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• Dog Science: New Scientific Discoveries About Dogs
• By K9 Magazine
• March 24, 2021
• In Dog Science

For as long as there has been scientific research , dogs have made for one of the most fascinating areas of study. We love dogs and they love us right back ( or, do they ?).

At K9 Magazine we want to connect you with the latest, most interesting dog science and canine focused research.

You'll be able to learn more about the science of dog health, nutrition and canine behaviour. All areas of the human / canine relationship, the evolution of dogs and the science behind illness and disease affecting dogs.

This page is our new dog science hub and from here we'll constantly add new research, studies and data on scientific dog topics.

So, if dogs with a healthy serving of science on the side sounds like the sort of thing that rings your bell , you'll want to bookmark this page.

Dog Science & Canine Research: Updated March 2021

The role of companion animals and loneliness during the global pandemic

Published: 19/03/21 - Source: MDPI

This study assessed the relationship between pet ownership, pet attachment, loneliness, and coping with stress before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Contrary to our hypotheses, results did not support the presence of a buffering effect of pet ownership on loneliness, with pet ownership predicting increases in loneliness from pre-pandemic to during the pandemic.

Dog owners showed lower levels of loneliness prior to the pandemic as well as higher levels of attachment, suggesting possible species-level differences in these relationships.

Pet owners also reported spending time with their pet as a highly used strategy for coping with stress, suggesting that future research should explore the role of pets in coping with stress and social isolation during the pandemic. These results indicate that the relationship between pet ownership and adolescent loneliness during the pandemic is complex and warrants further research.

In short : This study says that dog owners are generally less lonely with higher attachment; but this did not make dog owners feel any less alone during the pandemic related lockdowns and isolation than non dog owners.

Read In Full ⇢

Dogs recognise dogs when watching videos

Published: 19/03/21 - Source: Springer

Several aspects of dogs’ visual and social cognition have been explored using bi-dimensional representations of other dogs. It remains unclear, however, if dogs do recognize as dogs the stimuli depicted in such representations, especially with regard to videos.

To test this, 32 pet dogs took part in a cross-modal violation of expectancy experiment, during which dogs were shown videos of either a dog and that of an unfamiliar animal, paired with either the sound of a dog barking or of an unfamiliar vocalization .

This study provides the first evidence that dogs recognize videos of dogs as actually representing dogs. These findings will hopefully be a starting point towards the more extensive use of videos in dog behavioural and cognitive research.

In short : This study reveals that yes, dogs can and do recognise dogs on screen and they tend to be more interested in watching their own species than other animals.

Similar studies

Dogs provide clues for treating cancer in humans

Published: 03/17/21 - Source: Nature

Research using pet dogs as animal models of cancer is helping to inform treatments for human patients — and vice versa.

Researchers at the Sanger Institute are launching a study sequencing about 100 known cancer genes in multiple canine tumours in order to look for similarities in molecular profiles that can then be compared with human cancers.

In short : Dogs are proving to be man's best friend once more as they provide evidence of cancer treatment approaches that could benefit humans.

Dogs can detect coronavirus in seconds

Published: 03/17/21 - Source: Reuters

Thai sniffer dogs trained to detect COVID-19 in human sweat proved nearly 95% accurate during training and could be used to identify coronavirus infections at busy transport hubs within seconds, the head of a pilot project said.

Six Labrador Retrievers participated in a six-month project that included unleashing them to test an infected patient’s sweat on a spinning wheel of six canned vessels.

“The dogs take only one to two seconds to detect the virus,” Professor Kaywalee Chatdarong, the leader of the project at the veterinary faculty of Thailand’s Chulalongkorn University, told Reuters.

“Within a minute, they will manage to go through 60 samples.”

In short : Dogs are able to detect the presence of coronavirus (covid 19) . The aim is to deploy the dogs to detect coronavirus as passengers move through airport security.

The effects of dog domestication on gut microbiota

Published: 03/23/21 - Source: PubMed

Living inside our gastrointestinal tracts is a large and diverse community of bacteria called the gut microbiota that plays an active role in basic body processes like metabolism and immunity. Much of our current understanding of the gut microbiota has come from laboratory animals like mice, which have very different gut bacteria to mice living in the wild. However, it was unclear whether this difference in microbes was due to domestication, and if it could also be seen in other domesticated-wild pairs, like pigs and wild boars or dogs and wolves.

The results showed that while domesticated animals have different sets of bacteria in their guts, leaving the wild has changed the gut microbiota of these diverse animals in similar ways. To explore what causes these shared patterns, Reese et al. swapped the diets of two domesticated-wild pairs: laboratory and wild mice, and dogs and wolves. They found this change in diet shifted the gut bacteria of the domesticated species to be more similar to that of their wild counterparts, and vice versa.

In short : In the future, these insights could help identify new ways to alter the gut microbiota to improve animal or human health.

Breed disposition toward obesity

Published: 23/03/21 - Source: PubMed

A retrospective study to evaluate the prevalence and risk factors for overweight status in dogs under primary veterinary care in the UK.

There were 1580 of 22,333 dogs identified as overweight during 2016. The estimated 1-year period prevalence for overweight status recorded in dogs under veterinary care was 7.1% (95% confidence interval 6.7-7.4).

After accounting for confounding factors, eight breeds showed increased odds of overweight status compared with crossbred dogs.

Breeds at highest risk of being obese were:

• Pug (OR 3.12, 95% confidence interval 2.31 to 4.20)
• Beagle (OR 2.67, 1.75 to 4.08)
• Golden Retriever (OR 2.58, 1.79 to 3.74)
• English Springer Spaniel (OR 1.98, 1.31 to 2.98).

Being neutered, middle-aged and insured were additionally associated with overweight status.

In short : Targeted overweight prevention strategies should be prioritised for dog breeds that are more predisposed toward obesity, such as Pugs and Beagles. The findings additionally raise questions about further preventative efforts following neutering. The prevalence estimate suggests veterinary professionals are underreporting overweight status and therefore could be missing key welfare opportunities.

An additional study on canine obesity was conducted in February 2021, the key findings were:

Attachment theory posits that patterns of interaction derived from the attachment system provide a starting point for understanding how people both receive and provide care.

Extending this theory to human-animal interactions provides insights into how human psychology affects pets, such as pet obesity. The goal of this study was to determine how attachment anxiety and avoidance might contribute to pet obesity.

Findings suggest that attachment plays a unique role in shaping the pet-caregiver relationship and influences various elements that contribute to pet obesity, particularly in dogs. As such, the findings may lend a novel perspective to strategies for reducing pet obesity and provide a framework for future research into pet health.

Dog science articles in K9 Magazine

• We Need To Talk About Antibiotic Resistance In Pets
• How Much Sleep Does Your Dog Need? (Ultimate Guide To Dog Sleep)
• A Better Understanding Of Dog Breed Lifespans
• Why Do Some Dogs Have Different Coloured Eyes? (Heterochromia Explained)
• Punishment vs Reward – Which Dog Training Method Works Best?
• What Is Your Dog Really Thinking About? (Video)
• Where Did COVID-19 Come From? Not Dogs, Scientists Say
• Meet Storm: This Special Dog Is Being Trained to Detect Covid-19
• How Would Your Dog React If They Were Put in This Position?
• Is There Such a Thing as Being Too Passionate About Your Pet?
• How Strong Is A Dog’s Sense Of Smell? (It’s Actually Mind-Blowing)
• Do Dogs Understand Time? Apparently So – Here’s How We Know
• Why Do Dogs Lick Their Lips? The Answer Is Surprising
• COVID-19: Why Medical Research Using Dogs Is Barking up the Wrong Tree
• Pets Can Protect Against Suicide in Older People, New Study Says
• Meet the World’s First Dogs to Detect Lung Infections
• What Does a Medical Alert Dog Do?
• How Smart Is Your Dog?
• The Myths About Dogs & Asthma

See more canine science articles from K9 Magazine

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Science | December 2020

The New Science of Our Ancient Bond With Dogs

A growing number of researchers are hot on the trail of a surprisingly profound question: What makes dogs such good companions?

By Jeff MacGregor

Photographs by Daniel Dorsa

This is a love story.

First, though, Winston is too big. The laboratory drapery can conceal his long beautiful face or his long beautiful tail, but not both. The researchers need to keep him from seeing something they don’t want him to see until they’re ready for him to see it. So during today’s brief study Winston’s tail will from time to time fly like a wagging pennant from behind a miniature theater curtain. Winston is a longhaired German shepherd.

This room at the lab is small and quiet and clean, medium-bright with ribs of sunlight on the blinds and a low, blue overhead fluorescence. Winston’s guardian is in here with him, as always, as is the three-person team of scientists. They’ll perform a short scene—a kind of behavioral psychology kabuki—then ask Winston to make a decision. A choice. Simple: either/or. In another room, more researchers watch it all play out on a video feed.

In a minute or two, Winston will choose.

And in that moment will be a million years of memory and history, biology and psychology and ten thousand generations of evolution—his and yours and mine—of countless nights in the forest inching closer to the firelight, of competition and cooperation and eventual companionship, of devotion and loyalty and affection.

It turns out studying dogs to find out how they learn can teach you and me what it means to be human.

It’s late summer at Yale University. The laboratory occupies a pleasant white cottage on a leafy New Haven street a few steps down Science Hill from the divinity school.

I’m here to meet Laurie Santos, director of the Comparative Cognition Laboratory and the Canine Cognition Center . Santos, who radiates the kind of energy you’d expect from one of her students, is a psychologist and one of the nation’s preeminent experts on human cognition and the evolutionary processes that inform it. She received undergraduate degrees in biology and psychology and a PhD in psychology, all from Harvard. She is a TED Talks star and a media sensation for teaching the most popular course in the history of Yale, “ Psychology and the Good Life, ” which most folks around here refer to as the Happiness Class (and which became “ The Happiness Lab ” podcast). Her interest in psychology goes back to her girlhood in New Bedford, Massachusetts. She was curious about curiosity, and the nature of why we are who we are. She started out studying primates, and found that by studying them she could learn about us. Up to a point.

“My entry into the dog work came not from necessarily being interested in dogs per se, but in theoretical questions that came out of the primate work.” She recalls thinking of primates, “If anybody’s going to share humanlike cognition, it’s going to be them.”

But it wasn’t. Not really. We’re related, sure, but those primates haven’t spent much time interacting with us. Dogs are different. “Here’s this species that really is motivated to pay attention to what humans are doing. They really are clued in, and they really seem to have this communicative bond with us.” Over time, it occurred to her that understanding dogs, because they are not only profoundly attuned to but also shaped by people over thousands of years, would open a window on the workings of the human mind, specifically “the role that experience plays in human cognition.”

So we’re not really here to find out what dogs know, but how dogs know. Not what they think, but how they think. And more important, how that knowing and thinking reflect back on us. In fact, many studies of canine cognition here and around the academic world mimic or began as child development studies.

Understand, these studies are entirely behavioral. It’s problem-solving. Puzzle play. Selection-making. Either/or. No electrodes, no scans, no scanners. Nothing invasive. Pavlov? Doesn’t ring a bell.

Zach Silver is a PhD student in the Yale lab; we’re watching his study today with Winston. Leashed and held by his owner, Winston will be shown several repetitions of a scene performed in silence by two of the researchers. Having watched them interact, Winston will then be set loose. Which of the researchers he “chooses”—that is, walks to first—will be recorded. And over hundreds of iterations of the same scene shown to different dogs, patterns of behavior and preference will begin to emerge. Both researchers carry dog treats to reward Winston for whichever choice he makes—because you incentivize dogs the same way you incentivize sportswriters or local politicians, with free food, but the dogs require much smaller portions.

In some studies the researchers/actors might play out brief demonstrations of cooperation and non-cooperation, or dominance and submission. Imagine a dog is given a choice between someone who shares and someone who doesn’t. Between a helper and a hinderer. The experiment leader requests a clipboard. The helper hands it over cheerfully. The hinderer refuses. Having watched a scene in which one researcher shares a resource and another does not, who will the dog choose?

The question is tangled up with our own human prejudices and preconceptions, and it’s never quite as simple as it looks. Helping, Silver says, is very social behavior, which we tend to think dogs should value. “When you think about dogs’ evolutionary history, being able to seek out who is prosocial, helpful, that could have been very important, essential for survival.” On the other hand, a dog might choose for “selfishness” or for “dominance” or for “aggression” in a way that makes sense to him without the complicating lens of a human moral imperative. “There could be some value to [the dog] affiliating with someone who is stockpiling resources, holding onto things, maybe not sharing. If you’re in that person’s camp, maybe there’s just more to go around.” Or in certain confrontational scenarios, a dog may read dominance in a researcher merely being deferred to by another researcher. Or a dog may just choose the fastest route to the most food.

What Silver is trying to tease out with today’s experiment is the most elusive thing of all: intention.

“I think intention may play a large role in dogs’ evaluation of others’ behavior,” says Silver. “We may be learning more about how the dog mind works or how the nonhuman mind works broadly. That’s one of the really exciting places we are moving in this field, is to understand the small cognitive building blocks that might contribute to valuations. My work in particular is focused on seeing if domestic dogs share some of these abilities with us.”

As promising as the field is, in some ways it seems that dog nature, like human nature, is infinitely complex. Months later, in a scientific paper , Silver and others will point out that “humans evaluate other agents’ behavior on a variety of different dimensions, including morally, from a very early age” and that “given the ubiquity of dog-human social interactions, it is possible that dogs display humanlike social evaluation tendencies.” Turns out that a dog’s experience seems important. “Trained agility dogs approached a prosocial actor significantly more often than an antisocial actor, while untrained pet dogs showed no preference for either actor,” the researchers found. “These differences across dogs with different training histories suggest that while dogs may demonstrate preferences for prosocial others in some contexts, their social evaluation abilities are less flexible and less robust compared to those of humans.”

Santos explained, “Zach’s work is beginning to give us some insight into the fact that dogs can categorize human actions, but they require certain kinds of training to do so. His work raises some new questions about how experience shapes canine cognition.”

It’s important to create experiments measuring the dog’s actual behaviors rather than our philosophical or social expectation of those behaviors. Some of the studies are much simpler, and don’t try to tease out how dogs perceive the world and make decisions to move through it. Rather than trying to figure out if a dog knows right from wrong, these puzzles ask whether the dog knows right from left.

An example of which might be showing the subject dog two cups. The cup with the treat is positioned to her left, near the door. Do this three times. Now, reversing her position in the room, set her loose. Does she head for the cup near the door, now on her right? Or does she go left again? Does she orient things in the world based on landmarks? Or based on her own location in the world? It’s a simple experimental premise measuring a complex thing: spatial functioning.

In tests like these, you’ll often see the dog look back at her owner, or guardian, for a tip, a hint, a clue. Which is why the guardians are all made to wear very dark sunglasses and told to keep still.

In some cases, the dog fails to make any choice at all. Which is disappointing to the researchers, but seems to have no impact on the dog—who will still be hugged and praised and tummy-rubbed on the way out the door.

Every dog and every guardian here is a volunteer. They come from New Haven or drive in from nearby Connecticut towns for an appointment at roughly 45-minute intervals. They sign up on the lab’s website. Some dogs and guardians return again and again because they enjoy it so much.

It’s confusing to see the sign-up sheet without knowing the dog names from the people names.

Winston’s owner, human Millie, says, “The minute I say ‘We’re going to Yale,’ Winston perks up and we’re in the car. He loves it and they’re so good to him; he gets all the attention.”

And dog Millie’s owner, Margo, says, “At one point at the end they came up with this parchment. You open it up and it says that she’s been inducted into Scruff and Bones, with all the rights and privileges thereof.”

The dogs are awarded fancy Yale dogtorates and are treated like psych department superstars. Which they are. Without them, this relatively new field of study couldn’t exist.

All the results of which will eventually be synthesized, not only by Santos, but by researchers the world over into a more complete map of human consciousness, and a better, more comprehensive Theory of Mind. I asked Santos about that, and any big breakthrough moments she’s experienced so far. “Our closest primary relatives—primates—are not closest to us in terms of how we use social information. It might be dogs ,” she says. “Dogs are paying attention to humans.”

Santos also thinks about the potential applications of canine cognition research. “More and more, we need to figure out how to train dogs to do certain kinds of things,” she says. “There are dogs in the military, these are service dogs. As our boomers are getting older, we’re going to be faced with more and more folks who have disabilities, who have loneliness, and so on. Understanding how dogs think can help us do that kind of training.”

In that sense, dogs may come to play an even larger role in our daily lives. Americans spent nearly $100 billion on their pets in 2019, maybe half of which was spent on dogs. The rest was embezzled, then gambled away—by cats.

From cave painting to The Odyssey to The Call of the Wild , the dog is inescapable in human art and culture. Anubis or Argos, Bau or Xolotl, Rin Tin Tin or Marmaduke, from the religious to the secular, Cerberus to Snoopy, from the Egyptians and the Sumerians and the Aztecs to the canine stunt coordinators of Hollywood, the dog is everywhere with us, in us and around us. As a symbol of courage or loyalty, as metaphor and avatar, as a bad dog, mad dog, “release the hounds” evil, or as a screenwriter’s shorthand for goodness, the dog is tightly woven into our stories.

Maybe the most interesting recent change, to take the movie dog as an example, is the metaphysical upgrade from Old Yeller to A Dog’s Purpose and its sequel, A Dog’s Journey . In the first case, the hero dog sacrifices himself for the family, and ascends to his rest, replaced on the family ranch by a pup he sired. In the latter two, the same dog soul returns and returns and returns, voiced by actor Josh Gad, reincarnating and accounting his lives until he reunites with his original owner. Sort of a Western spin on karma and the effort to perfect an everlasting self.

But even that kind of cultural shift pales compared with the dog’s journey in the real world. Until about a century ago, in a more agrarian time, the average dog was a fixture of the American barnyard. An affectionate and devoted farmhand, sure, herder of sheep, hunting partner or badger hound, keeper of the night watch, but not much different from a cow, a horse or a mule in terms of its utility and its relationship to the family.

By the middle of the 20th century, as we urbanized and suburbanized, the dog moved too—from the back forty to the backyard.

Then, in the 1960s, the great leap—from the doghouse onto the bedspread, thanks to flea collars. With reliable pest control, the dog moves into the house. Your dog is no longer an outdoor adjunct to the family, but a full member in good standing.

There was a book on the table in the waiting room at Yale. The Genius of Dogs , by Brian Hare and Vanessa Woods. Yiyun Huang, the lab manager of the Canine Cognition Center at the time, handed it to me. “You should read this,” she said.

Then I flew to Duke University in Durham, North Carolina.

Not long after I stepped off the plane I walked straight into a room full of puppies.

The Duke Canine Cognition Center is the brain-child of an evolutionary anthropologist named Brian Hare. His CV runs from Harvard to the Max Planck Institute and back. He is a global leader in the study of dogs and their relationships to us and to each other and to the world around them. He started years ago by studying his own dog in the family garage. Now he’s a regular on best-seller lists.

Like Santos, he’s most interested in the ways dogs inform us about ourselves. “Nobody understands why we’re working with dogs to understand human nature—until we start talking about it,” he says. “Laugh if you want, but dogs are everywhere humans are, and they’re absolutely killing it evolutionarily. I love wolves, but the truth is they’re really in trouble”—as our lethal antipathy to them bears out. “So whatever evolutionarily led to dogs, and I think we have a good idea of that, boy, they made a good decision.”

Ultimately, Hare says, what he’s studying is trust. How is it that dogs form a bond with a new person? How do social creatures form bonds with one another? Developmental disorders in people may be related to problems in forming bonds—so, from a scientific perspective, dogs can be a model of social bonding.

Hare works with research scientist Vanessa Woods, also his wife and co-author. It was their idea to start a puppy kindergarten here. The golden and Labrador retriever-mix puppies are all 10 weeks old or so when they arrive, and will be studied at the same time they’re training to become service dogs for the nonprofit partner Canine Companions for Independence . The whole thing is part of a National Institutes of Health study : Better understanding of canine cognition means better training for service dogs.

