unavailability of information on children development stages and the importance of early detection and intervention in the case of autism.
• Different Behaviors in Children With Autism The purpose is to find out whether the co morbidity changes with the environment, and assess the influence that the environment has on the behavior of an autistic child.
• Diagnosis and Treatment for Autism Disorder Children with autism are therefore able to reason and even interpret the feelings of other people but the challenge is to communicate the response to other people.
• Autism: Qualitative Research Design Golafshani continues to argue that the use of the term “dependability” in qualitative studies is a close match to the idea of “reliability” in quantitative research.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder However, the reality is that the number of children with autism and having high intelligence is insignificant. It is apparent that, in autism, a disorder is found in the structure of the brain.
• Treatment of Autism With the Use of the Picture Exchange Communication System There are lots of types of this communication system that may be used with children, who have autism, and one of them is the Picture Exchange Communication System that is characterized by a proper picture […]
• Vaccines and Autism: A Critical Analysis of Thimerosal in Relation to Measles, Mumps, and Rubella The safety and efficacy of vaccines has been the subject of many studies in the medical field. The disorder was observed in one participant from each of the cohorts in the experiment.
• How to Recognize and Teach Students With Autism If these groups of students have to be given directions that are more than three steps, the directions have to be written down due to their inability to remember sequences.
• Autism and Visual Thought Suprisingly the quality of visual thinking according to Bogdashina is dependent on other factors like time and the state the autistic person is in.
• Do Vaccines Cause Autism? Thimerosal is alleged to increase the exposure of mercury in the vaccine to a substantiated high amount. In fact, the amount of antigens between children with autism and without is the same irrespective of the […]
• Language Development Problems in Children: An Indicative Characteristic of Autism This is because it is a time when it is expected that a majority of the kids should be able to talk.
• The Disease of Autism Origin The disorder is one of the new diagnoses of the autism. Other effects of the disorder are constipation and growth failures that may be a problem to the lives of the individual.
• Autism’s Teaching Tips for Children and Adults The present description is concerned with the role of teacher in the better management of Autism in children. Further, assessment of the interactive and developmental skills is on of the important component in the teacher […]
• What Are Autism Spectrum Disorders?
• How Does Autism Affect the Person With It and Those Around Them?
• What Are the Barriers of Learning for a Learner With Autism/Aspergers in Performing Arts?
• Does Gluten Effect Children With Autism?
• What Are the Causes of Autism?
• How Does Autism Affect a Child’s Educational Performance?
• What Can Autism Look Like and Things You Can Do to Spot It?
• Can Children With Autism Develop a Theory of Mind?
• Which Interventions Reduce Anxiety in Autistic People?
• What Influence Has the Development of Autism Had on a Diagnosed Individual?
• How Does Autism Affect the Development of a Child?
• Are Huddles the Missing Piece of the Puzzle in Implementing Clinical Innovation for the Eating Disorder and Autism Comorbidity?
• How Does Autism Start?
• Can Mouse Imaging Studies Bring Order to Autism Connectivity Chaos?
• How Does ‘Fake News’ Affect Autism Policy?
• Are There Any Relationships Between Latent Toxoplasma Gondii Infection, Testosterone Elevation, and Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Do People With Autism Experience the World?
• Can Robotic Systems Promote Self-Disclosure in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Did the Media Perpetuate the Autism-Vaccine Scare?
• Are There Cultural Differences in Parental Interest in Early Diagnosis and Genetic Risk Assessment for Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Can the Therapist Help Autism Children?
• Can Vaccinations Cause Autism?
• Does Autism Spectrum Disorder Affect People All Around the World?
• Is There a Correlation Between Epigenetics and Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Does Autism Affect Regular Brain Functions as Well as Socialization Skills?
• What Can Responses to Music in Autism Tell Us About the Nature of Musical Emotions?
• Why Has the Incidence Rate of Autism Increased?
• What Are the Most Effective Ways to Support/Provide Social Care For Autistic Adults?
• Which Interventions Are Effective in the Development of Communication/Language Skills in Autism?
• How Can Parents and Family Members Be Supported/Educated to Care For and Better Understand an Autistic Relative?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Frequently Asked Questions about Autism

Below, find common questions about autism.

For the latest autism research, click here . Some autism research articles you might find useful:

• A New Way to Diagnose and Treat Autism
• Study Scrutinizes How Autism Impacts Cognition in Adults
• Scientists Discover That Areas Regulating Genes Contribute to Autism’s Cause

Also, be sure to check out upcoming and past webinars about Autism, like this one:

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) represent a range of brain disorders that are characterized by restricted patterns of behavior and impairments in social communication and interactions. These disorders share common origins and features, but are classified as spectrum disorders because symptoms and severity vary among individuals.

Symptoms/behaviors of ASDs can range from mild to severe, and may seem to appear gradually or suddenly. Atypical development may be observed from birth, or more commonly, become noticeable during the 12- to 36-month period. Symptoms include:

• Social Deficits - Children with autism have difficulty in social interactions. They may avoid eye contact and interactions with people and resist or passively accept attention. They are often unable to read social cues or exhibit emotional reciprocity. Thus, they are unable to predict or understand other peoples’ behavior. They may also have difficulty controlling emotion, may be disruptive or aggressive at times, or may lose control, especially when frustrated or presented with a new situation or environment. Head-banging, hair-pulling and arm-biting may occur.
• Communication Difficulties - Communication skills are affected in children with autism, but difficulties vary. Some children may have good basic language skills, but exhibit difficulty initiating or sustaining conversations, such as not giving others the opportunity to respond. Others may experience delays or regression in language development; still others remain mute or may use language in unusual ways, such as repeating a phrase, or parroting what they hear (echolalia). Body language is also often hard to read in children with autism. Facial expressions, tone of voice and gestures often do not match verbal content and emotions. They have difficulty expressing what they want or need. They may also appear deaf, not responding to their names or attempts at conversation.  
• Repetitive Behaviors - Patterns of behavior, interests and activities may be restricted, repetitive or stereotyped. For example, a child may spend long periods of time arranging specific toys in a particular manner, rather than playing with the toys. Intense preoccupation with certain topics, such as obsessively studying maps, may also be seen. Odd repetitive motions, either extreme or subtle, such as arm-flapping, freezing, rocking back and forth or walking on their toes may also occur. Often, people with autism demand consistency in their environment. A minor change in routine may be tremendously upsetting.
• Sensory Difficulties - In children with autism, the brain seems unable to balance the senses appropriately. Many autistic children are highly attuned or even painfully sensitive to certain sounds, textures, tastes or smells. Some seem oblivious to cold or pain, but react hysterically to things that wouldn't bother other children. In some people, the senses are even scrambled. For example, touching a certain texture may induce a gagging response.
• Unusual Abilities - In rare cases, some children with ASDs display remarkable abilities, such as drawing detailed, realistic pictures at a young age or playing an instrument without training. Some can memorize difficult lists of items, such as statistics or names (this is called islets of intelligence or savant skills).

Autistic disorder, commonly referred to as autism, is the most prevalent ASD and severely impairs a child’s social interaction and communication abilities.

Asperger's Syndrome is the second most common ASD and is a milder form of autism. Children with Asperger’s Syndrome exhibit higher language development than children with autism and often have normal intellectual ability combined with a disinterest in social communication. Children with Asperger’s may not initiate or sustain a conversation and do not compensate for their limited language by using nonverbal means of communication, thus limiting their peer relationships. Similar to autism, children with Asperger’s do not share enjoyment or interests with others.

Other disorders in the spectrum include pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDDNOS) and two rarer disorders—childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD) and Rett’s syndrome. Children with PDDNOS demonstrate symptoms similar to autistic disorder, but do not meet all criteria for the disorder. Children with CDD, which affects more boys than girls, develop normally until approximately the first two years of life (average onset of symptoms is between 3 and 4 years) but they then regress in most areas and continue worsening. Specifically, they experience a pronounced loss in motor, language, social and intellectual skills. They also lose bowel and bladder control. Seizures may even occur.

Rett syndrome is a genetic disorder almost exclusively found in females. After early normal development, autistic symptoms begin to develop between 6 and 18 months, which typically include shunning social contact, talking cessation, unique motor behaviors, and a regression in skills. A single gene mutation has been identified as a cause of Rett syndrome, a finding that may enable researchers to develop improved diagnostics, earlier interventions and better treatments for the condition.

ASDs are usually evident by the age of 3, though diagnosis may be made as early as 12 to 18 months, and as late as 4 to 6 years (or later). According to the Center for Disease Control (CDC), about 1 in 59 children have an autism spectrum disorder . ASDs are three to four times more common in boys than in girls. However, girls with these disorders tend to have more severe symptoms and lower intelligence. Some children will need ongoing supervision, while others, with the right support, may pursue higher education and fulfilling jobs. These disorders affect people of all racial, ethnic and socioeconomic groups.

To date, no biological diagnostic tests exist that detect autism. But scientists are hopeful that advanced imaging techniques and differences in blood levels of proteins in autistic versus normal children may have implications for diagnosis. Already, improved diagnostic procedures have allowed clinicians to diagnose children at a younger age.

Formal diagnosis involves parental input and structured and systematic screening instruments, such as the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) and the Autism Behavioral Checklist (ABC) for older children. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) and the Autism Diagnostic Inventory-Revised (ADI-R) are used, as well. These tools measure the prevalence of symptoms. Symptoms may be present from birth, or may occur after months of normal development. However, no two children with these disorders behave the same way. Children as young as 18 months may be diagnosed, but have different clinical features than an older child with autism.