Because dogs are so smart—and so trainable— there’s a whole range of assistance services they can be taught. There are dogs who help people with autism, Woods tells me. “Dogs for PTSD, because they can go in and spot-check a room. They can turn the lights on. They can, if someone’s having really bad nightmares, embrace them so just to ground them. They can detect low blood sugar, alert for seizures, become hearing dogs so they can alert their owner if someone’s at the door, or if the telephone’s ringing.”

Canines demonstrate a remarkable versatility. “A whole range of incredibly flexible, cognitive tasks,” she says, “that these dogs do that you just can’t get a machine to do. You can get a machine to answer your phone—but you can’t get a machine to answer your phone, go do your laundry, hand you your credit card, and find your keys when you don’t know where they are.” Woods and I are on the way out of the main puppy office downstairs, where the staff and student volunteers gather to relax and rub puppy tummies between studies.

It was in their book that I first encountered the idea that, over thousands of years, evolution selected and sharpened in dogs the traits most likely to succeed in harmony with humans. Wild canids that were affable, nonaggressive, less threatening were able to draw nearer to human communities. They thrived on scraps, on what we threw away. Those dogs were ever so slightly more successful at survival and reproduction. They had access to better, more reliable food and shelter. They survived better with us than without us. We helped each other hunt and move from place to place in search of resources. Kept each other warm. Eventually it becomes a reciprocity not only of efficiency, but of cooperation, even affection. Given enough time, and the right species, evolution selects for what we might call goodness. This is the premise of Hare and Woods’ new book, Survival of the Friendliest .

If that strikes you as too philosophical, over-romantic and scientifically spongy, there’s biochemistry at work here too. Woods explained it while we took some puppies for a walk around the pond just down the hill from the lab. “So, did you see that study that dogs hijack the oxytocin loop ?”

I admitted I had not.

Oxytocin is a hormone produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland. It plays an important role in human bonding and social interaction, and makes us feel good about everything from empathy to orgasm. It is sometimes referred to as the “love hormone.”

Woods starts me out with the underpinnings of these kinds of studies—on human infants. “Human babies are so helpless,” she says. “You leave them alone for ten minutes and they can literally die. They keep you up all night, they take a lot of energy and resources. And so, how are they going to sort of convince you to take care of them?”

What infants can do, she says, “is they can look at you.”

And so this starts an oxytocin loop where the baby looks at you and your oxytocin goes up, and you look at the baby and the baby’s oxytocin goes up. One of the things oxytocin does is elicit caregiving toward someone you see as part of your group.

Dogs, it turns out, have hijacked that process as well. “When a dog is looking at me,” Woods says, “his oxytocin is going up and my oxytocin is going up.” Have you ever had a moment, she asks, when your dog looks at you, and you just don’t know what the dog wants? The dog has already been for a walk, has already been fed.

“Sure,” I responded.

“It’s just kind of like they’re trying to hug you with their eyes,” she says.

Canine eyebrow muscles, it turns out, may have evolved to reveal more of the sclera, the whites of the eyes. Humans share this trait. “Our great ape relatives hide their eyes,” Woods says. “They don’t want you to know where they’re looking, because they have a lot more competition. But humans evolved to be superfriendly, and the sclera is part of that.”

So, it’s eye muscles and hormones, not just sentiment.

In the lab here at Duke, I see puppies and researchers work through a series of training and problem-solving scenarios. For example, the puppy is shown a treat from across the room, but must remain stationary until called forward by the researcher.

“Puppy look. Puppy look.”

Puppy looks.

“Puppy stay.”

Puppy stays.

“Puppy fetch.”

Puppy wobbles forward on giant paws to politely nip the tiny treat and to be effusively praised and petted. Good puppy!

The problem-solving begins when a plexiglass shield is placed between the puppy and the treat.

“Puppy look.”

Puppy does so.

Puppy wobbles forward, bonks snout on plexiglass. Puppy, vexed, tries again. How fast the puppy susses out a new route to the food is a good indication of patience and diligence and capacity for learning. Over time the plexiglass shields become more complicated and the puppies need to formulate more complex routes and solutions. As a practical matter, the sooner you can find out which of these candidate puppies is the best learner, the most adaptive, the best suited to the training—and which is not—the better. Early study of these dogs is a breakthrough efficiency in training.

I asked Hare where all this leads. “I’m very excited about this area of how we view animals informs how we view each other. Can we harness that? Very, very positive. We’re working already on ideas for interventions and experiments.”

Second, Hare says, much of their work has focused on “how to raise dogs.” He adds, “I could replace dogs with kids .” Thus the implications are global: study puppies, advance your understanding of how to nurture and raise children.

“There’s nice evidence that we can immunize ourselves from some of the worst of our human nature,” Hare recently told the American Psychological Association in an interview , “and it’s similar to how we make sure that dogs are not aggressive to one another: We socialize them. We want puppies to see the world, experience different dogs and different situations. By doing that for them when they’re young, they aren’t threatened by those things. Similarly, there is good evidence that you can immunize people from dehumanizing other groups just through contact between those groups, as long as that contact results in friendship.”

Evolutionary processes buzz and sputter all around us every moment. Selection never sleeps. In fact, Hare contributed to a new paper released this year on how rapidly coyote populations adapt to humans in urban and suburban settings. “How animal populations adapt to human-modified landscapes is central to understanding modern behavioural evolution and improving wildlife management. Coyotes ( Canis latrans ) have adapted to human activities and thrive in both rural and urban areas. Bolder coyotes showing reduced fear of humans and their artefacts may have an advantage in urban environments.”

The struggle between the natural world and the made world is everywhere constant, and not all possible outcomes lead to friendship. Just ask those endangered wolves—if you can find one.

The history of which perhaps seems distant from the babies and the students and these puppies. But to volunteer for this program is to make a decision for extra-credit joy. This is evident toward the end of my day in Durham. Out on the lab’s playground where the students, puppy and undergraduate alike, roll and wrestle and woof and slobber under that Carolina blue sky.

In rainy New York City, I spent an afternoon with Alexandra Horowitz, founder and director of the Horowitz Dog Cognition Lab at Barnard College, and the best-selling author of books including Being a Dog, Inside of a Dog, and Our Dogs, Ourselves . She holds a doctorate in cognitive science, and is one of the pioneers of canine studies.

It is her belief that we started studying dogs only after all these years because they’ve been studying us.

She acknowledges that other researchers in the field have their own point of view. “The big theme is, What do dogs tell us about ourselves?” Horowitz says. “I am a little less interested in that.” She is more interested in the counter question: What do cognition studies tell us about dogs ?

Say you get a dog, Horowitz suggests. “And a week into living with a dog, you’re saying ‘He knows this.’ Or ‘She is holding a grudge’ or, ‘He likes this.’ We just barely met him, but we’re saying things that we already know about him—where we wouldn’t about the squirrel outside.”

Horowitz has investigated what prompts us to make such attributions. For instance, she led a much-publicized 2009 study of the “guilty look.”

“Anthropomorphisms are regularly used by owners in describing their dogs,” Horowitz and co-authors write. “Of interest is whether attributions of understanding and emotions to dogs are sound, or are unwarranted applications of human psychological terms to nonhumans. One attribution commonly made to dogs is that the ‘guilty look’ shows that dogs feel guilt at doing a disallowed action.” In the study, the researchers observed and video-recorded a series of 14 dogs interacting with their guardians in the lab. Put a treat in a room. Tell the dog not to eat it. The owner leaves the room. Dog eats treat. Owner returns. Does the dog have a “guilty look”? Sometimes yes, sometimes no, but the outcome, it turns out, was generally related to the owner’s reaction—whether the dog was scolded, for instance. Conclusion: “These results indicate that a better description of the so-called guilty look is that it is a response to owner cues, rather than that it shows an appreciation of a misdeed.”

She has also focused on a real gap in the field, a need to investigate the perceptual world of the dog, in particular, olfaction. What she calls “nosework.” She asks what it might be like “to be an olfactory creature, and how they can smell identity or smell quantity or smell time, potentially. I am always interested in the question: What is the smell angle here?”

Earlier this year, for instance, her group published a study, “ Discrimination of Person Odor by Owned Domestic Dogs ,” which “investigated whether owned dogs spontaneously (without training) distinguished their owner’s odor from a stranger’s odor.” Their main finding: Dogs were able to distinguish between the scent of a T-shirt that had been worn overnight by a stranger and a T-shirt that had been worn overnight by their owner, without the owner present. The result “begins to answer the question of how dogs recognize and represent humans, including their owners.”

It’s widely known and understood that dogs outsmell us, paws down. Humans have about six million olfactory receptors. Dogs as many as 300 million. We sniff indifferently and infrequently. Dogs, however, sniff constantly, five or ten times a second, and map their whole world that way. In fact, in a recent scientific journal article, Horowitz makes plain that olfaction is too rarely accounted for in canine cognition studies and is a significant factor that needs to be accorded much greater priority.

As I walked outside into the steady city drizzle, I thought back to Yale and to Winston, in his parallel universe of smell, making his way out of the lab, sniffing every hand and every shoe as we piled on our praise. Our worlds overlap, but aren’t the same. And as Winston fanned the air with his tail, ready to get back in the car for home, my hand light on his flank, I asked him the great unanswerable, the final question at the heart of every religious system and philosophical inquiry in the history of humanity.

“Who’s a good boy?”

So I sat down again with Laurie Santos. New Haven and Science Hill and the little white laboratory were all quiet under a late summer sun.

I wanted to explore an idea from Hare’s book, which is how evolution could select for sociability, friendliness, “goodness.” Over the generations, the thinking goes, eventually we get more affable, willing dogs—but we also get smarter dogs. Because affability, unbeknownst to anybody, also selects for intelligence. I saw in that a cause for human optimism.

“I think we’ve shaped this creature in our image and likeness in a lot of ways,” Santos tells me. “And the creature that’s come out is an incredibly loving, cooperative, probably smart relative to some other ancestral canid species. The story is, we’ve built this species that has a lot of us in them—and the parts of us that are pretty good, which is why we want to hang out with them so much. We’ve created a species that wants to bond with us and does so really successfully.”

Like Vanessa Woods and Brian Hare, she returns to the subject of human infants.

“What makes humans unique relative to primates?” she asks. “The fact that babies are looking into your eyes, they really want to share information with you. Not stuff that they want, it’s just simply this motivation to share. And that emerges innately. It’s the sign that you have a neurotypical baby. It’s a fundamental thread through the entire life course. The urge to teach and even to share on social media and so on. It makes experiences better over time when you’re sharing them with someone else. We’ve built another creature that can do this with us, which is kind of cool.”

I think of Winston more and more these strange days. I picture his long elegant face and his long comic book tail. His calm. His unflappable enthusiasm for problem-solving. His reasonability. Statesmanlike. I daydream often of those puppies, too. Is there anything in our shared history more soothing than a roomful of puppies?

There is not.

It turns out that by knowing the dog, we know ourselves. The dog is a mirror.

Logic; knowledge; problem-solving; intentionality; we can often describe the mechanics of how we think, of how we arrived at an answer. We talk easily about how we learn and how we teach. We can even describe it in others.

Many of us—maybe most of us—don’t have the words to describe how we feel. I know I don’t. In all of this, in all the welter of the world and all the things in it, who understands my sadness? Who can parse my joy? Who can reckon my fear or measure my worry? But the dog, any dog—especially your dog—the dog is a certainty in uncertain times, a constant, like gravity or the speed of light.

Because there is something more profound in this than even science has language for, something more powerful and universal. Because at the end of every study, at the end of every day, what the dog really chooses is us .

So. As I said. A love story.

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Jeff MacGregor | | READ MORE

Jeff MacGregor is the award-winning Writer-at-Large for Smithsonian . He has written for the New York Times , Sports Illustrated , Esquire , and many others, and is the author of the acclaimed book Sunday Money . Photo by Olya Evanitsky.

clock This article was published more than  2 years ago

Thinking about how dogs think

Back in 2002, when Alexandra Horowitz was working toward her PhD at the University of California at San Diego, she believed that dogs were a worthy thing to study. But her dissertation committee, which favored apes and monkeys, needed convincing.

“They were primate people,” she said. “They all studied nonhuman primates or human primates, and that’s where it was thought that the interesting cognitive work was going to happen. Trying to show them that there would be something interesting with dogs — that was a challenge.”

Oh, how things can change in just two decades, especially in a nation that includes about 90 million dogs among its residents — everything from beloved pets to working dogs doing all kinds of tasks, from sniffing out drugs in airports to assisting blind people with crossing a street. Today, Horowitz is a senior research fellow at Barnard College in New York City, where her specialty is dog cognition: understanding how dogs think, including the mental processes that go into tasks such as learning, problem-solving and communication. Dog cognition is now a widely respected field, a growing specialty branch of the more general animal-cognition research that has existed since the early 20th century.

“This field, and animal cognition, really, is all within our lifetimes,” Horowitz said. “It’s not as if nobody ever looked at dogs, but they weren’t looking at their minds.”

Looking at dogs’ minds, so far, has revealed quite a few insights. The Canine Cognition Center at Yale University, using a game where humans offer dogs pointing and looking cues to spot where treats are hidden, showed that dogs can follow our thinking even without verbal commands. The Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany figured out that dogs are smart about getting what they want — they will eat forbidden food more frequently if humans can’t see them. Researchers from Austria, Israel and Britain determined that seeing a caregiver, versus a stranger, activated dogs’ brain regions of emotion and attachment much as it does in the human mother-child bond. Other European researchers showed that negative-reinforcement training (like jerking on a leash) causes lingering emotional changes and makes the dog less optimistic overall.

Read more stories of dogs, humans and the relationship they share

Some dog owners hear about this type of research and think: “They did a whole study to figure out that my dog looks where I point? I could have told you that.” But the studies aren’t just about what a dog is doing. They’re indicating areas to research so that we can better understand why and how the dog is doing it — in other words, what’s happening inside the dog’s mind.

“Maybe they’re not looking at your finger at all. Maybe they’re paying attention to your face and not to your hand,” said Federico Rossano, whose team at the University of California at San Diego is trying to determine whether dogs can translate their thoughts into words that humans can understand through a language device. “A lot of this becomes interesting in terms of how you can train them better.”

An evolving area of research

Right now, with no organizing body in the field, it’s hard to say exactly how many people are doing dog-cognition research. You can count on two hands the number of dedicated university spaces led by professors with graduate students and funding grants. When the leaders from those places get together once a year, it’s usually at someone’s home.

But researchers at universities doing studies on dogs? There are now many dozens of those, and there’s no lack of students wanting to at least dabble in the work.

“The thing that gets my students all abuzz is that people always want to know whether their dog loves them back,” said Ellen Furlong, associate professor of psychology at Illinois Wesleyan University and leader of its Dog Scientists Group.

Every semester, on the first day, she asks students if their dogs are happy. It’s her way of helping them understand why the study of dog cognition is important.

“They’re always kind of offended — ‘O f course my dog is happy. I love my dog,’ ” she said. “But then you dig a little bit and push them and say: ‘Your dog’s life is different from your life. You get to decide when your dog gets to eat and play and go outside. You decide everything about your dog’s life, but your dog isn’t human. They have different wants and needs than you do.’ They have a semester-long assignment where they have to consider how their work on cognition can help to design some enrichment activities to improve the dogs’ lives.”

The topics that dog-cognition researchers focus on today often are chosen based on personal interests. While Furlong is most curious about ethics, welfare and how humans can meet dogs’ psychological needs, Horowitz is focusing her research on what dogs understand through smell. At the Duke Canine Cognition Center in North Carolina, Brian Hare is trying to determine — when a dog is still a puppy — whether the way a dog thinks might make her a good candidate for different jobs as an adult.

“We’re saying, ‘Here are some cognitive abilities that are critical for training for these jobs,’ ” Hare said. “It’s a little bit like talking about personality, but we’re talking about your cognitive personality, in a way. Maybe you have a really good memory for space, or maybe you’re good at understanding human gestures. The question is whether we can identify some of these dogs really early, in the first two to three months of life, who will do well in these programs.”

How the research is done

One example of dog cognition research with a potential training application is a study that Horowitz did on nose work — an activity that lets dogs use their natural abilities with scents to find everything from a treat hidden under a cone to marijuana in somebody’s suitcase.

Horowitz and her team showed the dogs three buckets and taught them that one of the buckets always had a treat under it, and one did not. Then she measured how quickly the dogs went to the “ambiguous bucket” in the middle.

The dogs then attended nose-work classes. These types of advanced classes are widely available at the same types of schools that teach basic obedience. In the nose-work classes, dogs are encouraged and trained to use their noses to search for and find treats or favorite toys that are hidden under boxes or cones, inside suitcases or in other places.

After a few weeks of nose-work classes, Horowitz repeated the bucket test.

“What we found was the dogs in the nose-work class got faster at approaching ambiguous stimulus,” she said, adding that the results suggest that for some dogs, taking nose-work classes could help them feel more optimistic. “The group that had nose work changed their behavior afterward, so I have to say it’s something about the nose work. I don’t know exactly what it was, but if the effect is profound and we keep seeing it, we would go in and try to see what it was that made it useful for the subjects.”

Hare is widely credited with having jump-started America’s dog-cognition research field. In the late 1990s as an undergraduate, he was doing research with chimpanzees when he realized they couldn’t do something that his dogs could do: follow a human’s pointing gesture to find food. Chimpanzees are the closest animal relatives humans have, and dogs could do something they couldn’t. Researchers suddenly wanted to know why dogs could understand something that chimpanzees could not.

In his most recent study , published in July, Hare and his team looked at the difference between wolf and dog pups. There had been some debate in the dog-cognition field about where dogs’ unusual abilities to cooperate with humans originate — whether those abilities are biological or taught. So the team gave a battery of temperament and cognition tests to dog and wolf puppies that were 5 weeks to 18 weeks old. The pups of both species were given the chance to approach familiar and unfamiliar humans to retrieve food; to follow a human’s pointing gesture to find food; to make eye contact with humans, and more. The team found that even at such a young age, the dog pups were more attracted to humans, read the human gestures more skillfully, and made more eye contact with humans than the wolf pups did.

The conclusion? The way that humans domesticated dogs actually altered the dogs’ developmental pathways, meaning their abilities to cooperate with us today are biological — a research result that is likely to have many practical implications.

“It’s highly inheritable, and it’s potentially manipulatable through breeding,” Hare said, adding that dogs might be bred to specialize in certain types of thinking. The finding opens up the idea of studying dogs in ways that could make deep-pocketed entities like the U.S. government want to fund more dog-cognition research, Hare said.

By way of example, he talked about dogs he has worked with for the U.S. Marine Corps, compared with dogs he has worked with for Canine Companions for Independence in California. The Marines needed dogs in places like Afghanistan to help sniff out incendiary devices, while the companions agency needed dogs that were good at helping people with disabilities.

Just looking at both types of purpose-bred dogs, most people would think they’re the same — to the naked eye, they all look like Labrador retrievers, and on paper, they would all be considered Labrador retrievers. But behaviorally and cognitively, because of their breeding for specific program purposes, Hare said, they were different in many ways.

Hare devised a test that could tell them apart in two or three minutes. It’s a test that’s intentionally impossible for the dog to solve — what Star Trek fans would recognize as the Kobayashi Maru. In Hare’s version, the dog was at first able to get a reward from inside a container whose lid was loosely secured and easy to dislodge; then, the reward was placed inside the same container with the lid locked and unable to be opened. Just as Starfleet was trying to figure out what a captain’s character would lead him to do in a no-win situation, Hare’s team was watching whether the dog kept trying to solve the test indefinitely, or looked to a human for help.

“What we found is that the dogs that ask for help are fantastic at the assistance-dog training, and the dogs that persevere and try to solve the problem no matter what are ideal for the detector training,” Hare said. “It’s not testing to see which dog is smart or dumb. What we’ve been able to show is that some of these measures tell you what jobs these dogs would be good at.”

What comes next in the field of dog-cognition research is probably a bit more of everything. Some researchers are following their interests, while others are following the research grants. Those grants can come from a wide array of sources, including the government trying to help soldiers with post-traumatic stress disorder, shelters trying to rehome animals and neuroscience institutes looking for insights across species.

“It’s a really exciting moment,” Hare said. “I think we can continue on with individual researchers pursuing fun, interesting things — the students and the universities love it — but most successful academic endeavors have two parts. Being intellectual is wonderful, but that kind of research tends to struggle with funding. Academic endeavors with practical application tend to be incredibly well funded, and then the field grows.

“If you can have both of those things, then it will grow, and it will grow phenomenally,” he added. “If it’s just, ‘We’re going to do this because people love dogs,’ that’ll be fun, but it will stay small like it is now.”

The scholar’s best friend: research trends in dog cognitive and behavioral studies

• Original Paper
• Open access
• Published: 21 November 2020
• Volume 24 , pages 541–553, ( 2021 )

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• Massimo Aria 1 ,
• Alessandra Alterisio 2 ,
• Anna Scandurra 2 ,
• Claudia Pinelli 3 &
• Biagio D’Aniello   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1176-946X 2  

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In recent decades, cognitive and behavioral knowledge in dogs seems to have developed considerably, as deduced from the published peer-reviewed articles. However, to date, the worldwide trend of scientific research on dog cognition and behavior has never been explored using a bibliometric approach, while the evaluation of scientific research has increasingly become important in recent years. In this review, we compared the publication trend of the articles in the last 34 years on dogs’ cognitive and behavioral science with those in the general category “Behavioral Science”. We found that, after 2005, there has been a sharp increase in scientific publications on dogs. Therefore, the year 2005 has been used as “starting point” to perform an in-depth bibliometric analysis of the scientific activity in dog cognitive and behavioral studies. The period between 2006 and 2018 is taken as the study period, and a backward analysis was also carried out. The data analysis was performed using “bibliometrix”, a new R-tool used for comprehensive science mapping analysis. We analyzed all information related to sources, countries, affiliations, co-occurrence network, thematic maps, collaboration network, and world map. The results scientifically support the common perception that dogs are attracting the interest of scholars much more now than before and more than the general trend in cognitive and behavioral studies. Both, the changes in research themes and new research themes, contributed to the increase in the scientific production on the cognitive and behavioral aspects of dogs. Our investigation may benefit the researchers interested in the field of cognitive and behavioral science in dogs, thus favoring future research work and promoting interdisciplinary collaborations.

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Introduction

The domestication of wolves was probably the first human successful attempt aimed to control an animal. After the first stage, in which primitive dogs were domesticated from their wild ancestors—the wolves, dogs were artificially selected resulting into the modern breeds, based on different specialization and morphology (Wayne and Ostrander 2007 ). However, several aspects of this history remain unclear, despite scientific efforts in studying dog evolution. Under dispute is the place of the domestication process of dogs—from Europe or southern East Asia—as uncertainly lies in the divergence between wolves and dogs (Thalmann et al. 2013 ; Wang et al. 2016 ). Many doubts also surround the question of how domestication of dogs began and how this process has impacted cognition and behavior in dogs (Hare et al. 2002 ; Udell and Wynne 2008 ; Wynne et al. 2008 ; Topál et al. 2009a ). Probably, the secret of such a long duration and effective cooperation with humans are dogs’ advanced social skills, which allowed them to exchange communicative signals effectively with the human (Miklósi 2009 ; D’Aniello and Scandurra 2016 ; D’Aniello et al. 2017 ; Scandurra et al. 2017 , 2018 ).

In history, dogs were mostly employed for utility, whereby the term “man’s best friend” originated in the eighteenth century (see Miklósi and Topál 2013 ). They are now increasingly involved in different working and sporting activities, and their presence in our homes as pets is also in a growing trend in many countries (see, for example, Murray et al. 2015 ). Pet dogs could promote the welfare of the human family they live with, whereas working dogs are an integral part of social functioning. Several studies demonstrated that keeping dogs has a positive effect on our physical and mental health (Levine et al. 2013 ; Ownby et al. 2002 ; Raina et al. 1999 ; Kramer et al. 2019 ). Although this so-called “pet effect” (Allen 2003 ) received some criticism, noting that some papers reported null or also negative effects on health and happiness of pet owners (see Herzog 2011 for a review), it contributed to the flurry of research on dogs.

Altogether, dogs have become an important social phenomenon attracting scientific interest (Morell 2009 ). There are different reasons why canine research is advantageous beyond the easy access to the subjects for experimental purposes. They show many similarities with humans (Scandurra et al. 2020 ) and, therefore, can be used as a model for human studies. Indeed, there are functional parallels in a range of behavioral features, which are not shared with the closest human relatives, the great apes (Topál et al. 2009b ). The success of dogs as behavioral models also relies on their origin from ancestors with high social behavior, the adaptiveness in living in the anthropogenic niches and the socialization with humans during ontogeny (Kubinyi et al. 2009 ). Moreover, dogs have also been used as a model for comparative and translational neuroscience, cancer and cognitive decline, such as in Alzheimer’s disease in humans (Head et al. 2000 ).

Bibliometric research focusing specifically on the dog’s personality or temperament showed about 50 papers in the database between 1934 and 2004 (Jones and Gosling 2005 ). A comprehensive study by Bensky et al. ( 2013 ) aimed at identifying the major trends in the literature related to the areas of cognitive research on dogs, detected an increase in the studies over the 15 years before the date of the review. However, a worldwide trend of scientific research on dog cognition and behavior has never been explored to date using a bibliometric approach (Chen 2003 ), while the evaluation of scientific research has increasingly become important in recent years. Bibliometric analysis is a useful tool to measure the output of scientific research, using specific indicators to obtain information about the research trends in different fields (De Battisti and Salini 2013 ; Wallin 2005 ).

There are pure cognitive studies, which analyze the brain functioning through brain imaging (e.g., fMRI studies), without taking into account the behavioral responses. However, most of the papers dealing with cognition also include behavioral outcomes. Indeed, brain imaging studies often analyze brain functioning, while the experimental subjects are performing various behavioral tasks. Moreover, many studies provide data for the understanding how stimuli are processed (i.e., cognition) by studying behavioral responses. Therefore, it is not so common to find pure cognitive or behavioral studies, whereby, in this paper, we have considered all studies dealing with both cognition and/or behavior.

Since there is evidence of a growing trend in scientific production (Fanelli and Larivière 2016 ), the first goal of the present paper was to verify whether the dog cognitive and behavioral studies show a growing trend exceeding those of cognitive and behavioral sciences in general. To this scope, we have provided a comparison between the trend in the literature on dogs and that of the whole collection of studies in the subject category “Behavioral Sciences” from 1985 (i.e., the year of starting electronic access to Web of Science database) to 2018. It was verified that peer-reviewed publications on dog cognitive and behavioral studies showed a steeper growth curve with respect to that of the subject category “Behavioral Sciences” starting from 2005. Therefore, this year was chosen as a “starting point” for a “recent analysis” until 2018, including 13 years. To further emphasize the more current changes in the scientific production related to the cognitive and behavioral studies on dogs, we compared the “recent analysis” with an “earlier analysis”. The latter covered in the backward direction an equivalent number of years to the “recent analysis” from the “starting point”.

Our second goal was to understand whether the growth of scientific production in dog cognition and behavior was simply related to an increased research effort in the same research themes or changes in research themes and the contribution of new research themes to this trend.

The further aim was to provide a bibliometric analysis related to sources, countries, affiliations, co-occurrence network, thematic maps, collaboration network, and world maps of the scientific activity related to the cognitive and behavioral studies on dogs. We also attempted to identify the most frequent and impactful journals, countries, research institutes, and their relationship at social and conceptual levels.

Overall the information reported in this study could be useful to the researchers in locating the topics that need more scientific efforts, giving information to help further develop the already thriving growing field of dog cognition and behavior, thus fostering future interdisciplinary collaborations.

We used bibliometrix, a new R-tool for comprehensive science mapping analysis (Aria and Cuccurullo 2017 ), which provides various options for importing bibliographic data from scientific databases and performing bibliometrics analysis related to different items. We employed bibliometrix to analyze the sources, countries, and affiliations. It allowed us to define the structure of the topic at the conceptual level based on the co-occurrence network and thematic maps and social structure as gathered by collaboration network and world maps.

Selection strategy

Our investigation followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, illustrating the outcomes of the literature searches and article selection process (Liberati et al. 2009 ). PRISMA consists of a checklist describing the protocol adopted for selecting the collection of articles used in a systematic literature review. It is used to ensure that the selection process is replicable and transparent. We performed a computerized bibliometric analysis from January 1985 to December 2018 for articles retrieved from the Web of Science (WoS) database, which is now maintained by Clarivate Analytics, and also retrieved articles from the Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI expanded) and the Social Science Citation Index (SSCI). Data were collected in January 2020.

To identify all publications related to this field, we defined the following query: (((TS = (((dog OR dogs) AND *cogniti*) OR (canis AND familiaris AND *cogniti*))) OR (TS = ((( dog OR dogs) AND communicat*) OR (canis AND familiaris AND communicat*))) OR (TS = ((( dog OR dogs) AND behav*) OR (canis AND familiaris AND behav*))))). TS stands for topic, that is, the search of the mentioned words in the title, abstract, and keyword lists. This query was formulated after some exploratory trials in which, after using the word behav* and cogniti*, we noted that some of the publications in our personal database related to dogs’ communication did not appear. Thus, for a more comprehensive research, we also added the word communicat*. In our search, we selected original articles in the English language, including experiments (i.e., review articles and proceedings were excluded).

The information about the retrieved articles by WoS in Bib TeX format was exported into Microsoft Excel 2017. The selection involved two selectors, which reached a satisfactory agreement level (Cohen’s K  = 0.91). The choices that did not match were resolved involving a third independent researcher and the final decision was taken by the concensus among researchers (Cuccurullo et al. 2016 ).

The inclusion criteria concerning cognitive and behavioral sciences are reported in Table 1 .

Data loading and converting

Numerous software tools support science mapping analysis; however, many of these do not assist scholars in a complete recommended workflow. The most relevant tools are bibliometrix (Aria and Cuccurullo 2017 ), CitNetExplorer (van Eck and Waltman 2014 ), VOSviewer (van Eck and Waltman 2010 ), SciMAT (Cobo et al. 2012 ), and CiteSpace (Chen 2006 ). Starting from our final collection, we loaded the data (i.e., the selected papers matching the inclusion criteria, including all their metadata) and converted it into R data frame using bibliometrix (Aria and Cuccurullo 2017 ) since it contains a more extensive set of techniques and it is suitable for practitioners through Biblioshiny (Moral-Muñoz et al. 2020 ).

To investigate the interest in dog’s cognitive and behavioral sciences, the annual trend of publications from 1985 to 2018 was compared with the whole literature in the field of cognitive and behavioral studies published in the subject category “Behavioral Science,” since most of the papers related to cognition and behavior fall in this subject category. Indeed, it includes 53 journals, some of them with the main focus on cognition, such as “ Animal Cognition ” and other focusing mainly on behavior, such as “ Animal Behavior ”. However, all journals in the subject category “Behavioral Science” tend to accept studies on cognition and/or behavior.

From 2005, the studies on dogs diverged upward from the general growing trend of the papers on cognitive and behavioral studies published in the subject category “Behavioral Science” (see results). Thus, we chose to use this point to perform the following separate analysis on dogs a posteriori. A “recent analysis”, including the last 13 years (2006–2018), was used to underline emerging aspects, and an “earlier analysis”, counting the same number of years (1993–2005), was used for comparative purposes. In this way, we were able to compare the period in which there was an increase in the scientific production on dogs exceeding the trend of studies in the subject category “Behavioral Sciences” and an equivalent number of years in which the growing trend of dogs’ cognitive and behavioral studies paralleled that of behavioral sciences. This choice allowed us to test whether the exceeding trend of dog studies was simply due to an increased effort in the same topics or new topics contributed to this increase.

We analyzed the article collection using different aggregation levels. Regarding journals, bibliometrix provides many indicators, such as the number of publications, h-index (Hirsch 2005 ), g-index (Egghe 2006 ), m-index (von Bohlen und Halbach 2011 ), and the total number of citations. Thus, we reduced the variables by applying a principal component analysis with orthomax rotation, through a statistical tool for Excel (XLSTAT 2019, Addinsoft Inc.).

Co-occurrence network, collaboration network, thematic maps, and world maps are also provided. A network is a graphical representation of item co-occurrences in a set of documents. In a co-occurrence network, the items consist of terms extracted from the article keyword lists, from the titles, or from the abstracts; while in a collaboration network, the items consist of the co-authors, the author’s affiliations, or the author’s countries. A thematic map is a Cartesian representation of the term clusters identified performing a cluster analysis on a co-occurrence network. It allows for easier interpretation of the research themes developed in a framework. Finally, a world map is a geographical representation of the collaboration network of an author’s country. The analyses were based on KeyWords Plus, which are the words or phrases that frequently appear in the titles of the references cited in an article but do not appear in the title of the article itself. They are extracted from the papers using a statistical algorithm, based on the cited references in the article. This process is unique to Clarivate Analytics databases. The algorithm is based on a supervised machine learning approach that automatically assigns a set of keywords, namely, Keyword Plus, from a glossary defined by a team of experts. This approach uses the article’s bibliography to identify the research topics and then label the document with a set of Keyword Plus. The use of the KeyWords Plus offers several advantages over other databases and author’s keyword list, in such a way that the terms are extracted from a standardized glossary, defined for subject categories analyzed. It also covers a larger knowledge base and unbiased concerning the author’s subjectivity when providing keywords for their articles (Zhang et al. 2016 ). Moreover, a comparison between Keywords Plus and Author Keywords performed at the scientific and the document levels yields more Keywords Plus terms than Author Keywords, and it is more descriptive (Zhang et al. 2016 ).

Based on Keywords Plus, we obtained the co-occurrence network, which identifies the relationship between the keywords. Each keyword represents a node, or vertex, of the network, and the edge connecting two nodes is proportional to the number of times two keywords are included in the same keyword list. Stronger is an edge, higher is the relationship between two keywords within a paper (Tijssen and Van Raan 1994 ), thus allowing to provide a graphic visualization of potential relationships among keywords. In the network, it is possible to identify groups of strongly interconnected terms, which represent themes or topics. Although different algorithms exist to identify these groups, this study used the Louvain community detection algorithm (Blondel et al. 2008 ) because it gave the best results when applied to different benchmarks on Community Detection methods (Lancichinetti and Fortunato 2009 ).

The clusters identified by the co-occurrence network were plotted in a thematic map according to Callon’s centrality and Callon’s density rank values along the two axes (Callon et al. 1991 ).

The X-axis represents the centrality, that is, the degree of interaction of a network cluster in comparison with other clusters appearing in the same graph. It can be read as a measure of the importance of a theme in the development of the research field. The Y-axis symbolizes the density, which measures the internal strength of a cluster network, and it can be assumed as a measure of the theme’s development (Cahlik 2000 ; Cobo et al. 2011 , 2015 ). According to these authors, the graphical representation of themes on the four quadrants in which they are plotted allows identification of the following proprieties: (1) Motor themes (first quadrant): the cluster network is characterized by high centrality and high density, meaning that they are well developed and important for the structuring of a research field; (2) Highly developed and isolated themes (second quadrant): they are characterized by high density and low centrality, meaning that they are of limited importance for the field since they do not share important external links with other themes; (3) Emerging or declining themes (third quadrant): they have low centrality and low density, meaning that they are weakly developed and marginal. The identification of emerging or declining trends of a theme requires a longitudinal analysis, through a thematic evolution (Aria and Cuccurullo 2017 ): splitting the timespan into different timeslices allow to identify the trajectory, whereby a direction toward the top of the map over time identifies an emerging trend while a direction toward the lower left quadrant would identify a declining trend; (4) Basic and transversal themes (fourth quadrant): they are characterized by high centrality and low density, namely, they are important concerning general topics that are transversal to different research areas of the field.

The scientific collaboration analysis was used to identify the social structure of the field, through the application of the social network analysis (Newman 2001 ), applying it at an aggregated level (i.e., countries).

The comparison of the number of publications from selected papers for dogs with the general trend of all papers published in the subject category “Behavioral Science” showed that starting from 2005, there has been a sharp increase in scientific production on dogs (Fig.  1 ).

Comparative view of the annual scientific production related to cognitive studies on dogs (black line) and the trend of publication rate of research in the subject category “Behavioral Sciences” (gray line; for an obvious comparison, the line has been lowered 100 folds). It is evident that increasing trend in research on dogs starts from 2005

Data related to the main information on dogs are reported in Table 2 .

After our selection, 218 papers related to studies on dogs were retrieved in the “earlier analysis” (1993–2005), while they were 1307 in the “recent analysis” (2006–2018). This means that the scientific production on dog cognitive and behavioral studies increased sixfold. A similar finding was also observed for the Keywords Plus, Authors’ Keywords, Authors, Author Appearances, Authors of multi-authored documents, and single-authored documents. However, these data support the view that there is a considerable increase in the researchers working on the cognitive and behavioral aspects of dogs. It also appears that the contribution of a single researcher who co-authored remains almost unchanged, which means that the research effort by each researcher has not generally increased over time.

Sources impact

Dog cognitive and behavioral studies appeared in 34 different sources in “earlier analysis”, while they substantially increased in “recent analysis”, totaling to 85. The principal component analysis (PCA), carried out on the number of publications, h-index, g-index, m-index, and the total number of citations, highlighted a single principal component explaining 98.56% of the variability (Eigenvalue = 4.928, χ 2  = 584.479, P  < 0.001), with KMO  = 0.786 ensuring the sampling adequacy in the “earlier analysis”. In the “recent analysis”, the PCA detected a single component explaining most of the variability (93.709%, Eigenvalue = 4.685, χ 2  = 875.361, P  < 0.001, KMO =  0.838).

The highest score for the cognitive and behavioral sciences of dogs was the Applied Animal Behavior Science , both in “earlier analysis” and “recent analysis”. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association , occupying the second place in “earlier analysis”, was less utilized in “recent analysis”, not appearing in the first ten sources anymore. A lowering in score from “earlier analysis” to “recent analysis” was also observed for the third journal in the list, which was the Journal of Comparative Psychology . In “recent analysis”, Animal Cognition and Journal of Veterinary Behavior-Clinical Applications and Research both showed an increase in the score, occupying the second and third place, respectively. It is noteworthy that PLoS One acquired a high score in dog cognitive and behavioral studies in “recent analysis”. Indeed, it was not present in “earlier analysis” since it was launched in 2006, which coincides with the start of our “earlier analysis” analysis. Similar reasoning could be applied for Scientific Reports , which was launched in 2011 and is in the first ten sources in our collection related to the “recent analysis”. Full data for the sources are reported in Online Resources 1 and 2.

Country productivity and affiliations

According to our collection of the metadata, in the “earlier analysis”, 22 countries contributed to dog cognitive and behavioral studies, whereas in the “recent analysis”, they have almost been doubled (42).

Considering the number of publications related to corresponding authors, the leading countries were the USA, the UK, and Hungary in the “earlier analysis”, and these were also among the most productive in “recent analysis”. Ireland appeared as the fifth most productive country in “earlier analysis” but was much less involved in dog cognitive and behavioral studies in “recent analysis”, where it ranked at the 24th position. A slightly less engagement on the part of the Netherlands affected its ranking, pushing it down from the ten to the fifteenth position. On the contrary, Italy, contributed less in “earlier analysis”, while it appeared more productive in “recent analysis”, ranking in the third position. A similar observation holds for Austria, which was not listed in “earlier analysis”, but appeared in the first ten most productive countries in the “recent analysis”. Japan was not in the top ten contributing countries in “earlier analysis” but was indeed listed in “recent analysis”. However, this country has only earned two positions, thus maintaining its almost unchanged status in terms of its contribution. The whole data of countries’ productivity are given in Online Resources 3 and 4.