Between 18 months and 36 months, symptoms may include:  

• Limited pretend play
• Lack of pointing to demonstrate interest
• Reduced gaze following
• Less frequent demonstration of repetitive, stereotypic behaviors
• In children with autism between 2 years and 3 years of age, the following features may be observed:  
• Communication difficulties
• Socialization deficits with caregivers
• Perceptual sensitivity
• Other difficult behaviors

Some combination of genetic, biological and environmental factors is believed to cause ASDs. Researchers are exploring several genes which are believed to contribute to the development of these disorders as well as several brain regions that have been linked to the disorders. Abnormal brain development during the first months of life is being studied to determine if structural abnormalities, such as in the mirror neuron systems, may be caused by genetic and/or environmental factors. Researchers are also exploring the effects of genetic imprinting in which a gene’s expression is determined by which parent donates the gene copy. Certain neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, dopamine, and epinephrine, may also function abnormally. In some cases, scientists are exploring the possibility that a faulty immune response to a virus, elevated concentrations of proteins in the blood at birth, dysregulation of specific neuropeptides or a major stress during pregnancy may lead to the disorder.

There is no one treatment for ASDs; however, it is widely accepted that the earliest interventions allow the best outcomes.  Treatments generally address both cognitive and behavioral functioning. They may include a combination of medications (for challenging behaviors), behavioral therapy, psycho-education, family support groups, educational interventions, speech and language therapy, occupational therapy and specialized training to develop and improve acquisition of necessary skills.  

Research has found that a newer class of atypical antipsychotic medications may better treat the serious behavioral disturbances in children with autism who are between 5 and 17 years old. Applied behavioral analysis may be an effective adjunctive treatment in reinforcing desirable and reducing undesirable behaviors. Other work focuses on improving social communication in children with autism. Some have found that structured multidisciplinary behavioral programs are more successful. Parental involvement, a predictable schedule, regular behavior reinforcement and active engagement of attention in highly structured activities to enhance a strength or ability may all contribute to creating an effective treatment program.

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CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS article

Research, clinical, and sociological aspects of autism.

• ESPA Research, Unit 133i Business Innovation Centre, The Robert Luff Laboratory, Education & Services for People With Autism Research, Sunderland, United Kingdom

The concept of autism continues to evolve. Not only have the central diagnostic criteria that define autism evolved but understanding of the label and how autism is viewed in research, clinical and sociological terms has also changed. Several key issues have emerged in relation to research, clinical and sociological aspects of autism. Shifts in research focus to encompass the massive heterogeneity covered under the label and appreciation that autism rarely exists in a diagnostic vacuum have brought about new questions and challenges. Diagnostic changes, increasing moves towards early diagnosis and intervention, and a greater appreciation of autism in girls and women and into adulthood and old age have similarly impacted on autism in the clinic. Discussions about autism in socio-political terms have also increased, as exemplified by the rise of ideas such as neurodiversity and an increasingly vocal dialogue with those diagnosed on the autism spectrum. Such changes are to be welcomed, but at the same time bring with them new challenges. Those changes also offer an insight into what might be further to come for the label of autism.

Introduction

Although there is still debate in some quarters about who first formally defined autism ( 1 ), most people accept that Kanner ( 2 ) should be credited as offering the first recognised description of the condition in the peer-reviewed scientific literature. The core diagnostic features covering issues in areas of social and communicative interaction alongside the presence of restricted and/or repetitive patterns of behaviour ( 3 ) described in his small caseload still remain central parts of the diagnosis today. The core issue of alterations in social cognition affecting emotion recognition and social attention ( 4 ) remain integral to the diagnosis of autism. The additional requirement for such behaviours to significantly impact on various areas of day-to-day functioning completes the diagnostic criteria.

From defining a relatively small group of people, the evolution of the diagnostic criteria for autism has gone hand-in-hand with a corresponding increase in the numbers of people being diagnosed. Prevalence figures that referred to 4.5 per 10,000 ( 5 ) in the 1960s have been replaced by newer estimates suggesting that 1 in 59 children (16 per 1,000) present with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in 2014 ( 6 ). The widening of the definition of autism has undoubtedly contributed to the significant increase in the numbers of people being diagnosed. It would be unacceptably speculative however, to define diagnostic changes as being the sole cause of the perceived prevalence increases.

Alongside the growth in numbers of people being diagnosed with autism so there have been changes in other areas related to autism; specifically those related to the research, clinical practice and sociological aspects of autism. Many of the changes have centred on key issues around the acceptance that autism is an extremely heterogeneous condition both in terms of presentation and also in relation to the genetic and biological complexity underlying its existence. That autism rarely exists in some sort of diagnostic vacuum is another part of the changes witnessed over the decades following the description of autism.

In this paper we highlight some of the more widely discussed changes in areas of research, clinical practice and sociological terms in relation to autism. We speculate on how such changes might also further develop the concept of autism in years to come.

Autism Research

As the definition of autism has subtly changed over the years, so ideas and trends in autism research have waxed and waned. The focus on psychology and behaviour as core descriptive features of autism has, in many respects, guided research and clinical views and opinions about the condition. Social cognition, including areas as diverse as social motivation, emotion recognition, social attention and social learning ( 4 ), remains a mainstay of research in this area. The rise of psychoanalysis and related ideas such as attachment theory in the early 20th century for example, played a huge role in the now discredited ideas that maternal bonding or cold parenting were a cause of autism. The seemingly implicit need for psychology to formulate theories has also no doubt played a role in perpetuating all-manner of different grand and unifying reasons on why autism comes about and the core nature of the condition.

As time moved on and science witnessed the rise of psychiatric genetics, where subtle changes to the genetic code were correlated with specific behavioural and psychiatric labels, so autism science also moved in the same direction. Scientific progress allowing the genetic code to be more easily and more cost-effectively read opened up a whole new scientific world in relation to autism and various other labels. It was within this area of genetic science that some particularly important discoveries were made: (a) for the vast majority of people, autism is not a single gene “disorder,” and (b) genetic polymorphisms whilst important, are not the only mechanism that can affect gene expression. Mirroring the role of genetics in other behavioural and psychiatric conditions ( 7 ), the picture that is emerging suggests that yes, there are genetic underpinnings to autism, but identifying such label-specific genetic issues is complicated and indeed, wide-ranging.

What such genetic studies also served to prove is that autism is heterogeneous. They complemented the wide-ranging behavioural profiles that are included under the diagnostic heading of autism. Profiles that ranged from those who are profoundly autistic and who require almost constant attention to meet their daily needs, to those who have jobs, families and are able to navigate the world [seemingly] with little or minimal support for much of the time.

It is this heterogeneity that is perhaps at the core of where autism is now from several different perspectives. A heterogeneity that not only relates to the presentation of the core traits of autism but also to how autism rarely manifests in a diagnostic vacuum ( 8 ). Several authors have talked about autism as part of a wider clinical picture ( 9 , 10 ) and how various behavioural/psychiatric/somatic issues seem to follow the diagnosis. Again, such a shift mirrors what is happening in other areas of science, such as the establishment of the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) project ( 11 ). RDoC recognised that defining behavioural and psychiatric conditions on the basis of presented signs and symptoms does not necessarily “reflect” the relevant underlying processes and systems that might be important. It recognised that in order to deliver important clinical information about how and why a condition manifests, or the best strategies to intervene, research cannot just singularly start with the label. Science and clinical practice need more information rather than just a blanket descriptive label such as autism.

To talk about autism as a condition that also manifests various over-represented comorbid labels also asks a fundamental question: is the word “comorbidity” entirely accurate when referring to such labels? ( 12 ). Does such comorbidity instead represent something more fundamental to at least some presentations of autism or is it something that should be seen more transiently? Numerous conditions have been detailed to co-occur alongside autism. These include various behavioural and psychiatric diagnoses such as depression, anxiety and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) ( 13 ). Other more somatic based conditions such as epilepsy ( 14 ), sleep ( 15 ) and various facets of gastrointestinal (GI) functioning ( 16 ) have also been discussed in the peer-reviewed science literature. Some of these co-occurring conditions have been described in the context of specific genetic conditions manifesting autism. Issues with the BCKDK (Branched Chain Ketoacid Dehydrogenase Kinase) gene for example, have been discussed in the context of autism, intellectual (learning) disability and epilepsy appearing together ( 17 ). Such a diagnostic combination is not unusual; autism often being described as the primary diagnosis with epilepsy and learning disability seen as “add-ons.” But should this be the case? Other evidence pointing to the possibility that epilepsy might under some circumstances beget autism ( 18 ) suggests that under some circumstances, such co-occurring conditions are so much more than just co-occurring or comorbid.

Other evidence for questioning the label “comorbid” comes from various animal models of autism. Accepting that one has to be particularly careful about extrapolating from animal models of autism to the more complex presentation of autism in humans ( 19 ), various models have suggested that autism may for some, fundamentally coexist with GI or bowel issues ( 20 , 21 ). Such observations have been noted across different animal models and cover important issues such as gut motility for example, that have been talked about in the context of autism ( 22 ).

Similarly, when one talks about the behavioural and psychiatric comorbidity in the context of autism, an analogous question arises about whether comorbidity is the right term. Anxiety and depression represent important research topics in the context of autism. Both issues have long been talked about in the context of autism ( 1 , 13 , 23 ) but only in recent years have their respective “links” to autism been more closely scrutinised.

Depression covers various different types of clinical presentations. Some research has suggested that in the context of autism, depressive illnesses such as bipolar disorder can present atypically ( 24 ). Combined with other study ( 25 ) suggesting that interventions targeting depressive symptoms might also impact on core autistic features, the possibility that autism and depression or depressive symptoms might be more closely linked than hitherto appreciated arises. Likewise with anxiety in mind, similar conclusions could be drawn from the existing research literature that anxiety may be a more central feature of autism. This on the basis of connections observed between traits of the two conditions ( 26 ) alongside shared features such as an intolerance of uncertainty ( 27 ) exerting an important effect.