Concerning the affiliations, the Eötvös Loránd University of Hungary provided the highest contribution to the development of the dog cognitive and behavioral sciences in the “earlier analysis”, followed by the University of Toronto and the Utrecht University (the Netherlands). This ranking substantially changed in the “recent analysis”. Besides Eötvös Loránd University of Hungary, which has always been the major contributor to developing dog cognitive and behavioral sciences, all affiliations in the top ten were new, with the University of Vienna and the University of Milan occupying the second and third place, respectively, in the list. The list of the most productive affiliations can be found in Online Resources 5 and 6.

Conceptual structure

The analysis of KeyWords Plus in the “earlier analysis” identified six clusters, represented in a thematic map, according to their centrality and density ranking (Fig.  2 ). A cluster was characterized by high centrality and high density and was positioned in the first quadrant as a motor theme. It included words “beta-amyloid accumulation,” “dysfunction,” and “canine” as the most recurrent terms. A second cluster with good centrality and density identified another well-developed theme, including the KeyWords Plus “rats,” “plasma-cortisol,” and “stress” as the most co-occurring words. Another cluster was in the fourth quadrant, characterized by high centrality and a lower density with respect to the two previous clusters. It was a basic and transversal well-developed theme. The most frequent words were “comprehension,” “search behavior” “chimpanzees pan-troglodytes,” “evolution,” and “gaze.” Two other clusters were characterized by low centrality and low density, which meant they were weakly developed and marginal, and were positioned in the third quadrant. One cluster included the KeyWords Plus “animals,” “humans,” and “temperament”; the other contained, as most frequent KeyWords Plus, “classification,” “breed,” and “sex.” Finally, an isolated theme, with a high density and low centrality, including the only word “information,” was positioned in the second quadrant, which meant that it had limited importance for the field.

Thematic map showing clusters and the KeyWords Plus from 1993 to 2005 (“earlier analysis”) identified by the co-occurrence network. The X axis represents the centrality (i.e. the degree of interaction of a network cluster in comparison with other clusters) and gives information about the importance of a theme. The Y axis symbolizes the density (i.e. measures the internal strength of a cluster network, and it can be assumed as a measure of the theme’s development). Accordingly, the first quadrant identifies motor themes (i.e. well developed and important themes for the structuring of a research field); in the second quadrant are plotted highly developed and isolated themes (i.e. themes of limited importance for the field); the third quadrant contains emerging or declining themes (i.e. themes weakly developed and marginal); in the fourth quadrant falls basic and transversal themes (i.e. they concerns general topics that are transversal to different research areas of the field)

For the period characterizing the “recent analysis”, bibliometrix individuated four clusters, two in the first quadrant and two in the third (Fig.  3 ). A cluster in the first quadrant was characterized by high centrality and high density and included motor themes in dog cognitive and behavioral studies. The most occurring KeyWords Plus was “temperament,” followed by “personality” and “traits.” The second cluster in the first quadrant had a lower centrality and lower density with respect to the previous cluster and included “humans,” “performance,” and “wolves,” as the most occurring KeyWords Plus. The two clusters in the third quadrant were characterized by low centrality and low density, which meant that they were weakly developed marginal themes. A cluster included “brain,” “age,” “model,” and “social-behavior,” as most common KeyWords Plus, while the other cluster included “stress,” “welfare,” and “attachment.”

Thematic map showing clusters and the KeyWords Plus from 2006 to 2018 (“recent analysis”) identified by the co-occurrence network. The X axis represents the centrality (i.e. the degree of interaction of a network cluster in comparison with other clusters) and gives information about the importance of a theme. The Y axis symbolizes the density (i.e. measures the internal strength of a cluster network, and it can be assumed as a measure of the theme’s development). Accordingly, the first quadrant identifies Motor themes (i.e. they are well developed and important for the structuring of a research field); in the second quadrant tare plotted highly developed and isolated themes (i.e. they are of limited importance for the field); the third quadrant contains emerging or declining themes (i.e. they are weakly developed and marginal); the fourth quadrant includes basic and transversal themes (i.e. themes concerning general topics transversal to different research areas of the field)

Social structure

The USA and Canada shared the highest number of publications in “earlier analysis”, whereas other countries showed a lower rate of collaboration. In contrast, in the “recent analysis”, a radical increase in the collaboration network is evident (compare Figs.  4 and 5 ). The USA was again the leading country, sharing most publications with Canada and Australia. Hungary and Austria were at the third position, with several publications in common. It is noteworthy to underlines the radical increase in the collaboration network of the UK. The list of the most collaborative countries can be found in Online Resources 7 and 8.

World map showing research collaborations among countries from 1993 to 2005 (“earlier analysis”). Brighter blue color indicates a higher collaboration rate. Countries with less than three shared papers are not shown by connectors

World map showing research collaborations among countries from 2006 to 2018 (“recent analysis”). Brighter blue color indicates a higher collaboration rate. Countries with less than three shared papers are not shown by connectors

The first goal of the present paper was to verify whether the dog cognitive and behavioral studies were attracting the interest of scholars more than the studies on cognitive and behavioral sciences in general. It is clear from our data that scientific production for dog cognitive and behavioral studies is substantially more consistent in “recent analysis”, as compared with “earlier analysis”. Furthermore, the growing trend in studies on dogs, starting from 2005, largely exceeds the number of papers in the subject category “Behavioral Sciences,” which we have taken as a reference point for cognitive and behavioral studies in general. Our data provide scientific evidence that in recent times the interest toward the cognitive and behavioral studies on dogs is growing more than the general trend in cognitive and behavioral sciences.

Why the number of studies started to increase around 2005 is difficult to say. The most cited papers in this field came around this period and dealt with dog’ domestication (Hare et al. 2002 ; Miklósi et al. 2003 ; Hare and Tomasello 2005 ). These studies might have provided an important stimulus in raising the interest in the cognitive and behavioral studies on dogs. However, our data show that the interest on the theme related to the dog evolution remained almost unchanged from “earlier analysis” to “recent analysis”; while the studies related to temperament increased considerably (compare Figs.  2 and 3 ).

Although the total number of papers on dog cognitive and behavioral studies associated with an author’s name has increased, the contribution of a single researcher co-authoring these studies remains almost unchanged, which is in line with the general trend of scientific studies (Fanelli and Larivière 2016 ). In other words, the number of co-authors per publication increased, but the publication rate per scholar engaged in dog cognitive and behavioral studies did not. This result reflects an increasing trend in the collaboration network from the “earlier analysis” to “recent analysis” (compare Figs.  4 and 5 ).

Our second goal aimed to understand whether new research themes and/or changes in research themes accompanied the growth of scientific production in dog cognition and behavior starting from 2005. Looking at KeyWords Plus a motor theme in “earlier analysis” was characterized by studies related to aging. Studies in this field used dogs as a model to receive information about the decline of the human brain in elderly people (Bosch et al. 2011 ). This research theme received limited interest in the “recent analysis” as it showed a decrease in the centrality and density in relationship to the other themes. This means that dogs are less used as models of study for human disease, in comparison with themes aimed to study dogs per se. A similar trend was observed for the research theme related to welfare, which was characterized by good centrality and good density in “earlier analysis”, but it appeared less developed in “recent analysis” in comparison with other themes. Some of the themes maintained a high interest for both the studied periods. Indeed, the theme related to species comparison (evolution) of cognitive and behavioral skills appeared as clusters located almost at the same position in the graph. What deserved more importance from “earlier analysis” to “recent analysis” was the studies related to temperament. This theme appeared as a weakly developed and marginal theme in “earlier analysis”, while it became a motor theme in “recent analysis”. Therefore, this theme was an emerging theme in “earlier analysis”. This was a trend that had already been observed ten years before in another study (Kubinyi et al. 2009 ). Lastly, a theme including words related to breed, gender, and aggressive behavior classification, appeared as a weakly developed and marginal theme in “earlier analysis”, but it disappeared in “recent analysis”, indicating that it was already a declining theme in “earlier analysis”. It should be underlined that because of the general increase in the cognitive and behavioral studies on dogs in the “recent analysis”, all themes received an increased research effort in recent times but not with the same intensity. Thus, indicating a theme as declining should be interpreted in comparison with other themes in the same period. In this sense, the themes related to aging and welfare were less considered, thus requiring more scientific attention. Overall, both changes in research themes and new research themes contributed to the increased scientific production in dog cognitive and behavioral studies.

About the sources, Applied Animal Behavior Science received the highest score by PCA, both in “earlier analysis” and “recent analysis”. However, there was a substantial turnover for other journals, such as Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association , which showed a high score in “earlier analysis”, but not in “earlier analysis”. On the contrary, some sources such as Animal Cognition and Journal of Veterinary Behavior-Clinical Applications and Research showed a growing trend. Besides, the new sources appearing only in “recent analysis”, such as PLoS One and Scientific Reports , caused a change in journal ranking, which also reflected as changes in topics (see below). Noteworthy, the ranking is not indicative of the value of a journal since our data do not allow to test for the quality of research reported. Moreover, our analysis refers only a limited field of studies reported in the journals, namely, studies in the cognitive and behavioral science of dogs. Other factors could also affect the ranking, such as the rejection rate, which is different between journals. In recent times, the choice for journal also depends on whether it is open access with a rapid turnover and a larger “reach”. This could be the case with more general journals, like PLoS One and Scientific Reports .

Among countries, the USA, the UK, and Hungary were the major contributors to the development in dog cognitive and behavioral studies, both in “earlier analysis” and “recent analysis”. While some countries, e.g., Ireland, showed a decline, other countries played a major role, as in the case of Italy and Austria. It should be emphasized that the numbers of research groups differ in the countries. For example, in Hungary and Austria, a single research group is responsible for almost all publications, while several groups in the US and UK contribute to the countries' achievements. The multiple-country publications (MCP), defined as the number of articles including at least a co-author working in a different country with respect to the corresponding author, showed that different countries demonstrated high levels of collaboration activity in “recent analysis”. Indeed, the inter-country collaboration appeared rich in terms of institutions forming large groups of research worldwide. On the other hand, the collaboration net was poorly developed in “earlier analysis”. This outcome is expected since the advances in technology, and the rapid processing and dissemination of scientific information have reduced the barriers of geographic distance and broadened interdisciplinary collaboration.

The data for countries were partially coherent with institutions. Indeed, the Eötvös Loránd University of Hungary provided the maximum contribution to the development of dog cognitive and behavioral sciences, both in “earlier analysis” and “recent analysis”, and the University of Vienna and the University of Milan contributed much in “recent analysis”. Regarding the journals, our analysis does not provide information about the value of a country or an institution and reflects only the studies focused on the cognitive and behavioral science of dogs. It should be remembered that the factors other than the interest in studies on the cognitive and behavioral science of dogs, can affect these outcomes. For instance, the important countries could be driven by research funding, type of institution, or animal ethics regulations. The total number of researchers can affect the number of studies regarding the cognitive and behavioral science of dogs in a country. Some institutions could have had a limited period of activity or started studies on dog cognition and behavior only a while ago. In any case, according to our goal, the present analysis offers a clear picture regarding the most productive countries and affiliations, which is useful to locate where the scientific production on cognition and behavior in dogs is more intense. Moreover, we also provide a map of collaboration, which is useful for several reasons. The ability to debate and share the experience is essential for academic and scientific accomplishment. Constructively, challenging the accepted opinions and ideas is central to their development, and international collaborations help to facilitate this. The collaboration provided a means to professional advancement and increased knowledge (Lukkonen et al. 1992 ). Beaver and Rosen ( 1979 ) concluded that scientific collaboration represents a response to the increasing professionalization of science. Persson et al. ( 2004 ) show that citations to articles resulting from international collaborations grow faster than those referring to domestic collaborations. Narin ( 1991 ) shows that internationally co-authored articles are more highly cited.

This study has several limitations, which are mainly related to the instrument of bibliometric analysis per second. Indeed, although our selection has limited false-positive, false-negative results are always present in bibliometric research, as it is impossible to generate a perfect and all-encompassing research query.

We included articles only from Web of Science (WoS), and therefore our research cannot cover the entire literature on cognition and behavior in dogs. However, it should be underlined that no scientific database is comprehensive, and each of them, including Scopus or PubMed, has its own strengths and weaknesses (Falagas et al. 2008 ). Moreover, WoS does not allow electronic access to articles published before 1985. Additionally, many other articles might have been published in not-yet-indexed journals, and therefore they will not be found in any database.

Taking all these limitations into consideration, the number of publications analyzed in this study might not precisely reflect the worldwide research activity on dog cognitive and behavioral studies, but the data presented may still provide significant insight into the evolving trends before and after the increase in dog cognitive and behavioral studies.

In conclusion, it was noted that most of the extant literature on the growing trend in the field of dog cognition and behavioral studies was published after 2000 (Arden et al. 2016 ), which is in line with our results. Indeed, an increasing trend of publications on dog cognition and behavior is evident in our analysis, which is starting to overlap the cognitive and behavioral studies on other species since 2005. Therefore, it is evident from our data that dogs are attracting the interest of scholars much more than before, and that this effect does not involve, for the same extension, the trend of the cognitive and behavioral research in general. Accordingly, the number of countries and researchers involved in these studies has also increased. In conclusion, it seems that in addition to being the man’s best friend (Miklósi and Topál 2013 ), the dog is also becoming the scholar’s best friend.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request.

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Massimo Aria

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Alessandra Alterisio, Anna Scandurra & Biagio D’Aniello

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Conceived and designed the study: BD and MA. Sourced the data: AA, AS and CP. Wrote the draft manuscript: BD, AS and CP. Contributed to improving the text: all authors.

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Information about sources ordered according to the scores (S) of the principal component analysis from 1993 to 2005 ("earlier analysis"). NP: the number of publications; TC: total citations; h-index: journal’s number of published articles (h), each of which has been cited in other papers at least h time; g-index: the largest number such that the top g articles received at least g 2 citations; m-index: the ratio h/n, where h is the h-index and n the number of years since the first published paper. The first three items are in bold (XLSX 19 KB)

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Information about sources ordered according to the scores (S) of the principal component analysis from 2006 to 2018 ("recent analysis": RA). NP: the number of publications; TC: total citations; h-index: journal’s number of published articles (h), each of which has been cited in other papers at least h time; g-index: the largest number such that the top g articles received at least g 2 citations; m-index: the ratio h/n, where h is the h-index and n the number of years since the first published paper. The first three items are in bold (XLSX 25 KB)

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Information about countries production ordered by the total number of publications by corresponding authors (CNP) from 1993 to 2005 ("earlier analysis"). CFreq: citation frequency according to the publication by the corresponding author; SCP: single country publications (i.e. number of articles in which all authors belong to the same country); MCP: multiple countries publications (i.e. number of articles including at least a co-author working in a different country with respect to the corresponding author); TNP: the number of publications; TC: total citation received; The first three items are in bold (XLSX 11 KB)

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Information about countries production ordered by the total number of publications by corresponding authors (CNP) from 2006 to 2018 ("recent analysis": RA). CFreq: citation frequency according to the publication by the corresponding author; SCP: single-country publications (i.e. number of articles in which all authors belong to the same country); MCP: multiple-country publications (i.e. number of articles including at least a co-author working in a different country with respect to the corresponding author); TNP: number of publications; TC: total citation received; The first three items are in bold (XLSX 13 KB)

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The most productive affiliations from 1993 to 2005 ("earlier analysis": EA). The first three items are in bold (XLSX 11 KB)

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The most productive affiliations from 2006 to 2018 ("recent analysis": RA). The first three items are in bold (XLSX 16 KB)

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Aria, M., Alterisio, A., Scandurra, A. et al. The scholar’s best friend: research trends in dog cognitive and behavioral studies. Anim Cogn 24 , 541–553 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-020-01448-2

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Received : 18 March 2020

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-020-01448-2

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20 Most Fascinating Scientific Studies on Dogs

W e all know that dogs are amazing , but do you know just how amazing they really are? Scientists have been carrying out many different studies on dogs over the years, and they have discovered numerous fascinating and truly unbelievable things about them. The  best scientific studies on dogs have proven many things about the species and their connection to humans.

Science is proving that dogs are very beneficial to our physical and mental well-being. I mean, we don't call them “man's best friend” for nothing, right? Studies have been done on the effects of dogs on humans, including children, and how they benefit us both mentally and physically .

Most of us probably don't spend a whole lot of time reading up on different canine studies done over the years. Today I'd like to share a few of the best scientific studies on dogs with you, because I think you'll be surprised at some of the findings.

Best Scientific Studies on Dogs

1. pets keep us fit.

Dog owners are much fitter because they own a dog, which makes sense if you think about it. You have to walk your dog daily to keep him happy and fit, and so you too become fitter.

A study that included 2,000 adults discovered that those who regularly walked their dog were less likely to be obese, compared with those who didn’t have a dog to walk. Older walkers can benefit too, as in another study it was found that walkers aged between 71 and 82 could walk longer and indeed faster than non dog walkers.

Read more about the study:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16459211

2. Dogs can prevent allergies and help boost your immune system

Studies have discovered that living with a dog, especially when you’re young, will prevent you from having allergies when you’re older. By having a dog, your immune system is boosted and the pet will also lower your risk of suffering from asthma and also eczema. Your immune system doesn’t need long with a dog to be boosted either – just a short amount of time is enough.

One of the best scientific studies on dogs showed that just patting a dog for 18 minutes increased saliva and raised immunoglobulin A (IgA) levels in the saliva. These raised levels mean that you have a very strong immune system.

3. Dogs reduce stress

Studies have found that owning a dog can greatly reduce your stress levels. When you have contact with a dog your stress response is lowered, and this lowers stress hormones like cortisol and your heart rate is lowered too.

Dogs can also help to lower anxiety and fear and will help to increase feelings of calmness. A study found that elderly people who walked their dogs every day had an enhanced heart rate, which is a sign of low stress levels.

Read more about the study:  https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2006/184/2/effect-dog-walking-autonomic-nervous-activity-senior-citizens

4. Dogs make you more social

Studies have found that dogs make us more social, as when we walk our dogs we are out and about meeting and greeting different people. They act as icebreakers and people are far more likely to talk to you if you have a dog. One study discovered that people in wheelchairs who are with dogs received more smiles from others.

Read more about the study: https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/pets-can-help-their-humans-create-friendships-find-social-support-201505067981

5. Dogs prevent heart attacks and strokes

Some of the best scientific studies on dogs relating to heart health have discovered that dogs can dramatically reduce your chances of having a heart attack or stroke. Dog owners have a decrease in blood pressure compared to non dog owners. Dog owners also have a reduction in cholesterol levels and also triglyceride levels.

If you have high levels of these then your chances of having a heart attack or stroke is high. Studies also found that if you have already had a heart attack or stroke you will recover faster if you have a dog.

Read more about the study:       https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/CIR.0b013e31829201e1

6. Dogs keep depression away

Dogs make us laugh and they make us smile, when we are with our dogs we are happier. Studies have discovered that dogs really do keep depression away.

Our dogs love us unconditionally and they need us in order to stay healthy and strong. Studies show that when we’re around dogs we feel more positive about things.

Read more about the study:  https://habri.org/depression

7. Dogs keep children healthy

When children grow up with a family dog around them, they are much stronger and have stronger immune systems which will reduce the chance of them having allergies. A study carried out in 2010 showed that if you are around a dog during the first year of life you are far less likely to develop chronic skin conditions.

Read more about the study: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/09/100930093229.htm

8. Dogs help children develop

When a child grows up with a dog, there are many emotional benefits as well, and the best scientific studies on dogs have proven that. The child will have someone to talk to and spend time with.