A greater appreciation of the heterogeneity of autism and consideration of the myriad of other conditions that seem to be over-represented alongside autism pose serious problems to autism research. The use of “autism pure” where research participants are only included into studies on the basis of not having epilepsy or not possessing a diagnosis of ADHD or related condition pose a serious problem when it comes to the generalisation of research results to the wider population. Indeed, with the vast heterogeneity that encompasses autism, one has to question how, in the context of the current blanket diagnosis of autism or ASD, one could ever provide any universal answers about autism.

Autism in the Clinic

As mentioned previously, various subtle shifts in the criteria governing the diagnosis of autism have been witnessed down the years. Such changes have led to increased challenges for clinicians diagnosing autism from several different perspectives. One of the key challenges has come about as a function of the various expansions and contractions of what constitutes autism from a diagnostic point of view. This includes the adoption of autism as a spectrum disorder in more recent diagnostic texts.

The inclusion of Asperger syndrome in the DSM-IV and ICD-10 diagnostic schedules represented an expansion of the diagnostic criteria covering autism. Asperger syndrome defined by Hans Asperger ( 28 ) as autistic features without significant language impairment and with intelligence in the typical range, was included in the text for various different reasons. Allen Frances, one of the architects of the DSM-IV schedule, mentioned the importance of having a “ specific category to cover the substantial group of patients who failed to meet the stringent criteria for autistic disorder, but nonetheless had substantial distress or impairment from their stereotyped interests, eccentric behaviors, and interpersonal problems ” ( 29 ). It is now widely accepted that the inclusion of Asperger syndrome in diagnostic texts led to an increase in the number of autism diagnoses being given.

More recent revisions to the DSM criteria covering autism—DSM-5—included the removal of Asperger syndrome as a discrete diagnosis on the autism spectrum ( 30 ). Instead, a broader categorisation of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) was adopted. The reasons for the removal of Asperger syndrome from DSM-5 are complex. The removal has however generally been positively greeted as a function of on-going debates about whether there are/were important differences between autism and Asperger syndrome to require a distinction ( 31 ) alongside more recent revelations about the actions of Asperger during World War II ( 32 ). Studies comparing DSM-IV (and its smaller revisions) with DSM-5 have also hinted that the diagnostic differences between the schedules may well-impact on the numbers of people in receipt of a diagnosis ( 33 ).

Shifts in the diagnostic text covering autism represent only one challenge to autism in the clinical sense. Other important factors continue to complicate the practice of diagnosing autism. Another important issue is a greater realisation that although the presence of observable autistic features are a necessary requirement for a diagnosis of autism, such features are also apparent in various other clinical labels. Autistic features have been noted in a range of other conditions including schizophrenia ( 34 ), personality disorders ( 35 ) and eating disorders ( 36 ) for examples. Coupled with the increasingly important observation that autism rarely exists in a diagnostic vacuum, the clinical challenges to accurately diagnosing autism multiply as a result.

The additional suggestion of “behavioural profiles” within the autism spectrum adds to the complexity. Terms such as pathological demand avoidance (PDA) coined by Newson and colleagues ( 37 ) have started to enter some diagnostic processes, despite not yet being formally recognised in diagnostic texts. Including various autistic traits alongside features such as “resisting and avoiding the ordinary demands of life” and the “active use of various strategies to resist demands via social manipulation,” debate continues about the nature of PDA and its diagnostic value ( 38 ).

Early diagnosis and intervention for autism have also witnessed some important clinical changes over the years. Driven by an acceptance of the idea that earlier diagnosis means that early intervention can be put in place to “ameliorate” some of the more life-changing effects of autism, there has been a sharp focus on the ways and means of identifying autism early and/or highlighting those most at risk of a diagnosis. It's long been known that there is a heritable aspect to autism, whether in terms of traits or diagnosis ( 39 ). In this respect, preferential screening for autism in younger siblings when an older child has been diagnosed is not an uncommon clinical sentiment ( 40 ). Other work looking at possible “red flags” for autism, whether in behaviour ( 41 ) or in more physiological terms still continue to find popularity in both research and clinical terms.

But still however, autism continues to confound. As of yet, there are only limited reliable red flags to determine or preclude the future presence of autism ( 42 ). Early behavioural interventions for autism have not yet fulfilled the promise they are said to hold ( 43 ) and autism is not seemingly present in the earliest days of development for all ( 44 , 45 ). There is still a way to go.

Autism in a modern clinical sense is also witnessing change in several other quarters. The traditional focus of autism on children, particularly boys, is being replaced by a wider acceptance that (a) autism can and does manifest in girls and women, and (b) children with autism age and mature to become adults with autism. Even the psychological mainstay of autism—issues with social cognition—is undergoing discussion and revision.

On the issue of autism presentation in females, several important themes are becoming more evident. Discussions about whether there may be subtle differences in the presentation of autism in females compared to males are being voiced, pertinent to the idea that there may be one or more specific female phenotypes of autism ( 46 ). Further characterisation has hinted that sex differences in the core domain of repetitive stereotyped behaviours ( 47 ) for example, may be something important when it comes to assessing autism in females.

Allied to the idea of sex differences in autism presentation, is an increasing emphasis on the notion of camouflaging or masking ( 48 ). This masking assumes that there may active or adaptive processes on-going that allow females to hide some of their core autistic features and which potentially contributes to the under-identification of autism. Although some authors have talked about the potentially negative aspects of masking in terms of the use of cognitive resources to “maintain the mask,” one could also view such as adaptation in a more positive light relating to the learning of such a strategy as a coping mechanism. Both the themes of possible sex differences in presentation and masking add to the clinical complexity of reliably assessing for autism.

Insofar as the growing interest in the presentation of autism in adulthood, there are various other clinical considerations. Alongside the idea that the presentation of autism in childhood might not be the same as autism in adulthood ( 49 ), the increasing number of people receiving a diagnosis in adulthood is a worthy reminder that autism is very much a lifelong condition for many, but not necessarily all ( 50 ). The available research literature also highlights how autism in older adults carries some unique issues ( 51 ) some of which will require clinical attention.

Insofar as the issue of social cognition and autism, previous sweeping generalisations about a deficit in empathy for example, embodying all autism are also being questioned. Discussions are beginning debating issues such as how empathy is measured and whether such measurements in the context of autism are as accurate as once believed ( 52 ). Whether too, the concept of social cognition and all the aspects it encompasses is too generalised in its portrayal of autism, including the notion of the “double empathy problem” ( 53 ) where reciprocity and mutual understanding during interaction are not solely down to the person with autism. Rather, they come about because experiences and understanding differ from an autistic and non-autistic point of view. Such discussions are beginning to have a real impact on the way that autism is perceived.

Autism in Sociological Terms

To talk about autism purely through a research or clinical practice lens does not do justice to the existing peer-reviewed literature in its entirety. Where once autism was the sole domain of medical or academic professionals, so now there is a growing appreciation of autism in socio-political terms too, with numerous voices from the autism spectrum being heard in the scientific literature and beyond.

There are various factors that have contributed to the increased visibility of those diagnosed with autism contributing to the narrative about autism. As mentioned, the fact that children with autism become autistic adults is starting to become more widely appreciated in various circles. The expansion of the diagnostic criteria has also played a strong role too, as the diagnostic boundaries of the autism spectrum were widened to include those with sometimes good vocal communicative abilities. The growth in social media and related communication forms likewise provided a platform for many people to voice their own opinions about what autism means to them and further influence discussions about autism. The idea that autistic people are experts on autism continues to grow ( 54 ).

For some people with autism, the existing narrative about autism based on a deficit model (deficits in socio-communicative abilities for example) is seemingly over-emphasised. The existing medical model of autism focusing such deficits as being centred on the person does not offer a completely satisfying explanation for autism and how its features can disable a person. Autism does not solely exist in a sociological as well as diagnostic vacuum. In this context, the rise and rise of the concept of neurodiversity offered an important alternative to the existing viewpoint.

Although still the topic of some discussion, neurodiversity applied to autism is based on several key tenets: (a) all minds are different, and (b) “ neurodiversity is the idea that neurological differences like autism and ADHD are the result of normal, natural variation in the human genome ” ( 55 ). The adoption of the social model of disability by neurodiversity proponents moves the emphasis on the person as the epicentre of disability to that where societal structures and functions tend to be “ physically, socially and emotionally inhospitable towards autistic people ” ( 56 ). The message is that subtle changes to the social environment could make quite a lot of difference to the disabling features of autism.

Although a popular idea in many quarters, the concept of neurodiversity is not without its critics both from a scientific and sociological point of view ( 57 ). Certain key terms often mentioned alongside neurodiversity (e.g., neurotypical) are not well-defined or are incompatible with the existing research literature ( 58 ). The idea that societal organisation is a primary cause of the disability experienced by those with the most profound types of autism is also problematic in the context of current scientific knowledge and understanding. Other issues such as the increasing use of self-diagnosis ( 59 ) and the seeming under-representation of those with the most profound forms of autism in relation to neurodiversity further complicate the movement and its aims.

The challenges that face the evolving concept of neurodiversity when applied to autism should not however detract from the important effects that it has had and continues to have. Moving away from the idea that autistic people are broken or somehow incomplete as a function of their disability is an important part of the evolution of autism. The idea that autism is something to be researched as stand-alone issue separate from the person is something else that is being slowly being eroded by such a theory.

The concept of autism continues to evolve in relation to research, clinical practice and sociological domains. Such changes offer clues as to the future directions that autism may take and the challenges that lie ahead.

The continuing focus on the huge heterogeneity and comorbidity clusters that define autism are ripe for the introduction of a new taxonomy for describing the condition. A more plural definition—the autisms—could represent one starting position ( 60 ) encompassing a greater appreciation that (a) there is variety in the presentation of the core features of autism, (b) there are seemingly several different genetic and biological pathways that bring someone to a diagnosis of autism, (c) different developmental trajectories are an important facet of the autism spectrum, and (d) the various “comorbidities” that variably present alongside autism may offer important clues about the classification of autism. Some authors have stressed that a multi-dimensional conceptualisation may be more appropriate than a categorical concept ( 61 ) but further investigations are required.

In relation to the proposed pluralisation of the label, several long held “beliefs” about autism are also ripe for further investigation. The idea that autism is innate and presents in the earliest days in all does not universally hold ( 45 ). The finding that some children experience a period of typical development and then regress into autism ( 62 ) is becoming more readily discussed in research and clinical circles, albeit not universally so. Similarly, the belief that autism is a lifelong condition for all is also not borne out by the peer-reviewed literature ( 63 ). Terms such as optimal outcome ( 64 ) might not be wholly appropriate, but do nonetheless, shed light on an important phenomenon noted in at least some cases of autism where diagnostic cut-off points are reached at one point but not another. These and other important areas provide initial support for the adoption of the idea of the plural autisms.

Allied to the notion of “the autisms” is the requirement to overhaul the terminology around the use of the “level of functioning” phrase ( 65 ). “High functioning” is typically used to describe those people on the spectrum who present with some degree of communicative language, possess typical or above-average intelligence and who can seemingly traverse the world with only minimal levels of support. “Low functioning”, conversely, is used to describe those with significant support needs who may also be non-communicative. Aside from the societal implications of labelling someone “low functioning” and the possible connotations stemming from such a label, such functioning categorisation do not seemingly offer as accurate a representation as many people might think. The high-functioning autistic child who for example, has been excluded from school on the basis of their behaviour, cannot be readily labelled “high-functioning” if the presentation of their autistic behaviours has led to such a serious outcome. This on the basis that part of the diagnostic decision to diagnose autism is taken by appreciation of whether or not presented behaviours significantly interfere with day-to-day living ( 3 ). What might replace functioning labels is still a matter for debate. The use of “levels of support requirement” utilised in current diagnostic criteria offer a template for further discussions. Such discussions may also need to recognise that the traits of autism are not static over a lifetime ( 51 ) and support levels may vary as a result.

Whatever terminology is put forward to replace functioning labels, there is a need to address some very apparent differences in the way that parts of the autism spectrum are viewed, represented and included in research. Described as the “understudied populations” by some authors ( 66 ) those with limited verbal communicative language and learning disability have long been disadvantaged in research terms and also in more general depictions of autism. In more recent times, there has been a subtle shift to acknowledge the bias that exists against those with a more profound presentation of autism ( 67 ). Further developments are however required to ensure that such groups are not excluded; not least also to guarantee the generalisability of autism research to the entire spectrum and not just one portion of it.

On the topic of generalisability to the entire autism spectrum, the moves to further involve those diagnosed with autism in research, clinical and sociological discussions presents opportunities and obstacles in equal measure. The application of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) to autism ( 68 ) to measure “health-related functioning” represented a key moment in autism participatory research. Taking on board various views and opinions about autism, the development of the ICF core autism sets has allowed those with autism and their significant others to voice their opinions about autism ( 69 ).

Such joint initiatives are to be welcomed on the basis of the multiple perspectives they offer including lived experience of autism. But with such participation, so questions are also raised about how representative such opinions are to the entire autism spectrum ( 70 ). Questions on whether those who are able to participate in such initiatives “can ever truly speak for the entire autism spectrum?” are bound to follow. Questions also about whether such first-hand reports are more important than parental or caregiver input when it comes to individuals on the autism spectrum are likewise important to ask. This bearing in mind that those with autism participating in such initiatives bring with them the same potential biases as researchers and clinicians carry with them about the nature of autism, albeit not necessarily in total agreement.

The translation of research findings into clinical practice represents another important issue that has yet to be suitably addressed. Although covering a sizeable area, several important stumbling blocks have prohibited the move from “bench to bedside” when it comes to autism research. The focus for example, on the overt behavioural presentation of autism, has in some senses continued to hinder the translational progress of more biological-based findings into autism practice. Nowhere is this seemingly more evident than when it comes to the over-representation of gastrointestinal (GI) issues in relation to autism and their management or treatment. Despite multiple findings of such issues being present ( 16 ), very little is seemingly offered despite autism-specific screening and management guidance being in place for nearly a decade at the time of writing ( 71 ). Other quite consistently reported research findings in relation to low functional levels of vitamin D ( 72 ) for example, have similarly not sparked massive shifts in clinical practices. Ignoring such potentially important clinical features contributes to a state of relative health inequality that is experienced by many on the autism spectrum.

Without trying to prioritise some areas over others, there are some important topics in relation to autism that are becoming important to autism research and clinical practice. Many of these topics are more “real life” focused; taking into account the impact of autism or autistic traits on daily living skills and functioning. These include issues such as the truly shocking early mortality statistics around autism ( 73 ) and the need for more detailed inquiry into the factors around such risks such as suicide ( 74 ) and self-injury ( 75 ) and wandering/elopement ( 76 ) alongside the considerable influence of conditions such as epilepsy.

Although already previously hinted at in this paper, the nature of the relationship between autism and various “comorbid” conditions observed to be over-represented alongside is starting to become more widely discussed in scientific circles. Whether for example, moves to intervene to mitigate issues such as depression in relation to autism might also have knock-on effects on the presentation of core autistic features is something being considered. Interest in other topics such as employment, ageing, parenting and the worrying issue of contact with law enforcement or criminal justice systems ( 77 ) are also in the ascendancy.

Conclusions

Autism as a diagnostic label continues to evolve in research, clinical practice and sociological terms. Although the core features described by Kanner and others have weathered such evolution, important shifts in knowledge, views and opinions have influenced many important issues around those core behaviours. As well as increasing understanding of autism, many of the changes, past and present, have brought about challenges too.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed equally to the writing and review of this manuscript.

This paper was fully funded by ESPA Research using part of a donation from the Robert Luff Foundation (charity number: 273810). The Foundation played no role in the content, formulation or conclusions reached in this manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: autism, research, clinical, sociological, knowledge, future

Citation: Whiteley P, Carr K and Shattock P (2021) Research, Clinical, and Sociological Aspects of Autism. Front. Psychiatry 12:481546. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.481546

Received: 28 June 2019; Accepted: 30 March 2021; Published: 29 April 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Whiteley, Carr and Shattock. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Paul Whiteley, paul.whiteley@espa-research.org.uk

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

The Knowledge of Autism Questionnaire-UK: Development and Initial Psychometric Evaluation

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• Sophie Langhorne 1 ,
• Nora Uglik-Marucha 2 ,
• Charlotte Broadhurst 1 ,
• Elena Lieven 3 ,
• Amelia Pearson 4 ,
• Silia Vitoratou 2 &
• Kathy Leadbitter   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0744-2800 1  

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Tools to measure autism knowledge are needed to assess levels of understanding within particular groups of people and to evaluate whether awareness-raising campaigns or interventions lead to improvements in understanding. Several such measures are in circulation, but, to our knowledge, there are no psychometrically-validated questionnaires that assess contemporary autism knowledge suitable to the UK context. We aimed to produce a brief measure to assess between-respondent variability and within-respondent change over time. A pool of questionnaire items was developed and refined through a multi-stage iterative process involving autism experts and a lay sample. Attention was paid to face validity, clarity, consensus on correct responses, and appropriate difficulty levels. Initial validation data was obtained from a lay sample of 201 people. Difficulty and discrimination ability were assessed using item response theory and low-performing items were removed. Dimensionality was evaluated with exploratory factor analysis, which revealed a one-factor structure of the questionnaire. Further items were removed where they did not load strongly on their main factor. This process resulted in a final 14-item questionnaire called the Knowledge of Autism Questionnaire-UK. Internal consistency was satisfactory, and the final questionnaire was able to distinguish between parents of autistic people and those without an affiliation to autism. The KAQ-UK is a new, freely-available measure of autism knowledge that could be used to assess between-respondent variability and within-respondent change over time. Further evaluation and validation of its measurement properties are required.

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Autism is a common and heterogeneous neurodevelopmental condition, affecting around 1.7% of the UK population (Roman-Urrestarazu et al., 2021 ). Public awareness of autism has somewhat improved over recent decades, with UK polls suggesting that 99.5% of people have heard of autism (NAS, 2015 ). However, research suggests that only 16% of autistic people in the UK feel understood by the public, resulting in social isolation (APPGA, 2019 ). Many misconceptions and myths about autism persist, including that autism is a childhood condition, that autism is caused by vaccines, and that autistic people do not enjoy social contact (Autistica, 2019 ). Accordingly, autistic people are often met with stereotypes and misconceptions (Draaisma, 2009 ) which may lead to prejudice and stigma. These misunderstandings can also lead to disparities in access to diagnostic and care services (Malik-Soni et al., 2022 ). In addition to its public health importance, knowledge of autism is needed by autistic people themselves, to aid their self-understanding and self-advocacy. It is also beneficial to the people around the autistic individual, to ensure the individual is understood and well supported.