Children can express themselves better when they have a dog around them. Children also learn responsibility when they have a dog. Studies have discovered that children with autism and AHDH also benefit greatly from dog ownership.

Read more about the study: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25308197

9. Dogs help older people

Many studies have shown that an elderly person is much happier when they have a dog to look after. The dog is a great source of comfort to them and offers companionship. A dog will help to keep an elderly person connected and will greatly boost their vitality. Dogs will help to reduce the feelings of loneliness that elderly people can have.

Read more about the study: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3351901/

10. Dogs help Alzheimer’s patients

Studies have revealed that dogs really can help those suffering from Alzheimer’s disease. They show that dogs reduce behavioral issues amongst dementia patients by greatly boosting their moods. These studies also found that a patient’s nutritional intake is increased when around a dog.

Read more about the study: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4248608/

11. Dogs help against PTSD

Several studies have discovered that those suffering from PTSD are benefited greatly by the love of a dog. A dog boosts oxytocin levels in the body and can be a great help against the flashbacks that come with PTSD.

People suffering from PTSD can have angry outbursts and emotional numbness, but when around a dog this is greatly reduced. There are now many programs that team up those suffering with PTSD with dogs.

Read more about the study:  https://www.mnn.com/family/pets/stories/nature-loving-pets-help-veteran-overcome-ptsd

12. Dogs can help you fight cancer

Dogs can help people suffering from cancer, and some of the best scientific studies on dogs are showing that canines ease the loneliness and depression that people with cancer can suffer from. Dogs encourage people to eat and keep up with their cancer treatment. Dogs really do try and help people recover from cancer. Canine companions benefit both adults and children that are fighting cancer.

Read more about the study:  https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2015-01/tmsh-cts011315.php

13. Dogs reduce pain

Studies show that dogs can greatly reduce our pain and just 10-15 minutes with a dog is all it takes for pain to be reduced. Dogs also help improve your mood and can help with fatigue that comes with pain.

One study showed that people who had joint replacement surgery needed 28% less medication, thanks to being around a dog.

Read more about the study: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/08/140807180314.htm

14. Dogs make you more attractive

Believe it or not, some of the best scientific studies on dogs show that people who own a canine are more attractive than non dog owners. They also show that women are more attracted to dog owners than non dog owners. So, if you’re out to impress, a dog will work wonders.

Read more about the study: https://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2014/02/

15. Dogs help to strengthen bonds

Studies show that those who have a strong bond with their dog also have greater bonds with other people. One study involved 500 people aged between 18 and 26 and discovered that the ones that owned dogs had a closer bond with others.

Read more about the study:  https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/02/03/pet-social-connectedness-young-adult_n_4703790.html

16. Dogs can detect cancer

A few of the best scientific studies on dogs have revealed that some dogs can literally sniff out cancer and could save your life. One dog named Marnie who is an eight year old black Labrador sniffed out cancer 91% of the time just by sniffing breath.

Marnie also showed that she can detect colorectal cancer 97% of the time by sniffing stools.

Read more about the study:  https://abcnews.go.com/Health/CancerPreventionAndTreatment/dog-detects-colorectal-cancer-standard-screening-test/story?id=12805641

17. Dogs can detect food that you’re allergic to

Your dog knows exactly what you’re allergic to studies can reveal, and can smell just the hint of peanut butter. Peanut detecting dogs really can help to save the lives for those with peanut allergies.

Read more about the study:  https://www.livescience.com/35463-seven-surprising-health-benefits-dog-ownership-110209.html

18. Dogs make us happy

A study in 2009 showed that our oxytocin levels were dramatically raised when we are in contact with a dog.

The study found that those who looked into a dog’s eye the longest had the highest readings of oxytoxin. No wonder we’re always happy when we’re with our best firends.

Read more about the study:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19124024

19. Dogs bring out the caretaker in us

It has been found that just by looking at a dog’s face they can bring out the caretaker in us. Their large eyes, floppy ears and cute features make us feel that we have to take good care of them. We have the same reaction when we’re around infants.

Read more about the study:  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0058248

20. Dogs boost self esteem

When you have the responsibility of caring for your dog you feel so much better about yourself. You have someone to care for who loves you unconditionally and you have to do your very best for them.

When you have a dog to care for your whole outlook on life changes and you get to meet and greet new people as you’re walking your dog, resulting in higher self esteem.

Read more about the study:  https://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2011-13783-001/

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What Kinds of Dogs Are Used in Clinical and Experimental Research?

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The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Simple Summary

The objective of this study was to evaluate the signalment of dogs used in veterinary research in six different specialties. In total, 150 randomly chosen clinical studies (25 studies per specialty) published between 2007 and 2019 were evaluated for the breed, sex, neuter status, age, and weight information of the dogs used. Breed information was given for 5.7% of the included animals. Beagles were used 1.9% of the time, which was a less significant role in research than we expected. Information about the sex of the dogs was lacking for 16.2% of the included animals, while age and weight information were missing for 22.7 and 32.7%, respectively. The neuter status was not given in 38.7% of the clinical studies. The results show deficits in the reporting of demographic data for the dogs. The need for an improvement in the documentation and/or reporting of animal signalment is obvious and should be addressed by authors, reviewers, and journal editors in the future.

Background: Dogs are widely used in research to answer questions about canine or human conditions. For the latter, research dogs are often used as models, since they are physiologically more similar to humans than other species used in research and they share similar environmental conditions. From a veterinary perspective, research findings are widely based on academic research, and thus are generated under experimental conditions. In that regard, the question arises: do the dogs used for research adequately represent the dog population seen in veterinary practice? It may, for example, be assumed that Beagle dogs are often used as experimental animals. The objective of this study was to evaluate the signalment of dogs used in veterinary research. Furthermore, we aimed to assess other relevant criteria regarding the validity of clinical trials in the context of six different veterinary medicine specialties: cardiology, internal medicine, neurology, orthopaedics, reproduction, and surgery. Methods: A literature search was conducted and 25 studies per specialty were randomly selected. The breed, sex, neuter status, median age, and median weight of the dogs used for clinical studies ( n = 150) published between 2007 and 2019 were evaluated. Results: In total, 596,542 dogs were used in the 150 trials. Breed information was given for 33,835 of these dogs (5.7%). Of the latter, 1.9% were Beagles. Nine clinical trials exclusively used Beagles. The most frequently used breeds were German Shepherds (7.3%), Labrador Retrievers (6.7%), and Golden Retrievers (4.7%). The major reporting deficits found were missing breed specification in 25.3% of the articles; missing information about the sex of the dogs in 16.2%; missing age and weight information in 22.7 and 32.7%, respectively; and missing neuter status in 38.7% of the clinical studies. The median sample size was 56 (Q1:29; Q3:365) dogs. Conclusions: The presented project revealed that Beagle dogs represent only a small proportion of dogs in veterinary research. Based on the evaluated publications, it seems that some relevant dog attributes differ between the specialties. The results, however, show deficits in the reporting of demographic data for the dogs. The need for an improvement in the documentation and/or reporting of animal signalment is obvious and should be addressed by authors, reviewers, and journal editors in the future.

1. Introduction

In medical research, dogs have been and still are widely used as testing animals [ 1 ], although worldwide, actual and precise figures are not easy to retrieve because relatively few countries collate and publish research-animal statistics [ 2 ]. It has been estimated that 79.9 million animals, out of which 207,724 were dogs, were used worldwide for experimental or scientific purposes in 2015 [ 3 ]. This was a 36.9% increase in the equivalent estimated figure of 58.3 million animals in 2005 [ 2 , 3 ]. The most widespread use of experimental animals occurs in China, followed by Japan and the United States [ 4 ]. Around 800,000 laboratory animals were used in 2019 in the US, of which 7% (56,000) were dogs [ 5 ]. In the EU from 2017 to 2018, the number of animals used in research decreased by five per cent to around nine million animals, of which 0.3% (27,000) were dogs and cats [ 6 ]. The purposes of research projects on dogs include gaining basic biological knowledge; answering questions regarding human health by using dogs as models for the development of drugs, diagnostic tests, vaccines, and medical devices; and answering questions directly linked to canine physiology or diseases [ 7 ]. Dogs are often preferred as models for human conditions because they are physiologically and clinically more similar than other species such as mice [ 8 ], and pet dogs also share the environmental conditions of their owners. In addition, the domestic dog, canis familiaris , reportedly bears over 450 diseases; approximately 360 of these are analogous to human diseases [ 9 ]. These analogous conditions include diabetes, cancer, epilepsy, eye diseases, and autoimmune diseases, not to mention the high numbers of rare monogenetic diseases [ 8 ]. It has been stated that the most suitable and frequently utilized breed in clinical trials is the Beagle. These dogs are commonly kept in kennels in homogenous groups based on age, weight, sex, and neuter status in the research facilities of universities or pharmaceutical companies [ 10 ]. Beagles are medium-sized and have a short coat and an even temperament, which makes them particularly suitable for medical research in contrast to other breeds [ 11 ]. These advantages make it easier to standardise specific and relevant conditions in research settings and help keep the costs of the experiment lower [ 12 ].

Worldwide, more than 354 dog breeds are registered at the FCI (Federation Cynologique Internationale) [ 13 ]. Searching for “Beagle dog” in the PubMed database for results between 2007 and 2019 ( http://www.pubmed.gov , accessed on 21 May 2022) leads to more than 4790 results. When performing the same search with the breed “Labrador dog”, which has been the most popular breed in the US since 1991 [ 14 ], the results are much less (1008 results). These figures support the assumption that Beagles may be the most utilized research dogs by far.

Both dog breeds can be found in the top ten list of the most popular dog breeds in the US [ 15 ] ( Table 1 ). Beagles often serve as models for research focusing on human health, such as the toxicology of medications [ 16 ]. Research on Beagles has led to various relevant findings for human medicine, such as information about infections with Helicobacter Pylori [ 7 ], or better insights into the effects of the frequency of tooth brushing [ 17 ].

Top 10 dog breeds in the US in 2019 and the number of publications found in PubMed for each breed (search date: 21 May 2022).

Depending on the research question, alternatives for the use of research dogs may be the enrolment of client-owned dogs or the retrospective evaluation of medical records. Findings from these approaches might even better represent the heterogeneity of dogs seen in daily practice and better address real clinical conditions. However, depending on the research question, a high level of heterogeneity regarding breed, age, sex, weight, neuter status, housing, feeding, and other parameters in a study population may lead to a significant influence of confounders [ 18 , 19 ]. If potential confounders are not taken into account during the analysis and interpretation of research results, this may lead to biased outcomes and conclusions. There is evidence that the sex, weight, age, breed, and neuter status of the dogs that take part in a clinical trial are important when it comes to different conditions and diseases, such as joint disorders [ 20 , 21 ], metabolic conditions [ 22 ], and periodontal diseases [ 23 ]. In addition, breed differences significantly affect the incidences of specific diseases such as pyometra [ 24 ], dilatative cardiomyopathy [ 25 ], and granulomatous colitis [ 26 ], as well as sex-steroid-influenced diseases such as diabetes [ 27 ] and hyperadrenocorticism [ 28 ].

The objective of this study was, therefore, to evaluate what kinds of dogs were utilized in clinical trials. We aimed to assess and compare information about the dogs, including the breed, sex, age, weight, and neuter status in the context of six different veterinary medicine specialties. In addition, we aimed to evaluate the extent to which Beagles have been used in veterinary research.

2. Material and Methods

A literature search in the databases PubMed ( http://www.pubmed.gov accessed on 31 October 2020) and CAB Abstracts ( https://www.cabdirect.org/ , accessed on 31 October 2020) was conducted on 31 October 2020. The same literature search and selection process for articles was used and described in detail in another research project [ 29 ] assessing different literature parameters. In brief, the following search keywords were used: clinical trial AND dogs AND specialty. For each search procedure, “specialty” was replaced by cardiology, internal medicine, neurology, orthopaedics, reproduction, or surgery.

Publications had to be in the English or German language and published in or between the years 2007 and 2019. Case reports or case series with a number of animals lower than n < 10, opinions, clinical experiences, and abstracts with less than 500 words were excluded. Studies or case reports without statistical analysis and studies on other species, such as humans or cats, were also excluded. In addition, in vitro studies were not included. From the final 150 articles, 134 articles were accessed via online databases, nine papers were retrieved in the veterinary library at the University of Berlin, and two articles were obtained via inter-lending from other libraries. As a first step, the literature was evaluated using a slightly modified version of the checklist developed in 2010 by Arlt and Heuwieser [ 30 ]. The results have been published in a previous article [ 29 ]. In addition to the validated checklist, the following items were assessed for the presented project: number of dogs, number and type of dog breeds, gender, neuter status, median weight, and median age.

Statistical Analysis

All statistical analyses were conducted in IBM SPSS for Windows (Version 24.0; SPSS Inc., Munich, Germany). Categorical data were presented descriptively as raw numbers and percentages. To identify differences between the specialties, the non-parametric Mann–Whitney U test was used as indicated by the distribution. The statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

From the 150 examined studies, 108 (72.0%) were prospective and 42 (28.0%) were retrospective. Considering the study design, 91 publications were classified as interventional studies (60.7%) and 59 were observational studies (39.3%). In total, 596,542 dogs were used in the 150 clinical studies assessed in this project. For one study, the number of dogs was not specified; instead, the number of limb fractures over a given period of time was reported. For statistical reasons, we set the number of limb fractures equal to the number of dogs. In 100 articles (66.0%), the breeds of all enrolled dogs were specified, leading to 33,835 dogs with breed information. Out of the remaining 50 trials, breed information was not given at all for 38 studies and was incomplete for 12 studies. Most studies with no or incomplete breed information were retrospective. In several studies, the breed was not specified for all dogs included, but only for the numerical top ten breeds. Analysing breed information in the 12 studies with incomplete data led to another 7792 dogs with given breeds and 5384 with missing information. Overall, breed information was available for 41,627 dogs, which was 6.9% of the overall number of dogs. The overall median number of dogs used in each of the studies was 56 (Q1:29; Q3:365). Retrospective studies had a larger number of included animals (Median: 62; Q1:35; Q3:384) than prospective ones 24 (Q1:13; Q3:41), p < 0.05. Out of the dogs with known breeds, 643 dogs (1.5%) were Beagles. In nine studies, the dog population consisted of Beagles only. The median sample size of these studies was 12 dogs (Q1:12; Q3:24). These studies included five experimental studies (two related to human research) and four clinical trials (one related to human research) carried out to determine the effectiveness or administration route of drugs. All studies took place under laboratory conditions. One article was published in each of the years 2007, 2008, 2014, and 2015, two articles were published in 2017, and three were published in 2018. Furthermore, in 32 studies, Beagle dogs were used among dogs belonging to other breeds. In Section 3.4 , more information about the dogs used in experimental trials is given. Out of 150 studies, 16 (10.6%) were related to human research using dogs as a model, and three of these used study populations consisting of Beagles only.

Within the individual specialties, the number of Beagles used as clinical trial dogs was heterogenous ( Table 2 ). The greatest numbers of Beagles were used in internal medicine and surgery studies (each n = 8, 32.0%).

Use of Beagles as trial dogs within six veterinary specialties in 150 clinical trials (25 per specialty).

For dogs with a known breed, the proportion of Beagles differed between the specialties. In internal medicine, we found the highest proportion of Beagles, with 12.9%. Orthopaedics followed with 5.6% and cardiology with 4.4%. The proportion was smallest in reproduction, with 0.4% ( Table 3 ).

Numbers and proportions of Beagle dogs utilized in clinical trials within six veterinary specialties ( n = 150).

The highest amount of missing breed information was found in internal medicine (48.0%), followed by orthopaedic studies (40.0%), reproduction (36.0%), cardiology (28.0%), and neurology (20.0%). Only a portion of the dogs used in the 31 prospective studies (20.6%) and the 19 retrospective studies (12.6%) had their breeds specified. The median number of breeds was four for prospective studies (Q1:1; Q3:10), while retrospective studies had a median number of sixteen breeds (Q1:3; Q3:27). For the different specialties, the median number of breeds was one for cardiology (Q1:1; Q3:9.5), ten for internal medicine (Q1:4; Q3:15), nine for neurology (Q1:1; Q3:21), five for orthopaedics (Q1:1; Q3:16), four for reproduction (Q1:1; Q3:8.5), and nine for surgery (Q1:4; Q3:13). For 40 (26.7%) studies, there was only one breed utilized; 14 (56.0%) of these studies were cardiology trials with mostly mongrel dogs. Table 4 lists the US top ten breeds of 2019 and the number of dogs belonging to each breed that have been used in clinical veterinary research worldwide. The popularity of the dog breeds in Europe are similar [ 31 ]. These dog breeds seem to play an important role in research, since they make up around 25.2% of all study dogs with given breed information. Interestingly, despite their popularity, Bulldogs were not extensively used in the studies selected in this project.

Numbers and proportions of dogs belonging to the US top ten breeds of 2019 used in research ( n = 150).

3.1. Sex of the Dog Population

In total, the sex of the dogs was specified in 83.8 % ( n = 150) of the trials ( Figure 1 ). Dogs of both sexes were used in 89 studies (59.3%), solely females in 25 trials (16.7%), and only male dogs in 11 studies (7.3%). Both sexes were predominantly mixed in 22 neurology studies (88.0%) and 20 internal medicine studies (80.0%). In studies relating to reproduction, dogs of only one sex were used in most trials ( n = 20, 80.0%). In seventeen studies, female dogs were used (68.0%), and in five studies, both female and male dogs were used. In contrast to the other specialties, the sex of the dogs was determined for all 25 reproduction studies. In around 40% ( n = 10) of the studies on cardiology, the sex of the dogs was not documented, followed by six orthopaedic studies and six surgery studies with an unknown sex for the dogs used (24.0%).

Sex of the dogs utilized in 150 clinical trials within six veterinary specialties (25 each).

Spay and neuter status of the study population. The spay and neuter status of most dogs used in the 150 studies was not specified in 38.7% of the studies ( Figure 2 ). In four studies (2.7%), all dogs used in the trial were neutered. In 34.7% of the studies, both neutered and intact dogs were used, and in 24.0% of the studies, all dogs were intact. Except for studies in the field of reproduction, the neuter status was not specified as an inclusion or exclusion criterion. In 23 studies (92.0%) belonging to the reproductive field, intact dogs were enrolled ( p < 0.05). In 18 neurology studies (72.0%) and 13 internal medicine (52.0%) studies, both neutered and non-neutered dogs were used. The spay and neuter status of the dogs used was not specified in 16 (64.0%) studies each on cardiology and orthopaedics.

Spay and neuter status of the dogs utilized in 150 clinical trials within six veterinary specialties (25 each).

3.2. Age of the Study Population

Overall, age information was not given in 34 (22.7%) studies ( Figure 3 ). The median age of all dogs with given information was 5.0 years (Q1:2.4; Q3:6.9), the minimum age was 2 weeks, and the maximum age was 12.5 years. In six studies (4.0%), dogs with a median age of under one year were used. Age information was missing most often in cardiology studies ( n = 11, 44.0%), followed by reproduction studies ( n = 8, 32.0%). The median age for dogs enrolled into cardiology studies was 9.0 years (Q1:6.4; Q3:11.7), internal medicine was 6.0 years (Q1:4.9; Q3:7.6), neurology was 4.4 years (Q1:2.7; Q3:6.9), orthopaedics was 4.8 years (Q1:2,4; Q3:5.6) reproduction was 3.3 years (Q1:2; Q3:5.2), and surgery was 4.0 years (Q1:2.1; Q3:5.45).

Age (in years) of the dogs utilized in 150 clinical trials within six veterinary specialties (25 each).