Several measures of autism knowledge have previously been developed and are in circulation. Previous questionnaires have targeted knowledge in particular groups such as parents and caregivers (e.g., Kuhn & Carter, 2006 ; Vijayarani, 2013 ; Wang et al., 2012 ) or medical professionals (e.g.,Igwe et al., 2010 ; Shah, 2001 ), with only a handful of assessments assessing the knowledge of the general adult population (e.g., Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2015 ; Holt & Christensen, 2013 ; Mitchell & Locke, 2015 ). A systematic review by Harrison et al., ( 2017a , 2017b ) found that 57% of assessments of autism knowledge had weak or no psychometric support, with only 7% showing high levels of psychometric support. In addition to a lack of reliability and validity testing, Harrison et al., ( 2017a , 2017b ) reported that measures of autism knowledge were commonly subject to ceiling effects that render questionnaires insensitive to change over time (for instance, the Maternal Autism Knowledge Questionnaire; Kuhn & Carter, 2006 ).

Following the review by Harrison et al., ( 2017a , 2017b ), research has attempted to address the identified gaps through the development of new measures. More recent measures do not show ceiling effects (e.g., McClain et al., 2019 ) and have shown sensitivity to change over time (Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2022 ; Harrison et al., 2019 ). Extensive psychometric validation has also shown that one measure, The Autism Stigma and Knowledge Questionnaire (ASK-Q; Harrison et al., 2017a , 2017b ), has sound psychometric properties, with items holding good discriminatory and difficulty values (see Harrison et al., 2017a , 2017b , for more detail). In addition, a number of measures have good internal consistency in US populations (Benallie et al., 2020 ; Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2022 ; Kitchin & Karlin, 2022 ; McMahon et al., 2020). However, little research has assessed whether internal consistency of these measures withstands in other cultures. Of the research that has taken place, autism knowledge measures developed within the US have been shown to have borderline acceptable internal consistency in other countries (Cage et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2021 ). It is important to note the ASK-Q (Harrison et al., 2017a , 2017b ) has recently been found to hold good internal consistency in Eastern cultures (Harrison et al., 2019 ; Lu et al., 2020 ; Su et al., 2023 ). However further research is needed to further establish the cross-cultural validity of the measure (e.g., Saade et al., 2021 ).

In addition to limitations around cross-cultural validation, an additional challenge concerns the content of existing autism knowledge questionnaires. Some tap into constructs outside of ‘pure’ autism knowledge by including items that assess awareness of stigmatising beliefs (e.g., ASK-Q; Harrison et al., 2017a , 2017b ) or focus specifically on autism symptomatology (e.g., the Revised Autism Symptomatology Knowledge Assessment; McMahon et al., 2020) and therefore may not be appropriate for measuring knowledge more generally. Furthermore, some measures of autism knowledge also include ambiguous items, which are not readily true or false when the diversity of autism presentations and experiences are considered (e.g., “The biggest problem with diagnosing autism is that symptoms do not appear until age 5 or older”; Motta et al., 2018 ) thus complicating the validity of scoring such questionnaires. Moreover, many questionnaires that have been developed in the US contain country-specific items (e.g., “Less than 2% of people in the US have autism spectrum disorder”, McClain et al., 2019 ), or include items regarding US practice, such as “Autism can be diagnosed as early as 18 months of age” (Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2022 ), and “Behaviour therapy is an intervention most likely to be effective for children with autism” (Harrison et al., 2017a , 2017b ). Although such items may hold true within US conceptualisation and practice, they may not translate to those of other countries. For instance, autism is very rarely diagnosed as young as 18 months in the UK (Male et al., 2023 ) and the UK does not readily offer behavioural therapies such as ABA to families (Keenan et al., 2015 ). As a result, these assessments do not necessarily reflect contextual autism knowledge in countries outside of the US.

A further limitation within current measures of autism knowledge concerns their length. Many research studies use a large battery of assessments when assessing the effectiveness of an intervention or awareness-raising programme and lengthy autism knowledge questionnaires (e.g., ASK-Q, Harrison et al., 2017a , 2017b ) can prove be burdensome to administer. Although briefer assessments have been developed, such as the Participatory Autism Knowledge Measure (Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2022 ) and the 10-item version of the ASK-Q (Love et al., 2020 ), further psychometric analyses (such as Item Response Theory analysis) are needed to further assess the psychometrics of these measures.

Taken together, the above literature suggests that currently there is no brief, psychometrically validated questionnaire that measures contemporary autism knowledge suitable to the current UK context. A measure of the level of autism knowledge within the UK could help inform policy and practice, as well as allowing researchers to measure whether awareness-raising campaigns or interventions are successful in improving autism knowledge within specific targeted groups or the general public. We therefore set out to produce a valid brief measure of autism knowledge to assess between-respondent variability and within-respondent change over time.

Aims of the Current Study

The aims of the study are divided into two parts:

Part 1: Development of Questionnaire Items

To develop a pool of questionnaire items to measure autism knowledge with high face validity (reflecting contemporary UK autism knowledge) by:

selecting appropriate items from previous relevant questionnaires;

working with autism experts to generate additional items, assess the appropriateness and clarity of items, and achieve initial consensus on “correct” item responses;

piloting the item pool with the general public to assess the appropriateness of the difficulty of the questions for intended participants.

Part 2: Psychometric Analysis

To evaluate the psychometric properties of the measurement tool and its items using contemporary psychometric methods, such as item response theory (IRT) and factor analysis. We aimed:

To use IRT to select the best performing items, that is, the items that measure the level of autism knowledge evenly and reliably across the continuum of knowledge.

To identify the number and the nature of the dimensions that represent the construct of autism knowledge, and to retain items that are meaningful indicators of the construct.

To evaluate the final questionnaire with respect to internal consistency and ability to distinguish between groups based on their affiliation to autism (discriminative validity).

Ethical approval for this study was granted by the University of Manchester Research Ethics Committee (Refs: 2019-6116-10034 and 2020-6116-10034). The methods are structured in two parts consistent with the aims above.

The development of questionnaire items was addressed through a multi-stage process. Figure  1 provides an overview of the stages of this process, with detail provided in the sections below. Figure  2 provides details of item development (addition and removal of potential questionnaire items at each stage).

Overview of the process of questionnaire development

Flowchart of item development (in parentheses, numbers of items in the pool at each stage)

Screening and Selection of Items from Previous Questionnaires

A literature review identified five pre-existing questionnaires that met the following criteria: (1) UK questionnaires published in a peer-reviewed journal from anytime up until October 2018 (the date on which the screening stage took place) or (2) international questionnaires published between 2015 and October 2018, and the questionnaire was available within the paper or upon request (Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2015 ; Harrison et al., 2017a , 2017b ; Helps et al.,1999; Johnson & van Hecke, 2015; Shah, 2001 ). Items ( n  = 95) were extracted from these five questionnaires and subjected to an initial screening process by two co-authors. Items were removed if they met one or more of the following criteria:

(a) duplicating other items either within or between questionnaires, either verbatim repetition or repetition of content ( n  = 28); for instance, the item ‘Autism is more frequently diagnosed in males than females’ was found in both Gillespie-Lynch et al. ( 2015 ) and Harrison et al., ( 2017a , 2017b ).

(b) assessing something other than knowledge ( n  = 6); for example, ‘I feel comfortable diagnosing or identifying a child as having autism’ (Helps et al., 1999).

(c) not applicable to current UK conceptualisation ( n  = 5); for instance, ‘What is Asperger syndrome?’ (Shah, 2001 ; Asperger syndrome is no longer a diagnostic label used within current diagnostic manuals).

(d) overly technical or not assessing lay knowledge ( n  = 2); for example, ‘On the basis of scientific research, which of the following biochemical, neurological or metabolic mechanisms are more likely to be associated with autism?’ (Shah, 2001 ).

(e) generalised or ambiguous claims that would be difficult to evidence as true for most or all cases ( n  = 13), for instance, ‘Children with autism need extra help to learn’ (Harrison et al., 2017a , 2017b ) or ‘Children with autism can grow up to go to college and marry’ (Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2015 ).

(f) religious in nature ( n  = 2), for example, ‘Autism is caused by God or a supreme being’ (Harrison et al., 2017a , 2017b ).

Item-level disagreements were discussed with a third co-author until consensus was reached. 56 items were removed, leaving a pool of items ( n  = 39). Language was rephrased within some items to render it up-to-date and/or less stigmatising, for example, avoiding the term ‘disorder’ and instead using ‘condition’ or just ‘autism’ and using identity-first (‘autistic people’) rather than person-first language (‘people with autism’) in accordance with community preferences (Bottema-Beutel et al., 2021 ; Kenny et al., 2015 ).

Expert Focus Group to Assess and Generate Items

Five autism experts (bringing a range of lived and professional expertise, including two who were diagnosed as autistic themselves; see Table  1 for details) were recruited to participate in a focus group to further assess the appropriateness of the pool of questionnaire items ( n  = 39). Participants received out-of-pocket expenses and refreshments. Additionally, experts who contributed outside of a paid role were compensated with vouchers (£50). Experts were asked to generate additional items and discuss ‘correct’ item responses. Decision-making on items to include and ‘correct’ answers was arrived at by consensus. Where consensus could not be established, the item was not included.. This resulted in the removal of seven items and addition of two items (see Fig.  2 ).

Expert Consensus on Clarity and Correct Responses

To further check the clarity of items and establish consensus on correct responses, the resulting pool of 34 items (26 true/false and 8 multiple choice) was compiled into an online questionnaire using SelectSurvey software. The questionnaire instructions requested that respondents state if an item was not clear and then to select the correct answer. Individuals aged over 18 years and living in the UK with personal, professional or academic expertise in autism were recruited through social media, snowballing, and autism research networks (both formalised networks and informal networks, i.e., individuals sharing the survey with people within their personal networks related to autism research). 56 experts within the autism field completed the questionnaire. Participants received no compensation for participation. Participants were included in the sample as ‘experts’ if they had two or more of the following: qualification relevant to autism at degree level or higher (self-defined); work experience of two years or more with significant contact with autistic people (self-defined); personal diagnosis of autism; diagnosis of autism in a close family member or close friend. Items which did not achieve greater than 80% consensus on the ‘correct’ answer were removed ( n  = 5). Where ≥ 20% responses were rated as ‘not clear’, the item was either reworded or removed ( n  = 5). In addition, to simplify the questionnaire design and scoring, eight multiple-choice questions ( n  = 8) were converted into true/false questions ( n  = 12). This process resulted in an item pool of 38 true/false items.