3.3. Weight of the Dogs

Weight information was not given in 49 publications (32.7%) ( Figure 4 ). The overall median weight was 20.3 kg (Q1:10.8; Q3:27.2), the lowest median weight of a study population was 3.7 kg, and the highest median weight of the dogs used within one study was 50.3 kg. Weight information was missing most often in reproduction studies ( n = 17, 68.0%), followed by neurology studies ( n = 12, 48.0%), cardiology and orthopaedics studies (each n = 6, 24.0%), and surgery and internal medicine (each n = 4, 16%). The median weight of the dogs used in cardiology studies was 14.5 kg (Q1:9.3; Q3:22.0), internal medicine was 20.2 kg (Q1:9.3; Q3:23.7), neurology was 19.3 kg (Q1:12.5; Q3:20.6), orthopaedics was 31.2 kg (Q1:25.6; Q3:33.8), reproduction was 17.8 kg (Q1:11.8; Q3:21.1), and surgery was 22.0 kg (Q1:10.7; Q3:25.2). One study in the field of surgery used dogs with an average weight of over 50 kg. The weight differences of dogs used in orthopaedics compared with neurology and cardiology were significant ( p < 0.05).

Weight (in kg) of the dogs utilized in 150 clinical trials within six veterinary specialties (25 each).

3.4. Origin of Study Population and Overall Number of Animals

Information on the ownership of the dogs and the number of dogs used for the different studies has already been presented in a previous paper [ 29 ]. The dogs were either experimental animals owned by the research institutions (18.7%), privately owned (76.0%), mixed (0.7%), or the origin of the dogs was not specified (4.7%). For research in the field of cardiology, experimental animals were used in 11 of the articles (44.0 %). The dogs used for the 28 experimental studies had a median age of 2.3 (Q1:2; Q3:4.6) years and a median weight of 15.5 kg (Q1:11.9, Q3:22.5). The neuter status of the dogs was not given in twenty articles, seven study populations were not neutered, and one had a population with a mixed neuter status. For the experimental studies, the gender of the dogs was unknown for eleven study populations, only female dogs were used in five studies, only males in seven studies, and a mixed population in five studies. The median number of dogs used for experimental studies was 21.0 (Q1:11.5, Q3:24.3) and the median number of breeds was 1.0 (Q1:1.0; Q3:1.0). In 27 out of the 28 experimental studies, the breed of the dogs was specified. The study population of nine studies consisted of cross-bred dogs and seventeen study populations were purebred dogs. Most of the experimental studies (n = 9) consisted of Beagles only, followed by three studies with a mixed study population of Beagles, Labradors, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds, and one each of Foxhounds, Sheepdogs, Pitbull Terriers, and Coonhounds.

The number of animals was given in most of the articles in all different specialties. For two studies—one on reproduction and one on orthopaedics—the authors did not specify the number of enrolled animals. The median sample size for all the included studies was 31 dogs (Q1:16; Q3:64). For the different specialties, the median sample size was 32 for cardiology (Q1:22; Q3:207), 31 for internal medicine (Q1:14; Q3:53), 33 for neurology (Q1:15; Q3:56), 36 for orthopaedics (Q1:19; Q3:95), 35 for reproduction (Q1:18; Q3:74), and 25 for surgery (Q1:16; Q3:40).

4. Discussion

This study focused on the assessment of the signalment, such as breed, sex, neuter status, age, and weight, of dogs used in controlled clinical trials. These data were analysed with consideration of the veterinary specialty that each publication belonged to. The results of a critical appraisal of the quality of the clinical studies have been published in an earlier paper [ 29 ]. The articles were randomly selected from a list generated after a literature search in two relevant databases. There were sixteen studies using dogs that served as model for human health, but only three studies used Beagles as a study population. Interestingly, nine of these studies belonged to the specialty of cardiology.

The proportion of Beagles in our literature sample was less than we expected and less than several authors have claimed [ 10 ]. A reason could be that some studies focus on conditions that occur naturally in specific breeds, such as diseases related to brachycephaly. In 2020 in the UK, 99% of dogs used in experimental research (medical and veterinary) were Beagles [ 32 ]. In other European countries, breed information is not given in the statistics about animal testing [ 6 ]. Obviously, the Beagle has not been a predominant breed used for clinical veterinary studies in the past years. In fact, the breed of dogs used in research more or less reflects the most popular breeds, with the exception of Bulldogs. The reason for the latter remains open and should be further investigated. Nevertheless, the presented data may imply a slight increase in the use of Beagles over the last years, but the number of the assessed articles is much too small to conclude a trend. On the contrary, the number of dogs used as experimental animals seems to be declining [ 5 ], albeit a lack of comprehensive data on the worldwide use of dogs in experimental research and clinical trials. The use of Beagles and dogs in general for basic research and research related to human medicine may have become less popular in the past decades because of an increasing awareness of animal welfare [ 4 ]. Just recently, a Beagle-breeding company was inspected and found itself confronted with allegations of severe animal welfare violations, which were reported in different media [ 33 ]. Over the years, the European Union, Canada, the United States, and several other countries have introduced laws to regulate the use of laboratory animals for medical research after consulting the main stakeholders [ 4 ]. In addition, laboratory dogs are often rehomed nowadays into private households after their use in research [ 34 , 35 ]. However, it has been claimed that they still experience an extreme change in their life situation because they leave their familiar, limited environment in the research facility and encounter a multitude of animate and inanimate stimuli in their new home [ 36 , 37 ]. For 50 studies (33.3%), the amount of missing or incomplete information about the breeds used for the clinical studies is relatively high, which shows that this kind of information seems to be considered unimportant by authors, reviewers, and editors. However, since breed may be a relevant confounder, this information is essential data that needs to be given according to the STROBE statement [ 38 ]. The median number of breeds used for the clinical trials does not differ significantly between the veterinary specialties. It is noticeable that most of the cardiology studies were conducted with experimental dogs and most of the studies consisted of just one breed. The evaluation of the other parameters showed that, for most trials, both female and male dogs were used, meaning that sex was not set as an inclusion or exclusion criterion. The sex of all dogs was only given in reproduction trials, and more than 60% of these trial dogs were female. It is plausible that studies on gynaecology usually relate to conditions found in intact bitches. For the other veterinary specialties, the sex of the dogs seems to be considered unimportant, and this might indeed be the case. Similar findings have been documented regarding the neuter status. More than 90% of the dogs used for reproduction trials were intact, while in the studies belonging to the other veterinary specialties, both intact and neutered dogs were often used. It can be concluded that the neuter status seems to be considered an irrelevant factor or confounder for most research questions beyond reproduction. It is noticeable that the median age of the dogs used for cardiology was nearly double that of the ages of the dogs enrolled into studies belonging to the other veterinary specialties. This might reflect the fact that cardiac diseases tend to occur or be diagnosed in older dogs. The median age of the dogs used for the reproduction studies was the lowest. This may be related to the optimal breeding age of bitches. The median body weight of the dogs was highest in the orthopaedic studies, at around 30 kg. It is common knowledge that especially large and heavy dogs have a higher risk of suffering from joint diseases [ 20 ]. For other disorders, factors such as age and weight may also play a role concerning a studied condition. Therefore, this information should be given in scientific articles. The presented review has revealed documentation and reporting deficiencies. Based on the presented data, it is not possible to judge whether the study methodology or reporting is better or worse in specific veterinary specialties. In fact, it seems that even if some aspects are better presented in one specialty, other factors are missing more often in the same specialty. Similar shortcomings have been described by Reynolds et al. [ 39 ] and others [ 29 , 40 , 41 ]. Demographic data for dog populations used in clinical trials is very important, since it is needed to draw sound conclusions and extrapolate the findings [ 42 ]. In addition, comprehensive information about the used animals is important for readers to assess whether the given scientific information should be applied in an actual case. It has been proven that the signalment such as age, sex, and breed are highly relevant aspects for examining the prevalence of conditions and the interpretation of various study outcomes. Besides the examples mentioned earlier, age is a key factor for the outcomes of electrocardiographic exams [ 43 ], fertility [ 44 ], behaviour [ 45 ], and several canine diseases [ 46 , 47 , 48 ]. Belic et al. found that the sex of a dog plays an important role in biochemical markers for the bone turnover [ 49 ]. Anatomical or hormonal differences between male and female or neutered and intact dogs can also have an impact on the prevalence of diseases [ 50 , 51 , 52 ] or the outcome of clinical studies [ 53 ]. In addition, it has been shown that the breed has an effect on renal size [ 54 ], and genetic and phenotypic differences across dog breeds have an influence on the safety and efficacy of pharmaceutical substances and their doses [ 55 ] and the occurrence of genetic diseases [ 56 ] such as MDR1 mutations [ 57 ]. Several studies on the methodological and reporting quality of clinical trials in veterinary medicine have been published in the past years. Limitations have been criticized, such as small numbers of included animals; a lack of sufficient reporting on the specifications of animals, diagnoses, and treatments; and undocumented inclusion and exclusion criteria [ 29 , 42 , 58 ]. Our results show that relevant reporting deficiencies in clinical studies were found and essential information about the dogs used in clinical trials was missing. This may considerably limit the validity of research results. More attention should be paid to reporting guidelines, such as the STROBE statement for observational trials or the CONSORT statement for randomised studies [ 59 ], as they have been developed to improve the quality of scientific articles.

The estimated number of dogs used worldwide for medical research is still high. Attempts have been made to replace laboratory animals by in vitro and in silico methods [ 1 , 60 , 61 , 62 ]. For laboratory animals in most countries, the consideration and implementation of replacement, refinement, and reduction (3Rs) strategies, proposed by Russell and Burch in 1959, is mandatory [ 63 ]. For some purposes, animal testing has been forbidden by some authorities. For instance, the use of animals for cosmetic testing has been prohibited in Europe as of March 2013 [ 64 ].

Limitations

There are some limitations to the present study, such as the relatively small sample size of 25 articles per specialty. Since this number per specialty led to a total number of 150 articles, which was eligible for a throughout assessment, the inclusion of more literature was not possible within this project. In that regard, it may be worthwhile to re-evaluate some of the presented specialty-specific findings on a larger scale with a greater number of articles.

Furthermore, the investigation and evaluation of the studies was done by just one non-blinded researcher, which may have led to a biased interpretation. This approach, however, has been used in several other studies before [ 29 , 30 , 41 , 65 ].

5. Conclusions

The results of our literature review concerning the kinds of dogs that are used in veterinary research indicate that we are widely not able to give a sufficient answer. The presented project revealed that Beagle dogs represent only a small proportion of dogs in clinical veterinary research. It seems that Beagles are used much more in experimental research, but this should be investigated in future analyses including more experimental research reports. The results of this study are furthermore in accordance with previous findings, and reflect once more that essential information about the dogs used in clinical trials is missing. Some parameters, such as body weight and neuter status, vary significantly between specialty-specific studies. Authors, reviewers, and journal editors should pay more attention to the reporting of basic information about the animals enrolled in veterinary research and should follow the guidelines for the specific study type.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Peggy Haimerl for participating in the pre-test and for her support and advice. The publication of this article was funded by Freie Universität Berlin.

Funding Statement

The authors received no external funding for this work.

Author Contributions

E.S. and S.P.A. drafted and revised the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable. Since no animals were used in the context of this manuscript, no ethical permit was required.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

None of the authors of this paper have a financial or personal relationship with other people or organisations that could inappropriately influence or bias the content of the paper.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

September 1, 2015

15 Citizen Science Projects for Dog Lovers

You can help to advance studies of dog behavior

By Julie Hecht

Over the past few years public participation in science projects has surged, and research involving dogs is no exception. Often the work consists of online activities, but sometimes it requires participants to go into the world, do something and report back. Here's a list of online dog science projects that will be active through 2015 and that, in most cases, anyone in the world can join. All are in English at a minimum; a few are also bilingual.

Canid Howl Project

University of Tennessee and numerous institutions

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http://howlcoder.appspot.com/HowlCoder.html

This project is trying to understand the range of canid vocalizations, involving primarily wolves, dogs and coyotes. Participants help by listening to vocalizations and analyzing the recordings. Ultimately the investigators hope to understand more about the social behavior of the entire range of canid species and breeds.

Canine Microbiome and Behavior Project

Human-Animal Interaction Lab, Oregon State University

www.thehumananimalbond.com/Microbiome.html

Did you know that the thing your dog does at least once a day can help researchers learn more about the relations among gut bacteria, health and behavior? The Oregon study aims to identify microbiome behavior that could help improve the life of dogs with certain physical or behavioral disorders. Researchers are seeking samples of your dog's stool, along with information on the dog's health and behavior.

Cross-Cultural Comparison of the Attachment Bond between Humans and Pet Dogs

www.thehumananimalbond.com/KutzlerAttachment

You may be able to help reveal similarities and differences in the attachments between pet dogs and their owners across cultures and environments. Researchers are seeking participants who are Latinos or non-Latinos living in the U.S. and Latinos living in Mexico.

Long-Term Dog Owners Survey

Animal Behaviour Cognition and Welfare Group, University of Lincoln, England

http://bit.do/longtermdog ownerssurvey

Have you lived with your dog for at least three years? Your answers to the survey will offer insight into the factors that lead people and dogs to stay companions over many years.

Dog Relinquishment Survey

http://bit.dodogrelinquishersurvey

Scientists lack a solid grasp of the factors that contribute to the reasons people sometimes give up their dogs. This judgment-free study aims to better understand the motivation. If you have voluntarily given up a dog for any reason to another individual, party or organization, this project would like to hear from you.

Dog Personality Survey

http://uoldogtemperament.co.uk/dogpersonality

The questions investigators have about dog personality are endless. This Web site features projects aiming to identify robust personality traits in dogs and to trace their biology from the level of genes through the brain to their behavior. By exploring common core traits in dogs, researchers can work to manage problems relating to these traits.

Dog Personality and Vocalization Project

Family Dog Project, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest

http://goo.gl/forms/ZDIXfDsr1M

Are there links among dog genetic profiles, personality and vocal behaviors? Help researchers by completing a short questionnaire about your dog's environment, personality and vocalizations. You can also elect to provide two additional pieces of information: conduct a short behavior test with your dog and report back on the result; send in a sample of your dog's saliva for DNA analysis.

Project: Your Dog, Inside and Out

http://goo.gl/forms/hGKC8tczcZ

Food hound? Activity seeker? Help researchers investigate the relation among activity level, feeding and body condition in dogs. If you like, you can add to the study of trait inheritance by (as with the previous project) providing a sample of your dog's saliva for DNA analysis.

Jealousy in Dogs

http://goo.gl/forms/3IWCBZguCe

You may have thought your dog is sometimes happy or angry, but how about jealous? The Family Dog Project questionnaire aims to gather details about jealousy in dogs, including the context in which it appears and the behaviors that express it. You can also choose to share a video in which you believe your dog is showing jealous behavior.

Is Your Dog Loud?

English: http://goo.gl/forms/1FzM07wpsR

German: http://goo.gl/forms/ye7wZnIEkD

Dutch: http://goo.gl/forms/hdCxW5GkxV

Italian: http://goo.gl/forms/6JKgpwMNzH

Spanish: http://goo.gl/forms/mlXoMre3ZH

Hungarian: http://goo.gl/forms/w1blAU2Pah

Does your dog growl, whine, bark, woof, cough or howl? Your dog's vocalizations are meaningful, and researchers want to hear all about them.

Emotional Content of Sounds

www.inflab.bme.hu/∼viktor/soundrating/index.html

What do you hear in these sounds? The project, with instructions in English and Hungarian, asks participants to listen to and rate different vocalizations on how arousing they think the vocalization is and whether it seems positive or negative.

Acoustic Engineering, University of Salford, England

www.sound101.org/woof/index.php

This project explores how people respond to dog barks. Scientists are trying to better understand how we react to everyday sounds.

Canine Behavior Assessment & Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ)

Center for the Interaction of Animals and Society, University of Pennsylvania

http://vetapps.vet.upenn.edu/cbarq

C-BARQ is a questionnaire designed to provide dog owners and professionals with standardized evaluations of canine temperament and behavior. It has been extensively tested for reliability and validity on large samples of dogs of many breeds. C-BARQ data are used by numerous researchers around the world to investigate a variety of dog-related questions, such as those related to aggression, fear and trainability, among others. Live with a dog? Add to the dataset by telling C-BARQ.

Canines, Inc.

www.dognition.com

Participants can engage in different science-based games created by scientists, trainers and behavioral specialists. Dognition members can play the games with their dog and compare their dog's performance with that of other Dognition players. Membership requires a fee.

Co-Sleeping with Dogs

Clever Dog Lab, University of Veterinary Medicine, Messerli Research Institute, Vienna

English: https://goo.gl/5JPOzv

German: https://goo.gl/PFjaTK

Hungarian: https://goo.gl/3X8MHh

General Web site in German: www.iswf.at/de/projekte-publikationen

Whom do you hunker down with at night? The aim of this study is to find out more about the sleeping habits of owners and their pets, especially if you share the same bed or room (co-sleeping). Before you go to sleep tonight, consider completing this questionnaire.

Did you know that participants in dog studies tend to be women? Men should consider participating in such research, too. You could say that many canine studies are “looking for a few good men.”

Read our Dog Testing FAQ

Our new Dog FAQ page provides answers to the most frequently asked questions about dogs in research.

Dogs ( Canis familiaris ) belong to the family Canidae and are thought to be one of the first domesticated animals. They have been used in research for more than a century, however, they are currently very rarely used in animal research in Great Britain, only being used in 0.24% of experimental procedures in 2019 (latest published figures).

They are medium-sized mammals that can grow from 15 to 100 cm and weigh from 1.5 to 75 kg, depending on the type of dog. Dogs are carnivores but can thrive on a well-designed suitably processed omnivorous diet in the domestic situation.

Why are dogs used in research?

In the UK, dogs are primarily used to find out how new drugs act within a whole, living body and whether new medicines are safe enough to test in humans. They predict this safety very well, with  up to 96% accuracy .

This is done to satisfy safety regulations which came about after the drug Thalidomide maimed and killed children while they were still in the womb. It is known as toxicology testing, but normally seeks to confirm the absence of toxic effects.

The tests can tell us lots of sorts of information all at once, like the safety if a drug across lots of different internal organs, how the drug travels around the body and other information that helps us to design much safer human trials.

Dogs are also used to test the safety and efficacy of veterinary medicines, and also in nutrition studies to ensure that pet dogs eat healthily, particularly when they are prescribed specialist diets by their vets.

Although animal and nonanimal methods are used alongside each other, there are currently no alternatives to using dogs. They nevertheless have special protections under UK law. For instance, they cannot be used if another animal species could be used.

There is a project that hopes to create a  ‘virtual dog’  that could significantly reduce the number of dogs needed by using computers to mine historical dog data. It is being run by the UK’s national centre for  developing animal replacements, the NC3Rs , but is of international interest.

What types of research are dogs used in?

The physiological similarities between humans and dogs mean that they are useful in various types of research. Their genome has been sequenced and because of our genetic similarities, they are often used in genetic studies.

Dogs are primarily used in regulatory research, also known as toxicology or safety testing. This type of research is required by law to test the safety and effectiveness of potential new medicines and medical devices before they are given to human volunteers during clinical trials. Dogs are also used to test the safety and efficacy of veterinary medicines, and also in nutrition studies to ensure that pet dogs eat healthily, particularly when they are prescribed specialist diets by their vets.

A smaller number of dogs are also used in translational research (also called applied research) to help us learn about human and animal diseases so that we can develop treatments. Examples of translational diseases can be found below.

Dogs are also used to study Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), which is the most common type of muscular dystrophy. It is another condition that can affect both humans and dogs. Because dogs can naturally have this condition, they can be studied to show how the condition progresses. This very useful model for DMD has helped scientists work on better genetic tests and treatments for the condition.  

An early use of dogs in research was in the search for a treatment for diabetes, which resulted in the discovery of insulin. This discovery in the 1920s, which won researchers a Nobel prize, now allows people with diabetes to live long lives. In the past, people with diabetes would die soon after developing the condition.

How are the dogs looked after?

The use of animals in research is highly regulated, an important part of that regulation is ensuring the animals are housed and cared for correctly. Laboratory dogs are housed in enclosures that can isolate individual dogs for treatment but usually opened up for dogs to interact. Dogs’ need to socialise is well considered, so the dogs are housed in small groups most of the time. The facilities usually also have space to run around for exercise and you can usually find dogs interacting with each other, environmental enrichments, and the animal technicians.

https://www.nc3rs.org.uk/3rs-resources/housing-and-husbandry/housing-and-husbandry-dogs

You can see this in this film about dogs in research.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/d/domestic-dog/

https://www.britannica.com/animal/dog/Breed-specific-behaviour#ref15478

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5070630/#:~:text=Dogs%20have%20approximately%20the%20same,similar%20to%20human%20than%20mouse

http://www.animalresearch.info/en/designing-research/research-animals/dog/

Dogs in drug safety prediction:  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28893587/

Virtual dog:  https://nc3rs.org.uk/news/ps16m-awarded-develop-virtual-second-species

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• 05 May 2024

Puppy-dog eyes in wild canines sparks rethink on dog evolution

• Gillian Dohrn

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

A young African wild dog demonstrates the pleading ‘puppy-dog eyes’ expression. Credit: Suzi Eszterhas/Minden Pictures via Alamy

“Puppy-dog eyes didn’t just evolve for us, in domestic dogs,” says comparative anatomist Heather Smith. Her team’s work has thrown a 2019 finding 1 that the muscles in dogs’ eyebrows evolved to communicate with humans in the doghouse by showing that African wild dogs also have the muscles to make the infamous pleading expression. The study was published on 10 April in The Anatomical Record 2 .

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doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-01315-x

Kaminski, J., Waller, B. M., Diogo, R., Hartstone-Rose, A. & Burrows A. M. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116 , 14677–14681 (2019).

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Smith, H. F., Felix, M. A., Rocco, F. A., Lynch, L. M. & Valdez, D. Anat. Rec. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.25441 (2024).

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PhD/master's Candidate

PhD/master's Candidate    Graduate School of Frontier Science Initiative, Kanazawa University is seeking candidates for PhD and master's students i...

Kanazawa University

Senior Research Assistant in Human Immunology (wet lab)

Senior Research Scientist in Human Immunology, high-dimensional (40+) cytometry, ICS and automated robotic platforms.

Boston, Massachusetts (US)

Boston University Atomic Lab

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10 Science-Based Benefits of Having a Dog

• socialization

Unconditional love. Devoted companionship. Constant entertainment. Most of us dog lovers know that life is better with a dog. But is that knowledge based on a feeling, or is there something else at work? There is — science.

Spending time with dogs does wonders for your well-being. Recent research shows that owning a dog is good for you physically and emotionally. Dogs make us happier and healthier. They can help us cope with a crisis and can even help you get a date. Read on for 10 science-backed benefits of having a dog.

1. Dogs Make Us Feel Less Alone

Dogs can be there for you even when people can’t. They offer unconditional love, emotional support, and constant cuddles that help stave off social isolation . A small  Australian study  discovered that dog ownership can reduce loneliness.

A national  survey of pet owners and non-pet owners by the Human Animal Bond Research Institute found that 85% of respondents believe that interaction with pets reduces loneliness. Most agree that human-pet interactions can help address social isolation .

2. Dogs Are Good for Your Heart

Owning a dog can help you live longer. A comprehensive  review  of studies published between 1950 and 2019 found that dog owners had a lower risk of death. Studies suggest that dog owners have lower blood pressure levels and improved responses to stress. Research has concluded that the bond between humans and dogs reduces stress, which is a major cause of cardiovascular problems.

3. Dogs Help You Stop Stressing Out

Your canine companion can offer comfort and ease your worries.  Multiple   studies show that dogs and therapy dogs help relieve stress and anxiety.

Even just petting a familiar dog lowers blood pressure and heart rate, slows breathing, and relaxes tense muscles. Scientists at Washington State University  discovered that petting a dog for just 10 minutes can have a significant impact. Study participants had a significant reduction in cortisol, a major stress hormone.

4. Dogs Can Help Us Cope in Times of Crisis

Dogs can help us recover psychologically from a crisis. Purdue University’s College of Veterinary Medicine  discovered that military veterans with PTSD can do better both physiologically and psychologically when they have a service dog . Veterans with a service dog had significantly fewer symptoms of PTSD and showed improved coping skills.

5. Dogs Encourage You to Move

Those long treks along sidewalks, trails, and paths add up. A 2019  British study  discovered that dog owners are nearly four times more likely than non-dog owners to meet daily physical activity guidelines.

Dog owners spend nearly 300 minutes every week walking with their dogs. That’s 200 more minutes of walking than people without a dog of their own.

6. Dogs Make You More Attractive

If you’re looking for a date, it might be time to get a dog. A dog’s presence may make people appear more likable and attractive.

In a  series of studies , men were more likely to get a woman’s phone number when they had a dog with them. In another  study , researchers asked individuals to rate people in photographs. The individuals found that people looked happier and more relaxed when they appeared with a dog.

A study by  Pet Wingman found that men and women swipe right more often in dating apps on profile photos with dogs. Women benefited more than men with dogs in their profiles.

7. Dogs Make Us More Social

Walking with a dog can make us more approachable and give people a conversation starter. Think about how many times you’ve talked with other people, whether they’re your neighbors or new friends at the dog park .

Researchers have found that about 40% of dog owners had an easier time making friends. Dogs can provide the perfect way to get to know strangers and form new friendships.

A  study at the Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University concluded that people who have a strong attachment to a pet often feel more connected in their human relationships and their communities.

8. Dogs Are Made to Be Irrestible

There’s a reason why puppies are so irresistible. A dog’s facial features possess an “ infant schema .” These “social releasers” can trigger an innate caregiver response in humans. So the next time you can’t stop watching that dog video, know those big eyes and floppy ears are scientifically appealing.

9. Dogs Make Us Happier

Just looking at a dog can lift your spirits. A 2009 study in Japan found that staring into your dog’s eyes can raise your level of oxytocin, also known as the “love hormone.”

Besides the general health benefits of owning a dog, dogs can be natural mood boosters. People with AIDS may be less likely to suffer from depression if they own a pet, according to a 2017 study .

10. Dogs Can Have Positive Effects on Seniors

Studies exploring the effects of dogs on seniors found  positive results . One  study found that pet therapy can improve the cognitive function of residents in long-term care with mental illness. Another study showed significant decreases in agitated behaviors in seniors with dementia, as well as improved social interactions.

A dog provides unconditional love and support, which is especially important during tough times. Though people may think we’re taking care of our dogs, it’s mutual. Dogs also take care of us, and science confirms it.

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72 Dog Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

To find good research titles for your essay about dogs, you can look through science articles or trending pet blogs on the internet. Alternatively, you can check out this list of creative research topics about dogs compiled by our experts .

🐩 Dog Essays: Things to Consider

🏆 best dog titles for essays, 💡 most interesting dog topics to write about, ❓ questions about dog.

There are many different dog essays you can write, as mankind’s history with its best friends is rich and varied. Many people will name the creatures their favorite animals, citing their endearing and inspiring qualities such as loyalty, obedience, bravery, and others.

Others will discuss dog training and the variety of important roles the animals fulfill in our everyday life, working as shepherds, police members, guides to blind people, and more.

Some people will be more interested in dog breeding and the incredible variety of the animals show, ranging from decorative, small Yorkshire terriers to gigantic yet peaceful Newfoundland dogs. All of these topics are interesting and deserve covering, and you can incorporate all of them a general essay.

Dogs are excellent pet animals, as their popularity, rivaled only by cats, shows. Pack animals by nature, they are open to including members of other species into their groups and get along well with most people and animals.

They are loyal to the pack, and there are examples of dogs adopting orphaned kittens and saving other animals and children from harm.

This loyalty and readiness to face danger makes them favorite animals for many people, and the hundreds of millions of dogs worldwide show that humans appreciate their canine friends.

It also allows them to work many important jobs, guarding objects, saving people, and using their noses to sniff out various trails and substances.

However, dogs are descended from wolves, whose pack nature does not prevent them from attacking those outside the group. Some larger dogs are capable of killing an adult human alone, and most can at least inflict severe harm if they attack a child.

Dogs are trusted and loved because of their excellent trainability. They can be taught to be calm and avoid aggression or only attack once the order is given.

They can also learn a variety of other behaviors and tricks, such as not relieving themselves in the house and executing complex routines. This physical and mental capacity to perform a variety of tasks marks dogs as humanity’s best and most versatile helpers.

The variety of jobs dogs perform has led humans to try to develop distinct dog breeds for each occupation, which led to the emergence of numerous and different varieties of the same animal.

The observation of the evolution of a specific type of dog as time progressed and its purposes changed can be an interesting topic. You can also discuss dog competitions, which try to find the best dog based on various criteria and even have titles for the winners.

Comparisons between different varieties of the animal are also excellent dog argumentative essay topics. Overall, there are many interesting ideas that you can use to write a unique and excellent essay.

Regardless of what you ultimately choose to write about, you should adhere to the central points of essay writing. Make sure to describe sections of your paper with dog essay titles that identify what you will be talking about clearly.

Write an introduction that identifies the topic and provides a clear and concise thesis statement. Finish the paper with a dog essay conclusion that sums up your principal points. It will be easier and more interesting to read while also adhering to literature standards if you do this.

Below, we have provided a collection of great ideas that you can use when writing your essays, research papers, speeches, or dissertations. Take inspiration from our list of dog topics, and don’t forget to check out the samples written by other students!

• An Adventure with My Pet Pit-Bull Dog “Tiger” One look at Tiger and I knew that we were not going to leave the hapless couple to the mercies of the scary man.
• Dogs Playing Poker The use of dogs in the painting is humorous in that the writer showed them doing human things and it was used to attract the attention of the viewer to the picture.
• Debates on Whether Dog is the Best Pet or not The relationships between dogs and man have been improving over the years and this has made dogs to be the most preferable pets in the world. Other pets have limited abilities and can not match […]
• Dog Food: Pedigree Company’s Case The attractiveness of the dog food category is manifested through the intense competitive nature of the various stakeholders. The third and final phase of the segmentation is to label the category of dog food as […]
• Breed Specific Legislation: Dog Attacks As a result, the individuals that own several canines of the “banned” breeds are to pay a lot of money to keep their dogs.
• Animal Cruelty: Inside the Dog Fighting In most cases the owner of the losing dog abandons the injured dog to die slowly from the injuries it obtained during the fight. The injuries inflicted to and obtained by the dogs participating in […]
• The Benefits of a Protection Dog Regardless of the fact that protection dogs are animals that can hurt people, they are loving and supportive family members that provide their owners with a wide range of benefits.
• Cats vs. Dogs: Are You a Cat or a Dog Person? Cats and dogs are two of the most common types of pets, and preferring one to another can arguably tell many things about a person.
• “Love That Dog” Verse Novel by Sharon Creech In this part of the play, it is clear that Jack is not ready to hide his feelings and is happy to share them with someone who, in his opinion, can understand him.
• Cesar Millan as a Famous Dog Behaviorist Millan earned the nickname “the dog boy” because of his natural ability to interact with dogs. Consequently, the dog behaviorist became a celebrity in different parts of the country.
• “Marley: A Dog Like No Other” by John Grogan John Grogan’s international bestseller “Marley: A Dog Like No Other” is suited for children of all ages, and it tells the story of a young puppy, Marley, who quickly develops a big personality, boundless energy, […]
• The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time Haddon therefore manages to carry the reader into the world of the novel and holds the reader to the end of the novel.
• Compare and Contrast Your First Dog vs. Your Current Dog Although she was very friendly and even tried to take care of me when I was growing up, my mother was the real owner.
• Small Dog Boarding Business: Balanced Scorecard Bragonier posits that SWOT analysis is essential in the running of the business because it helps the management to analyze the business at a glance.
• Moral Dilemma: Barking Dog and Neighborhood Since exuberant barking of Stella in the neighborhood disturbs many people, debarking is the appropriate measure according to the utilitarian perspective.
• Dog Training Techniques Step by Step The first step that will be taken in order to establish the performance of this trick is showing the newspaper to the dog, introducing the desired object and the term “take”.
• How to Conduct the Dog Training Properly At the same time, it is possible to work with the dog and train it to perform certain actions necessary for the owner. In the process of training, the trainer influences the behavior of the […]
• The Great Pyrenees Dog Breed as a Pet In the folklore of the French Pyrenees, there is a touching legend about the origin of the breed. The dog will not obey a person of weak character and nervous.
• Dog Food by Subscription: Service Design Project For the convenience and safety of customers and their dogs, customer support in the form of a call center and online chat is available.
• “Everyday” in The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time by Haddon The novel presents Christopher who passes through many changes in his life, where he adapts to it and acclimatizes the complications that come with it.
• A Dog’s Life by Charles Chaplin The theme of friendship and love that is clear in the relationship between Tramp and Scraps. The main being that Chaplin makes it very comical thus; it is appealing to the audience, and captures the […]
• What Dog Are You? All of them possess individual traits that have to suit the profile and character of the owner for them to create a harmonious and beneficial union and to feel comfortable together first of all, every […]
• Why Does Your Dog Pretend to Like You? Children and the older generation can truly cherish and in the case of children can develop as individuals with the help of dogs.
• Caring for a Dog With Arthritis For Monty, the dog under study, the size, and disposition of the dog, the stage of the disease as also its specific symptoms and behaviour need to be observed and then a suitable choice of […]
• Dog House: Business Law Today Based on the definition of a shareholder’s derivative suit, it is possible to say that corporations can be expected to benefit from this type of litigation.
• “Traditional” Practice Exception in Dog Act One of those who wanted the word to remain in the clause was the president of the Beaufort Delta Dog Mushers and also an Inuvik welder.Mr.
• “How to Draw a Dog” Video Lecture Critique The video begins with an introduction to the character that the artist is going to draw. The artist provides a more detailed description of the process later when he begins to draw dog’s eyebrows and […]
• Small Dog Boarding Business: Strategic Plan Based on the first dimension of the competing values framework, the dog boarding business already has the advantage of a flexible business model, it is possible to adjust the size of the business or eliminate […]
• Non-Profit Dog Organization’s Mission Statement In terms of the value we are bringing, our team regards abandoned animals who just want to be loved by people, patients with special needs, volunteers working at pet shelters, and the American society in […]
• “Dog’s Life” by Charlie Chaplin Film Analysis In this film, the producer has used the comic effect to elaborate on the message he intends to deliver to the audience. The function of a dog is to serve the master.
• Dog’ Education in “The Culture Clash” by Jean Donaldson The second chapter comes under the title, Hard-Wiring: What the Dog comes with which tackles the characteristic innate behaviors that dogs possess naturally; that is, predation and socialization. This chapter sheds light on the behaviors […]
• Implementing Security Policy at Dog Parks To ensure that people take responsibility for their dogs while in the parks, the owners of the parks should ensure that they notify people who bring their dogs to the park of the various dangers […]
• Operant Conditioning in Dog Training In regards to negative enforcements, the puppy should be fitted with a collar and upon the command “sit”, the collar should be pulled up a bit to force the dog to sit down.
• First in Show Pet Foods, Inc and Dog Food Market Due to the number of competitors, it is clear that First in Show Pet Food, Inc.understands it has a low market share.
• Animal Assisted Therapy: Therapy Dogs First, the therapist must set the goals that are allied to the utilization of the therapy dog and this should be done for each client.
• The Tail Wagging the Dog: Emotions and Their Expression in Animals The fact that the experiment was conducted in real life, with a control group of dogs, a life-size dog model, a simultaneous observation of the dogs’ reaction and the immediate transcription of the results, is […]
• The Feasibility Analysis for the Ropeless Dog Lead This is because it will have the ability to restrict the distance between the dog and the master control radio. The exploration of different sales models and prices for other devices indicates that the Rope-less […]
• Classical Conditioning: Teaching an Old Dog New Tricks According to Basford and Stein’s interpretation, classical conditioning is developed in a person or an animal when a neutral stimulus “is paired or occurs contingently with the unconditioned stimulus on a number of occasions”, which […]
• The Movements and Reactions of Dogs in Crates and Outside Yards This study discusses the types of movements and reactions exhibited by dogs in the two confinement areas, the crate and the outside yard.
• A Summary of “What The Dog Saw” Gladwell explores the encounters of Cesar Millan, the dog whisperer who non-verbally communicated with the dogs and mastered his expertise to tame the dogs.
• Border Collie Dog Breed Information So long as the movement of the Border Collies and the sheep is calm and steady, they can look for the stock as they graze in the field.
• Evolution of Dogs from the Gray Wolf However, the combined results of vocalisation, morphological behavior and molecular biology of the domesticated dog now show that the wolf is the principle ancestor of the dog.
• Attacking Dog Breeds: Truth or Exaggeration?
• Are Bad Dog Laws Unjustified?
• Are Dog Mouths Cleaner Than Humans?
• Can Age Affect How Fast a Dog Runs?
• Can Chew Treats Kill Your Dog?
• Can You Control Who the Alpha Dog Is When You Own Two Dogs?
• Does Drug Dog Sniff Outside Home Violate Privacy?
• Does the Pit Bull Deserve Its Reputation as a Vicious Dog?
• Does Your Dog Love You and What Does That Mean?
• Does Your Dog Need a Bed?
• How Can People Alleviate Dog Cruelty Problems?
• How Cooking With Dog Is a Culinary Show?
• How Can Be Inspiring Dog Tales?
• How Owning and Petting a Dog Can Improve Your Health?
• How the I-Dog Works: It’s All About Traveling Signals?
• What Can Andy Griffith Teach You About Dog Training?
• What Makes the Dog – Human Bond So Powerful?
• What the Dog Saw and the Rise of the Global Market?
• What Should You Know About Dog Adoption?
• When Dog Training Matters?
• When Drug Dog Sniff the Narcotic Outside Home?
• At What Age Is Dog Training Most Effective?
• Why Are People Choosing to Get Involved in Dog Fighting?
• Why Are Reported Cases of Dog-Fighting Rising in the United States?
• Why Dog Attacks Occur and Who Are the Main Culprits?
• Why Does Dog Make Better Pets Than Cats?
• Why Every Kid Needs a Dog?
• Why Should People Adopt Rather Than Buy a Dog?
• Why Could the Dog Have Bitten the Person?
• Will Dog Survive the Summer Sun?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 26). 72 Dog Essay Topic Ideas & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/dog-essay-examples/

"72 Dog Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." IvyPanda , 26 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/dog-essay-examples/.

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Dogs in Research

“clearly, some testing and research is done in dogs for historical reasons [existence of benchmark data] rather than because they are the best models.”.

JOANNE ZURLO ET AL, “CRITICAL EVALUATION OF THE USE OF DOGS IN BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH AND TESTING,”  ALTEX,  APRIL 2011

Although the number of dogs used in research has declined by 72% since their peak use in 1979, the most current USDA statistics show that 58,511 dogs were used for “research, testing, teaching, or experimentation” in 2019, although the exact purposes for which these dogs were used remain unclear.

The majority of dogs used in research, upwards of 75%, are estimated to be used in pharmaceutical testing, even though many scientists have concluded that they are poor predictors of drug effects in the human body. They are still used because regulatory authorities require that drugs be tested in both a rodent and a non-rodent species for toxicity, and the latter is often dogs, due to their ready availability, as well as their trusting and social nature, which makes them easy to handle. Dogs are also used in many other areas of biomedical research, including heart research, surgery, dental health and studies of hereditary diseases, in addition to research on the health, nutrition and behavior of dogs themselves.

Of all dogs used in research, beagles are the breed most often used in research because of their intermediate size and loving nature. Kevin J. Stafford, author of The Welfare of Dogs, speculated that “Their existence for some time as ‘the’ laboratory dog may make it easier for handlers and research scientists to use them without becoming too emotionally attached to them.” When experiments call for larger animals, hounds (mongrels) are commonly used. Although the U.S. does not collect information on the breeds of dogs used in research, data obtained from Freedom of Information Act requests filed by NAVS revealed that many other breeds, including, but not limited to, Golden Retrievers, Labrador Retrievers, Greyhounds, Pit Bulls and Schnauzers, are among the dogs used in research as well.