Administration of Items with Lay Sample

The pool of 38 items was then administered to a lay sample (a sample of people within the community irrespective of their expertise in autism). 221 participants were recruited via online purposive opportunity sampling (general [non-autism-related] social media networks, such as Facebook groups established to bring together people within a specific UK geography). Social media posts invited people with no particular interest in or connection to autism to complete a questionnaire designed to assess knowledge of autism to help us see how well it is pitched for people who are not specialists in autism. Interested individuals then clicked a link through to the participant information sheet, consent form, affiliation questions, and draft questionnaire items. Participants were asked the same questions regarding any affiliation to autism as used in the ‘expert’ online questionnaire; details are provided in Table  2 . Participants received no compensation for participation.

Descriptive data for each item were computed. There was a high level of correct responding with 18/38 items (47%) showing ceiling effects, being answered correctly by ≥ 90% respondents. 197 participants (89%) correctly responded to over 80% of items (31 out of a total 38; M = 33.33; SD = 2.76). Due to the high level of correct responding, we deemed that this provisional pool of items was not performing well for this lay sample. Accordingly, we did not carry out any further analyses and, instead, took measures to develop a pool containing more difficult questionnaire items.

Measures to Develop More Difficult Items

Four steps were taken in order to produce a pool of more difficult questionnaire items:

The 18 items with  ≥ 90% correct response rate were removed (for instance, “most children with autism lose acquired speech”)

Multiple-choice items were reinstated as they are less prone to correct guessing. This included items with a single correct response (signalled to the respondent by “choose one”) AND those with multiple correct responses (signalled to the respondent by “check all that apply”). Items ( n  = 6) were combined or extended to convert into multiple choice questions ( n  = 4; for example, “ASD is a mental health condition: True/False” AND “ASD is a neurodevelopmental disability: True/False” were combined into: “Autism is (choose all that apply)”. Some items did not lend themselves to conversion into multiple-choice and these were maintained in a true/false format.

Scoring was altered to reduce the risk of guessing artificially inflating total scores. For each question, a point was awarded for each correct response, and one point was awarded each non-selected incorrect answer. Each item also had the response option of “not sure” added to further deter participants from guessing answers. See the section below and Online Resource 1 for more information regarding scoring.

The autism experts from the original focus group (Table  2 ) were re-contacted and invited to generate ideas for additional questionnaire items to assess a more advanced understanding of autism. The group discussed potential items and decided on those to be added to the draft questionnaire. This new pool of items included both multiple choice ( n  = 9; for instance, “Well-known psychological theories of autism include [check all that apply: cognitive disinhibition / double empathy problem / theory of mind / functional apathy / reduced central coherence]” and true/false ( n  = 1; “Pica refers to eating or mouthing non-edible items”) formats.

This process generated a revised pool of questionnaire items with 15 true/false questions and 13 multiple choice items.

Expert Consensus on Clarity and Correct Responses (Revised Pool)

Experts within the autism field were recruited through autism research networks, social media and snowballing and invited to complete this new pool of items to assess clarity and establish consensus on correct answers. Expert status was assessed in the same way as for the initial pool of items (see above). 35 experts completed the item pool. They were all over 18 years of age and lived in the UK. 9 (26%) were autistic; 20 (57%) had an autistic close family member or close friend; 34 (97%) had worked for over two years in a job with significant contact with autistic people; 18 (51%) had a qualification related to autism at degree level or higher (with 10 (29%) with a PhD related to autism). Items remained in the questionnaire if experts met consensus of 70% or above for correct answers; this threshold was reduced from the 80% level applied in the first phase due to the need to include more difficult items (on which it would inevitably be harder to achieve consensus). Following this process, no entire questions were removed (all 28 questions remained), but five individual item responses were removed from multiple-choice questions due to not meeting the 70% consensus threshold.

Administration of Items with Lay Sample (Revised Pool)

The new pool of items was then compiled as an online questionnaire using SelectSurvey and a lay sample of participants was recruited by purposive opportunity sampling, repeating the procedure outlined in the section on ‘ Piloting of items with lay sample’ above. The lay sample consisted of 201 participants. Participants were again asked about their affiliation to autism. Please see Table  3 for summary of participant autism affiliations. Participants also self-rated on their autism knowledge on 0 (‘I have never heard of autism’) to 10 (‘I consider myself a world-leading expert on autism’) scale with a mean rating being 4.78 (SD = 1.81; range 1–9).

The 28 questions were first recoded into dichotomous items with each item corresponding to a specific response option for a given question. For every correctly selected option and every unselected ‘incorrect’ option, a score of 1 was given. For instance, for Question 1 “Autism is”, for which response options were (a) a neurodevelopmental condition (correct), (b) a learning disability (incorrect), (c) a mental health condition (incorrect), d) a neurodegenerative condition (incorrect), and e) not sure, a respondent can achieve a score between 0 and 4. When a respondent selects option (a) only, they are awarded the maximum total score of 4; a score of 1 for choosing the correct option (a), and an additional score of 1 for each non-selected incorrect option (b–d). If one of the incorrect response items (b–d) had been selected by the respondent, no mark would be awarded for that item.

A score of 0 was awarded for the entire question if the “not sure” response was selected. This results in five separate dichotomous items (select: 1, not selected: 0 for the correct options and the reverse for the incorrect ones) for Question 1, each corresponding to one of the response options. The derived dichotomous items were used in an item response theory model. The dichotomous items were also summed to create polytomous items, which were used in factor analysis with mixed data. To illustrate, in the case of Question 1, a correctly completed question had a score of 4 as a polytomous item.

Item Response Theory

The dichotomous items of KAQ were used in a two-parameter logistic model (2PL-IRT; Baker, 2001 ) to estimate the probability of a correct response to an item depending on one’s level of autism knowledge, denoted as theta (θ; Kamata & Bauer, 2008 ), and item characteristics, (also known as parameters, severity, discrimination ability, and information). The key parameters under item response theory (IRT) are difficulty and discrimination. The difficulty parameter (intercept), denoted as b , indicates the location of an item on the autism knowledge trait, where the probability of a correct response is 50%. Lower values of the difficulty parameter correspond to “easier” questions, and as such correct responses can be obtained from individuals at lower levels of autism knowledge. The discrimination parameter (slope), denoted as a , is analogous to factor loadings and describes how well an item can differentiate between those with different levels of autism knowledge. Higher values of the a parameter indicate greater ability of an item to discriminate between individuals with different levels of the autism knowledge and are reflected by steeper slope of the item characteristic curve (ICC). The reliability or measurement precision of an item to measure the underlying autism knowledge is characterised in IRT by the concept of information. Greater information corresponds to greater measurement precision, and it can be illustrated using the information function curve, which shows how the reliability of each item can vary throughout different levels of autism knowledge. The item information curve is the highest at the location of the difficulty parameter, since more discriminating ability provides more information.

The 2PL-IRT model was used to guide item selection with the aim of retaining items that are evenly distributed across a range of locations on the autism knowledge scale. Such a scale would allow for meaningful interpretations in group differences and change over time (Nguyen et al., 2014 ). The items were identified as problematic if they had low discrimination ability as indicated by low values of the a parameter.

There is little consensus in psychometric literature on the requirements of sample size for the estimation of IRT parameters (Edelen & Reeve, 2007 ). The requirements not only depend on test length but also on model complexity with more complex models requiring a larger sample size with current estimations for 2-PL models ranging from 250 to 500 participants (Drasgow, 1989 ; Harwell & Janosky, 1991 ; Stone, 1992 ). Due to the number of items in the scale (60 dichotomous items) and the number of participants in this study (N = 201), sample size requirements for the 2PL-IRT model were not met. To accommodate this, the 2PL-IRT model was run separately for correct options (for example for Question 1 it would be “A neurodevelopmental condition” item) and for distractors (“A learning disability”, “A mental health condition”, “A neurodegenerative condition”).

Dimensionality of KAQ-UK

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) for mixed data was conducted on full lay sample (N = 201) using weighted least squares mean and variance adjusted (WLSMV; Muthen, 1984 ) in MPlus (Muthén & Muthén, 1998 ), which can accommodate a combination of categorical and continuous dependent variables in the model. The number of factors to be retained was guided by the number of eigenvalues above 1 (Guttman-Kaiser criterion; Guttman, 1954 ; Kaiser, 1960 ), and by comparing the number of sample eigenvalues that are larger than the mean of eigenvalues generated from 100 randomly simulated correlation matrices of both tetrachoric and polychoric correlations (parallel analysis; Horn, 1965 ). These results were visualised using Cattell’s ( 1966 ) scree plot. The factor selection process was coupled with evaluation of model fit while also taking into account the parsimony and interpretability of the solution (Vitoratou et al., 2023 ). A number of goodness of fit indices were used to evaluate model fit: the relative chi-square (relative χ 2 values below 2 or 3 suggest reasonable fit when coupled with other fit indices that are in acceptable ranges; Hoelter, 1983 , Hu & Bentler, 1999 ), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA values of below 0.05 indicate close fit; Steiger, 1990 , Browne & Cudek, 1993 ), Comparative Fit Index (CFI values greater than 0.95 suggest close fit; Bentler, 1990 ; Hu & Bentler, 1999 ), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI values greater than 0.95 demonstrate close fit; Hu & Bentler, 1999 ; Tucker & Lewis, 1973 ), and standardized root mean residual (SRMR values that are below 0.5 indicate close fit; Hu & Bentler, 1999 ; Kline, 2016 ). Items that did not have strong loadings (< 0.4) on the main factor were considered problematic and to be omitted.

Eight to ten responses per item are considered sufficient for generalised linear latent variables models (Kyriazos, 2018). Omitting items based on 2PL-IRT investigations resulted in 18 polytomous items (which equals to 47 items in dichotomised form), which totals to sample size requirements of at least 144 participants (376 for dichotomised items). The number of participants in this study allowed for exploratory factor analysis on polytomous items but was not sufficient for additional confirmatory methods explorations.

Internal Consistency Reliability

Internal consistency of the scale was evaluated on polytomous items using Cronbach’s alpha (α; Cronbach, 1951 ) and McDonald’s Omega (ω; McDonald, 1999 ). Guidelines for alpha and omega values recommend the values of > 0.70 as indicative of satisfactory internal consistency (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994 ). The homogeneity of the items was further assessed using corrected item-total correlations (ITC; values below 0.2 and above 0.8 indicate an item to be redundant) and alpha/omega if item deleted (AID/OID).

Differences in Score Based on Affiliation to Autism

Participants indicated their affiliation to autism and were allocated to five distinct groups. To address overlaps in affiliations, a hierarchy was created which prioritised lived experience: (1) personal diagnosis of autism; (2) parent/guardian of autistic child(ren) or adult(s); (3) close friend or family member who is autistic; (4) a qualification relevant to autism at degree level or above; (5) a job with significant contact with autistic people. Participants with no affiliation to autism were pooled into a separate group. The differences in total scores between autism-affiliation groups were evaluated using one-way ANOVA with hoc-post tests. The analysis was conducted in MPlus (Muthén & Muthén, 1998 ), STATA (StataCorp., 2021 ), R version 4.3.1 (R Core Team, 2023) and SPSS (IBM Corp, 2021 ). Parallel analysis was conducted using the R package psych (Revelle, 2023).

Item Response Theory: Preliminary Investigations

The first step in the analysis was to run 2-PL-IRT on correct options to examine the probability of a correct response to an item. All items and item responses can be found in Online Resource 2. The estimated difficulty ( b ) and discrimination ( a ) parameters are presented in Online Resource 3, and the corresponding item characteristic curves and item information functions are depicted in Online Resource 4. The analysis showed 6 problematic items with respect to low discrimination ability which were omitted from further investigations. Item 7 (“A person’s facial features can help you identify whether or not they are autistic: False ”) was both the least discriminating and the least difficult item. Item 15 (“Unusual reactions to how things smell, taste, look, feel, or sound means a person must have autism: False ”) was the second least difficult item with low ability to differentiate between those with different levels of autism knowledge. The further least discriminating item with below average difficulty was Item 2 (“Autism is a brain based condition: True ”). With respect to the problematic items that had above average difficulty, Item 10 (“In identical twins, where one has autism, the chance of the other twin having autism is: 77–98% ”) was the most difficult item with very low discriminating ability. The further least discriminating items with above average difficulty were Items 9_2 (“Known causes of autism include: New changes or mutations in genes ”) and 12 (“Short sightedness happens commonly alongside autism: False ”). All 6 items had low information at all ranges of autism knowledge.

Two more items, 16 (“Aggression is not a defining feature of autism: True ”) and 23 (“Most autistic people need to know what to expect more than people who are not autistic: True ”), had below average difficulty and relatively low discrimination ability and information at below average level of autism knowledge, and were thus removed to balance out the number of easier items to more difficult items.

Item 14 (“All autistic people have a skill in which they particularly excel: False ”) and item 22 (“The percentage of UK autistic adults in full-time paid employment is around: 16% ”) were below and above average performing items respectively in terms of difficulty with relatively low discriminating ability. Further discussion amongst the authorship team highlighted that anecdotal feedback suggested that item 14 could be ambiguous and prone to misinterpretation by participants (for example, “skill” could be interpreted as day-to-day individual strengths rather than the intended interpretation of savant skills). Item 22 was considered too specific and to be potentially easily invalidated through future research. Therefore, these two items were further omitted.

With respect to distractors, Item 9_4 (“Known causes of autism include: Vaccinations in early childhood ”) was the most problematic item due to being the least difficult, having no discriminating ability and providing no information. This item has been already identified as problematic with 2-PL-IRT on correct options and removed. Three more items (I8_2, I11_2, I1_1) have been recognised as potentially problematic due to relatively low discriminating ability but were retained in factor analysis for further explorations. Please see Online Resource 3 for all 2-PL parameters for distractors.

Factor Analysis

Eighteen polytomous items underwent dimensionality investigations. The number of eigenvalues of the covariance matrix that were above 1 (5.22, 1.63, 1.59, 1.36, 1.10) suggested up to five factors according to Kaiser-Guttman criterion. Nonetheless, the close fit to the data was achieved with one-factor solution (relative χ 2  = 1.30, RMSEA [90% CI] = 0.039 [0.020, 0.054], CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.92, SRMR = 0.102). Four items (I08, I13, I25, I26) did not load strongly (< 0.4) on their main factor, and each item was omitted from the model one by one. The goodness of fit indices of the resulting solution showed close fit to the data except for SRMR, which nevertheless indicated acceptable fit (relative χ 2  = 1.20, RMSEA [90% CI] = 0.032 [0.000, 0.053], CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.97, SRMR = 0.097). All items had loadings of above 0.4 on the main factor. Exploring solutions with increasing number of factors resulted in more items not loading meaningfully on any factor and some items cross-loading on other factors. The one-factor solution was thus accepted (see Table  4 for loadings) and the final set of items underwent further item response theory investigations.

Item Response Theory: Final Items

2-PL-IRT was run on correct options for the final set of items identified through factor analysis (please see Table  5 for difficulty ( b ) and discrimination ( a ) parameters, and Fig.  3 for item characteristic curves and item information functions).

Item characteristic curves (ICC; on the left) and item information curves (IIF; on the right) for correct options ( A ) and distractors ( B ) for final set of items

The least and most discriminating items were Item 27 (“Medication has been proven to improve autism: False ”) and Item 24_5 (“Commonly used strategies to support understanding in autism include: Social Stories ”), respectively. This indicates that Item 24_5 relates to larger, and Item 27 to smaller, differences in autism knowledge between those who endorse these items and who do not. With respect to difficulty, the location estimates of the items ranged from -2.12 to 1.78, showing wide variation in item location. Item 28_1 (“Common adjustments for autistic children in school include: A quiet space ”) was identified as the least difficult and Item 6 (“One of the people who first described autism in the twentieth century was called: Leo Kanner ”) as the most difficult one. Items were evenly distributed across a range of locations on the autism knowledge scale. Specifically, 6 items (I28_1, I17, I3_1, I1_4, I28_3, I4) were endorsed at lower levels of autism knowledge (Θ =  − 2 to ‒1), 7 items (I24_6, I19, I18, I20, I24_5, I27, I21_2) had average difficulty (Θ =  − 1 to 1), and 6 items (I21_4, I11_5, I3_4, I5, I11_4, I6) targeted higher trait levels of autism knowledge (Θ = 1 to 2), thus all items working together to represent a continuum of the trait. The information function curves were derived for each item, which indicated that Item 28_1 (“Common adjustments for autistic children in school include: A quiet space ”) provided the most information for those with lower levels of autism knowledge, Item 24_5 (“Commonly used strategies to support understanding in autism include: Social Stories ”) was most informative for people of average knowledge, and Item 6 (“One of the people who first described autism in the twentieth century was called: Leo Kanner ”) provided the most information for high scorers.

In regard to distractors, the item with best discrimination ability was I3_6 (“Other names that have been used for types of autism are: Williams Syndrome ”), and item 11_2 (“Well known psychological theories relating to autism include: Functional apathy ”) was the least discriminating. The difficulty parameter ranged from − 1.97 to 1.54, with the least difficult item being Item 28_4 (“Common adjustments for autistic children in school include: More unstructured group work ”), while the most difficult one being Item 11_2 (“Well known psychological theories relating to autism include: Functional apathy ”). The information function curves for each item showed Item 3_6 (“Other names that have been used for types of autism are: Williams Syndrome ”) to be the most informative for those at lower levels of the trait, and Item 21_5 (“Which of the following features of language are sometimes found in autism: Verb inversion ”) had the greatest measurement precision for people with average to high levels of autism knowledge.

Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega indicated satisfactory internal consistency, 0.714 and 0.733, respectively. No problematic items were identified with respect to corrected item-total correlations (0.263–0.506), and alpha (0.671–0.709) and omega (0.685–0.727) if item deleted.

There was a statistically significant difference between affiliation groups on the total score of KAQ-UK ( F (5,195) = 6.534, p  < 0.001). A post-hoc test (Tukey’s HSD) determined that parents of autistic people scored significantly higher than participants with no affiliation and those with autistic family member or a close friend. There were no further significant differences in total scores between the affiliation groups. Please see Table  6 for descriptive statistics and post-hoc tests.

Associations Between Actual and Perceived Autism Knowledge

There was a moderate positive significant correlation between self-perceived autism knowledge, and total score on the KAQ-UK ( r  = 0.39, p  < 0.001). A Pearson’s r correlation test revealed that the higher participants perceived their knowledge of autism to be, the higher their overall total score on the KAQ-UK.

This study aimed to develop and provide initial validation of a questionnaire of autism knowledge suitable to the current UK context. After a detailed item development process and initial psychometric investigations, we provide preliminary support for the validity of a 14-item questionnaire called the Knowledge of Autism Questionnaire-UK (KAQ-UK, see Online Resource 1 for the questionnaire and scoring guidelines). This questionnaire can be used to assess between-group differences in autism knowledge or to evaluate the impact of specific education, awareness-raising, or training activities on improving autism knowledge over time. Further evaluation and validation of its measurement properties are required.

Strengths of the KAQ-UK

The new questionnaire has a number of strengths. First, it is brief (14 items) and therefore acceptable to be administered within a wider assessment battery without being too burdensome. Second, the item pool was generated and evaluated through an iterative development process with involvement from a range of experts with both personal and professional experience in autism. This has resulted in a questionnaire that holds face and content validity and is up-to-date and acceptable to a range of stakeholders in both its content and language. The questionnaire reflects contemporary understanding of the diversity of the autism spectrum and is focused on UK knowledge and practice, which can be different to US understanding and practice, and one of the main reasons that previous questionnaires (e.g., Harrison et al., 2017a , 2017b ; McClain et al., 2019 ) were deemed unsuitable.

Third, we have paid close attention to two inter-related issues: (1) that the questionnaire is pitched at the right level of difficulty, and (2) that items can be evidenced as (almost) universally true or false. The initial stages of our development process highlighted that there was a better general understanding of autism within the lay validation sample than we had anticipated and therefore the first draft questionnaire showed ceiling effects. Consequently, we took measures to increase the difficulty of questionnaire items and reduce correct guessing. This included adding multiple choice questions and a ‘not sure’ response option. The heterogeneous nature of autism can render it difficult to isolate ‘true facts’ which hold across diverse presentations and experiences, and which can be universally evidenced as true or false. This presents challenges to questionnaire item generation. Many general statements of fact are difficult to evidence as true in all individual situations (e.g., autistic people can learn to drive). Loosely worded items (e.g., some autistic people can learn to drive) are easier to evidence as true or false but are prone to correct guessing and can therefore artificially inflate scores. All these factors taken together present challenges in developing questionnaire items that differentiate higher levels of knowledge (e.g., McClain et al., 2019 ; Stronach et al., 2019). To address these challenges, we carried out careful consensus with autism experts, to be confident in our decisions about correctness and incorrectness. In addition, we included KAQ-UK questionnaire items which are more ‘technical’ (e.g., the true/false item ‘Pica refers to eating or mouthing non-edible items’). To assess the KAQ-UK’s ability to differentiate between levels of knowledge, the 2PL-IRT analysis suggested that the 14 items on the final KAQ-UK were evenly distributed across low, average, and high trait levels of autism knowledge. These more technical items are therefore important to discriminate those with the highest levels of knowledge.

A further strength of the questionnaire is its thorough initial psychometric assessment. This is of particular significance given that previous research has shown that 57% of autism knowledge assessments have weak or no psychometric support (Harrison et al., 2017a , 2017b ). The current study assessed the psychometric properties of the KAQ-UK in a number of ways. First, a 2PL-IRT model was employed to examine the difficulty, discrimination, and reliability of each item separately. Six items were removed due to lack of discrimination value and low information, suggesting low ability of the items to differentiate between people at different levels of knowledge and poor measurement precision for all ranges of autism knowledge. Two further items were removed due to low difficulty, discrimination, and information. As a result, the number of easier items to difficult became more balanced, thus reducing the risk of ceiling effects, with which autism knowledge assessments are commonly affected (for instance, Kuhn & Carter, 2006 ). Second, the dimensionality investigations revealed a one-factor model of the questionnaire that represents a single construct of autism knowledge. At this stage of analysis, four items were identified as not meaningful indicators of the knowledge of autism and were removed from the questionnaire. Further psychometric analysis showed satisfactory reliability estimated for the scale, indicating interitem consistency within the measure.

To assess discriminative validity of the tool, we asked the lay validation sample to indicate their affiliation to autism across several categories. This provided preliminary support discriminative validity. The scores of parents/carers of autistic people were significantly higher than those with no affiliation to autism, and those with an autistic close friend or family member. As we would expect parent/carers of autistic people to be more knowledgeable about autism than those with no or a looser affiliation to autism, this finding is reassuring. However, we did not observe significant group differences between scores obtained by people with no affiliation to autism, and those who worked in jobs with significant contact with autistic people, or had qualifications related to autism. The current study did not collect information regarding type of job or qualification, nor were the category descriptions operationalised for participants. As a result, poor group ascertainment may have affected the analysis of affiliation group differences of autism knowledge. Further exploration of discriminative validity is needed in future studies with more accurate categorization of individuals based on their autism-related qualifications to solidify these findings. Furthermore, the current study was unable to assess between group differences in scores obtained by autistic people. As only 7 participants within the lay validation sample reported that they were autistic themselves we were unable to assess between group differences in scores, due to low statistical power.

Furthermore, we also assessed if self-perceived autism knowledge was related to actual knowledge. Our results showed that overall scores on the KAQ-UK are positively related to self-perceived knowledge for the lay validation sample as a whole. We therefore believe this could act as a potential proxy for concurrent, convergent validity when no other similar measures are available.

Limitations of the KAQ-UK

This study comes with limitations, primarily attributed to a limited sample size that did not allow for confirmatory factor analysis to be performed to evaluate the support of the factor structure derived from EFA. Additionally, the assessment of criterion-related validity was lacking. There is no ‘gold standard’ tool in this area and we decided to develop a questionnaire precisely because there were no other up-to-date UK-focussed questionnaires available. As a result, we cannot make claims regarding how the KAQ-UK’s compares to similar autism knowledge measures. Another limitation is that we have limited demographic information, such as gender, age and socio-economic class, of our lay validation sample, plus we relied upon social media and snowballing recruitment methods which can result in sampling bias. These factors make it difficult to make statements about representativeness and to evaluate if the measure and its results are fully applicable to the general population. Further validation of this new questionnaire is required before we can make confident statements about its performance within the general population.

Furthermore, as prompted by an anonymous reviewer of this work, the authors acknowledge that the term “I don’t know” can be read as a non-response option, therefore we suggest in future research and use of this scale this be replaced with the term “that is not within my knowledge”.

Further research is required to assess the appropriateness of this questionnaire for targeted groups and to evaluate its sensitivity to change over time and to detect important changes that result from awareness-raising campaigns or interventions. The inclusion of items which discriminate different levels of knowledge, as shown by item response theory, suggests that there may be scope to detect improvement over time. The KAQ-UK is currently being used in a large randomised controlled trial to evaluate the change in parent autism knowledge following a new post-diagnostic psychoeducation programme (REACH-ASD trial; Leadbitter et al., 2022 ). This will allow examination of the performance of the KAQ-UK with a more targeted group (parents and carers of children recently diagnosed with autism), its ability to detect change over time and the evaluation of whether the unidimensionality of the measure is supported in a new sample using confirmatory factor analysis. Anecdotal feedback from within this trial suggests that many parents/carers found the questionnaire acceptable and enjoyed completing a ‘quiz’ about their autism knowledge.

In conclusion, the KAQ-UK is a brief 14-item assessment of UK-centred autism knowledge that has face validity and satisfactory psychometric properties. The questionnaire shows promise in being sensitive to change over time, although further validation is required. The KAQ-UK can be used across a variety of settings with a range of respondents to assess knowledge of autism. The questionnaire and scoring guidelines are freely available in Online Resource 1.

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Acknowledgments

The team would like the thank all of the experts who so generously gave their time and insight to contribute to the development of the questionnaire. We would also like to thank the participants who completed draft versions of the questionnaire. In addition we thank the National Institute of Health and Care Research Health Technology Assessment Board (reference number 17/80/09) for partially funding time of SL and KL to work on this study. SV and NUM were partially funded by the Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King’s College London. NUM is funded by the NIHR [Doctoral Fellowship (NIHR302618)].

The funding body played no role in the design of the study; the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data; or in the writing of this manuscript. The views expressed are the authors’ and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care. Thanks also go to Prof. Jonathan Green for helpful comments on draft manuscript.

For the purposes of open access, the author has applied a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) licence to any Accepted Author Manuscript version arising from this submission.

This work was supported by National Institute of Health and Care Research, Health Technology Assessment Programme [Grant Ref: 17/80/09] and NIHR302618, awarded to Nora Uglik-Marucha.

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Study conception and design were performed by Kathy Leadbitter, Elena Lieven, Charlotte Broadhurst, and Sophie Langhorne. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Sophie Langhorne, Charlotte Broadhurst, Nora Uglik-Marucha, Silia Vitoratou, and Amelia Pearson. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Sophie Langhorne and Nora Uglik-Marucha. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Langhorne, S., Uglik-Marucha, N., Broadhurst, C. et al. The Knowledge of Autism Questionnaire-UK: Development and Initial Psychometric Evaluation. J Autism Dev Disord (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-024-06332-3

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Three examples of autism research studies

Knowledge is the key to developing a better understanding of autism. Researchers often observe and code behavior in combination with other research methods such as questionnaires or parental interviews to be able to understand, recognize, and explain specific behaviors that are linked to autism.

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Take for example a study Bhat et al. (2010) carried out – it included a novel social object learning task , where novel stands for a not often used triadic interaction: infant, object, and social interaction with a caregiver. Naturally, you can ask the caregiver afterwards about his or her experiences. But, behavioral observation will deliver more in-depth information about the triadic interaction.

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• Sandman, S.A.; Kemp, A.S.; Mabini, C.; Pincus, D.; Magnusson, M. (2012). The role of self-injury in the organization of behaviour. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research , 56 (5) , 516-526.
• Klein Feldman, E.; Matos, R. (2012). Training paraprofessionals to facilitate social interactions between children with autism and their typically developing peers. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions , doi 10.1177/1098300712457421.

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