Most dogs used in research are purchased from Class A dealers, licensed commercial breeders that sell “purpose-bred” dogs specifically for research. They breed beagles, hounds and mongrel dogs and raise the animals on their own premises to fulfill orders for canines ranging from 33-60 pounds that are 6 to 12 months old. Most dogs sold for research are less than a year old. From a research perspective, dogs from Class A dealers have good health and good veterinary care (known vaccination history, preventative treatment for parasites, known pedigree and improved socialization), but they are expensive, costing over $700 per dog, based on the most current price list from top vendors Ridglan Farms, Inc. and Marshall Bioresources.

These vendors offer devocalization services (a surgical procedure which makes it physically impossible for the dog to bark) for $20-$47 per dog; this is performed so that barking dogs do not disturb lab technicians. There are current state legislative initiatives to ban devocalization, as the surgery can cause serious health issues, including infection, and increases the possibility of food and water becoming trapped in dogs’ lungs. As a result, it is currently illegal in five states.

Some research institutions purchase dogs from  Class B dealers , licensed dealers that sell “random source” dogs. These are dogs that are obtained from an animal shelter or dog pound (a practice known as “pound seizure”), at auction, or from any person who did not breed and raise the dogs on their premises. Class B dogs are less expensive than “purpose-bred” dogs used in research, although research with these animals may be compromised because of their unverifiable health status, poorly-defined temperament and unknown age.

Over the past several years, more research institutions have moved away from using Class B dogs, and as a result, the number of Class B dealers has declined. In December 2013, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) announced that they would implement a new policy prohibiting the procurement of dogs from Class B dealers using NIH grant funds starting in Fiscal Year 2015. This prohibition went into effect on October 1, 2014. Dogs used in research supported by the NIH now need to be acquired from USDA Class A dealers or other approved legal sources such as privately owned colonies or client owned animals. It is important to note, however, that dogs with Class B-like characteristics, namely large, mature, socialized out-bred hounds or mongrels, are being bred by Class A dealers for use in scientific experimentation.

Once in the laboratory, dogs older than four months of age are identified with a tag or may have an ID number tattooed in their ear. They are housed in spaces depending on their weight, according to recommendations made by The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. It is recommended that dogs less than 33 pounds have a minimum floor area of eight square feet per animal; dogs up to 66 pounds have a minimum floor area of 12 square feet per animal; and dogs more than 60 pounds have a minimum floor area of 24 square feet per animal. The Guide also recommends that cage height be sufficient for the animals to be comfortable standing with their feet on the floor.

Dogs used in research in laboratory settings have been shown to display signs of stress, fear and anxiety. A number of common laboratory procedures can cause this response, including cage changing, the removal of a dog from a stable social group, changing of established maintenance routines, or restraint or confinement in a strange setting. While some dogs are able to adapt positively to stressors, other dogs are unsuccessful and can develop disorders and dysfunctions that can adversely affect their quality of life, in addition to significantly impacting the research in which the animal is involved.

Laboratory dogs that are exhibiting signs of short term stress may shake, crouch, display signs of restlessness or oral behaviors (tongue out, licking muzzle, swallowing). Dogs that display signs of long term or chronic stress may be vocal, exhibit repetitive behaviors, have low posture, increase autogrooming and eat feces. It has been noted that dogs often stop such behaviors when their handlers enter the room, resulting in a serious underestimation of the true mental and physical condition of dogs used in research in laboratory settings.

Man’s best friend deserves better than this. Considering that the differences between dogs and humans make them a poor model for humans, there is no reason to continue subjecting these amazing companion animals to unnecessary pain and experimentation.

Field, G. and Jackson, T.A. (2007).  The Laboratory Canine . CRC Press. Hasiwa, N., et al. (2011) Critical Evaluation of the Use of Dogs in Biomedical Research and Testing in Europe.  ALTEX . Vol. 28, 4/11, p. 326-340

Meunier, L.D. (2006). Selection, Acclimation, Training, and Preparation of Dogs for the Research Setting,  ILAR  Journal. Vol 47, Number 4, p. 326-347.

National Research Council. (2009).  Scientific and Humane Issues in the Use of Random Source Dogs and Cats in Research Stafford, K.J. (2006).  The Welfare of Dogs .

Turner, M. (2011). Call to curb lab tests on dogs.  Nature . 474, p. 551.

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May 15, 2024

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An online meeting with your dog? Study tests dogs' ability to imitate actions observed on video projections

by Eötvös Loránd University

A new study published in Biologia Futura found that dogs can imitate human actions from two-dimensional video projections. The study discovered that dogs' cognitive abilities to process and replicate actions observed in 2D video projections align with their everyday observational experiences with humans. The researchers are from the Department of Ethology at Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest, Hungary.

Using the "Do as I Do" training method, the researchers trained two dogs, Tara, a male Golden Retriever, and Franc, a female Labrador Retriever, to imitate human actions, first from live demonstrations, and then displayed on a screen.

The setup involved life-size video projections streamed via online conference software, enabling real-time interaction between the dogs and their owners, who were located remotely. For example, the owner would spin in a circle in front of the camera of its device and verbally cue the dog to "Do it!" The dog, having observed this action on the screen, was then expected to replicate it.

The experiment tested the dogs' ability to imitate actions observed from three different camera angles: frontal, side and above. The tested actions included walking backward, spinning horizontally, pushing a buzzer button and lying down, among others.

Additionally, the dogs were tested on their ability to imitate novel actions, not included in the training, such as picking up an object, touching a pole with their nose, and knocking down a water bottle . The results showed that dogs could replicate actions observed from frontal and side angles, which are observational perspectives commonly encountered in dogs' daily lives with humans.

However, they faced challenges when trying to imitate actions from an overhead perspective, which is a less familiar viewpoint.

"Using the Do as I Do imitation paradigm is similar to asking the dogs, 'What did I just do?' while showing them on the screen various human actions under different camera angles. The dogs responded by performing matching actions based on how they perceived and processed the demonstration.

"For instance, one of the demonstrated actions included knocking down a plastic bottle, which was demonstrated from an overhead view. My dog Tara observed my demonstration on the screen, looked for the bottle in his room, in front of the screen, and then knocked it down. But he struggled to replicate other actions with an overhead view," explained Fumi Higaki, co-author and owner of Tara.

"This study, even if only exploratory, not only advances our understanding of how dogs perceive and interpret human actions, but more importantly, this innovative method could broaden research into several other potential cognitive abilities , and could also be extended to other species," said lead researcher, Claudia Fugazza.

The "Do as I Do" training method has been employed to study imitative abilities not only of dogs but also of cats, orcas, and various other species.

Provided by Eötvös Loránd University

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Conceptual analysis article, dogs supporting human health and well-being: a biopsychosocial approach.

• 1 Department of Psychiatry, Center for Human Animal Interaction, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
• 2 Human-Animal Bond in Colorado, School of Social Work, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
• 3 Department of Education, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA, United States
• 4 Division of Social Sciences and Natural Sciences, Seaver College, Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA, United States

Humans have long realized that dogs can be helpful, in a number of ways, to achieving important goals. This is evident from our earliest interactions involving the shared goal of avoiding predators and acquiring food, to our more recent inclusion of dogs in a variety of contexts including therapeutic and educational settings. This paper utilizes a longstanding theoretical framework- the biopsychosocial model- to contextualize the existing research on a broad spectrum of settings and populations in which dogs have been included as an adjunct or complementary therapy to improve some aspect of human health and well-being. A wide variety of evidence is considered within key topical areas including cognition, learning disorders, neurotypical and neurodiverse populations, mental and physical health, and disabilities. A dynamic version of the biopsychosocial model is used to organize and discuss the findings, to consider how possible mechanisms of action may impact overall human health and well-being, and to frame and guide future research questions and investigations.

Introduction – A Historical Perspective on Dog-Human Relationships

The modern relationship between humans and dogs is undoubtedly unique. With a shared evolutionary history spanning tens of thousands of years ( 1 ), dogs have filled a unique niche in our lives as man's best friend. Through the processes of domestication and natural selection, dogs have become adept at socializing with humans. For example, research suggests dogs are sensitive to our emotional states ( 2 ) as well as our social gestures ( 3 ), and they also can communicate with us using complex cues such as gaze alternation ( 4 ). In addition, dogs can form complex attachment relationships with humans that mirror that of infant-caregiver relationships ( 5 ).

In today's society, dog companionship is widely prevalent worldwide. In the United States, 63 million households have a pet dog, a majority of which consider their dog a member of their family ( 6 ). In addition to living in our homes, dogs have also become increasingly widespread in applications to assist individuals with disabilities as assistance dogs. During and following World War I, formal training of dogs as assistance animals began particularly for individuals with visual impairments in Germany and the United States ( 7 ). Following World War II, formal training for other roles, such as mobility and hearing assistance, started to increase in prevalence. Over the decades, the roles of assistance dogs have expanded to assist numerous disabilities and conditions including medical conditions such as epilepsy and diabetes and mental health disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). At the same time, society has also seen increasing applications of dogs incorporated into working roles including detection, hunting, herding, and protection ( 8 , 9 ).

In addition to these working roles, dogs have also been instrumental in supporting humans in other therapeutic ways. In the early 1960s, animal-assisted interventions (AAI) began to evolve with the pioneering work of Boris Levinson, Elizabeth O'Leary Corson, and Samuel Corson. Levinson, a child psychologist practicing since the 1950s, noticed a child who was nonverbal and withdrawn during therapy began interacting with his dog, Jingles, in an unplanned interaction. This experience caused Levinson to begin his pioneering work in creating the foundations for AAI as an adjunct to treatment ( 10 ). In the 1970s, Samuel Corson and Elizabeth O'Leary Corson were some of the first researchers to empirically study canine-assisted interventions. Like Levinson, they inadvertently discovered that some of their patients with psychiatric disorders were interested in the dogs and that their patients with psychiatric disorders communicated more easily with each other and the staff when in the company of the dogs ( 11 , 12 ). Over the following decades, therapy dogs have been increasingly found to provide support for individuals with diverse needs in a wide array of settings ( 13 ).

Theoretical Framework for Dog Interaction Benefits

For over 40 years, the biopsychosocial model ( 14 ) has been widely used to conceptualize how biological, psychological, and social influences combine to determine human health and well-being. Biological influences refer to physiological changes such as blood pressure, cortisol, and heart rate, among others; psychological influences include personality, mood, and emotions, among others; and social influences refer to cultural, socio-economic, social relationships with others, family dynamics, and related matters. Figure 1 presents a graphical illustration of the relationship among these three influences in determining overall health and well-being. Although the model has dominated research and theory in health psychology for decades, more recently, it was re-envisioned as a more dynamic system ( 15 ) that construes human health as the result of the reciprocal influences of biological, psychological and social factors that unfold over personal and historical time. For example, if a person breaks his/her arm, there will be a biological impact in that immune and muscle systems respond and compensate. Social, or interpersonal, changes may occur when support or assistance is offered by others. Psychological changes will occur as a result of adjusting to and coping with the injury. Thus, the injury represents a dynamic influence initiated at one point in time and extending forward in time with diminishing impact as healing occurs.

Figure 1 . A biopsychosocial perspective of how biological, psychological, and social influences may impact one another (solid lined arrows) and influence human health and well-being (represented here by the large thick circular shape).

This dynamic biopsychosocial approach to understanding health and well-being is appealing to the field of human-animal interaction (HAI) because of the dynamic nature of the relationship between humans and animals. For example, a person may acquire many dogs over his/her lifetime, perhaps from childhood to old age, and each of those dogs may sequentially develop from puppyhood to old age in that time. Behaviorally, the way the human and the dog interact is likely to be different across the lifespans of both species. From a biopsychosocial model perspective, the dynamic nature of the human-canine relationship may differentially interact with each of the three influencers (biological, psychological, and social) of human health and well-being over the trajectories of both beings. Notably, these influencers are not fixed, but rather have an interactional effect with each other over time.

While a person's biological, psychological, and social health may affect the relationship between that person and dogs with whom interactions occur, the focus of this manuscript is on the reverse: how owning or interacting with a dog may impact each of the psychological, biological, and social influencers of human health. We will also present relevant research and discuss potential mechanisms by which dogs may, or may not, contribute to human health and well-being according to the biopsychosocial model. Finally, we will emphasize how the biopsychosocial theory can be easily utilized to provide firmer theoretical foundations for future HAI research and applications to therapeutic practice and daily life.

Psychological Influences

Much research has been conducted on the impact of dog ownership and dog interactions on human psychological health and functioning. Frequent interactions with a dog, either through ownership or through long-term interventions, have been associated with positive psychological outcomes across the lifespan [for a systematic review of this evidence see ( 16 )]. One psychological aspect of interest to many HAI researchers is depression, especially among older adults. However, the relationship of pet dog ownership and depression over the lifespan continues to have inconsistent and inconclusive findings ( 16 ). Nevertheless, there are examples in the literature highlighting the beneficial role of dog ownership in reducing depression. As is frequently the case in HAI, the evidence from intervention studies is stronger than that of pet ownership studies ( 16 ), with the preponderance of this evidence linking animal-assisted interventions to a decrease in depression, as measured by self-report indices. Among the mechanisms for this reduction in depression are biological and social influences. For example, one such study found that an attachment relationship with a pet dog may serve as a coping resource for older women by buffering the relationship between loneliness (also measured by self-report indices) and depression, such that the presence of the pet dog appears to ameliorate the potential for loneliness to exacerbate depression ( 17 ). A causal relationship between dog ownership and mental health is difficult to determine. Not only may owning a pet dog increase stress, but those who are already suffering from loneliness or depression may be more inclined to have a pet dog than those who do not.

Another psychological outcome related to dog interaction that receives considerable research attention is anxiety. Studies have found that short-term, unstructured interactions with a therapy dog can significantly reduce self-reported anxiety and distress levels [e.g., ( 18 )]. For example, children with their pet dog or a therapy dog present during a stressful task exhibit lower perceived stress and more positive affect compared to when alone ( 19 ), when a parent was present ( 20 ), or when a stuffed dog was present ( 21 ). In addition to psychological mechanisms, there are social and biological mechanisms at play as well. In these short-term stressful contexts, a dog may serve as both a comforting, nonjudgmental presence as well as a positive tactile and sensory distraction. Dog interaction might also reduce anxiety and distress by influencing emotion regulation while coping with a stressor ( 22 ). During animal-assisted therapy, having a dog present during psychotherapy such as cognitive behavioral therapy can aid in decreasing self-reported anxious arousal and distress for patients who have experienced trauma, making the therapeutic treatment process more effective ( 23 ).

In addition to the negative aspects of psychological functioning, HAI research has also aimed to quantify the effects of dog interaction and ownership on positive psychological experiences such as happiness and well-being. Some studies have found that dog ownership is associated with higher life satisfaction and greater well-being ( 24 ), while other studies show that this is the case only when the dog provided social support ( 25 ) or satisfied the owner's needs ( 26 ). However, other large-scale surveys have found no significant differences in self-reported happiness between dog owners, cat owners, and non-pet owners ( 27 ), contributing to mixed findings. Recent discussions argue that too much focus has been placed on the relationship between mental health and the simple variable of dog ownership, when the specific activities that owners engage in with their dogs (e.g., walking, tactile interaction, and shared activities,) may be more important in explaining positive well-being ( 28 ). Further, many other factors may be driving these inconsistent findings in depression, anxiety, and well-being, including the owner's personality ( 24 ), gender and marital status ( 29 ), and attachment to the dog ( 30 ).

Dogs may also provide a source of motivation; for example, people with dogs are more likely to comply with the rigors of their daily life ( 31 ). The relationship with a pet dog may provide motivation to do things that may be less desirable. For example, for older adults who own pets, it is not uncommon for them to be more involved in daily life activities because of the need to take care of their animals ( 32 ). Likewise, children also complete less desired activities due to their relationship with the dog [for a discussion of this topic see ( 33 )].

An accumulation of research also suggests that dog interaction may have specific psychological benefits for individuals with physical disabilities and chronic conditions. Cohabitating with a specially trained assistance dog, including guide, hearing, and service dogs, can be associated with increased psychological and emotional functioning among individuals with disabilities ( 34 ). For individuals with mental disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), recent research has also found that having a psychiatric service dog is associated with fewer PTSD symptoms, less depression and anxiety, and better quality of life [For a review see ( 35 )]. These benefits appear to be due to a combination of the service dog's specific trained tasks and aspects inherent to cohabitating with a pet dog, including having a source of love, nonjudgmental social support, and companionship ( 36 ).

Similar research has also highlighted the value of dogs for children with disorders of executive functioning and self-regulation, especially autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). For some children with ASD, dogs may provide a calming and positive presence ( 37 ) and may both reduce anxiety ( 38 ) and improve problematic behaviors ( 39 ). Parents report that both pet dogs and service dogs can provide certain benefits for children with ASD, including benefits to children's moods, sleep, and behavior ( 40 , 41 ). Therapy dogs have also been found to be impactful in supporting children with ADHD in their emotional regulation ( 42 ) and aspects of character development ( 43 ). Nevertheless, the outcome of dog interactions may not be positive for all individuals with ASD and ADHD; despite evidence of psychological benefits of dog interaction for some children, others may be fearful or become over-stimulated by dogs ( 44 ).

In addition to impacts on psychological health, dog interaction can also impact psychological functioning, cognition, and learning. Among children, emerging research suggests short-term interactions with a therapy dog may lead to improvements in specific aspects of learning and cognition. A recent systematic review of research on therapy dog reading programs indicated that reading to a dog has a number of beneficial effects including improved reading performance ( 45 ). Studies suggest that interacting with a therapy dog may also improve speed and accuracy on cognitive (e.g., memory, categorization, adherence to instructions) and motor skills tasks among preschool-aged children compared to interacting with a stuffed dog or human ( 46 ). Similarly, a recent study showed that 10–14-year-old children had greater frontal lobe activity in the presence of a real dog as compared to a robotic dog, indicating a higher level of neuropsychological attention ( 47 ).

Among young adults, similar effects on cognition and learning have been found. Numerous colleges and universities now offer interactions with therapy dogs, typically during high stress times (such as before exams). In this sense, a biological mechanism through which dog interaction may positively impact cognition and learning is via stress reduction and improvement in positive affect. Even such short and infrequent interactions with therapy dogs may decrease perceived stress and increase perceived happiness in college students [e.g., ( 48 , 49 )]. Further, some institutions have permanent resident therapy dogs and/or long-term intervention programs; one such program showed that students who interacted with therapy dogs for 8 weeks reported significantly less homesickness and greater satisfaction with life than wait-listed controls ( 50 ). These effects may translate to additional effects on students' academic success, learning, and cognition. For instance, a recent randomized controlled trial ( 51 ) paired a standard academic stress management program with therapy dog interaction; the pairing produced significantly higher levels of self-reported enjoyment, usefulness, self-regulation, and behavior change than the stress management program or dog interaction alone. However, when therapy dog interaction is closely paired with more specific learning experiences, beneficial effects on stress remain, but benefits to academic performance may not manifest. For example, a recent study showed that interacting with a therapy dog resulted in significant improvements in students' perceived stress and mood, but not in actual exam scores ( 52 ). Similarly, interacting with a therapy dog during the learning and recall phase of a memory test did not improve memory compared to a control group ( 53 ). Taken together, dog interaction may improve stress and affect among college-aged adults as well as dimensions important for academic success and learning, but these results may or may not translate to cognitive performance benefits.

Biological Influences

The psychological and biological effects of HAI are often closely interwoven, as seen in the Psychological Influences section above and as demonstrated by the frequency with which psychological effects are evaluated using biological assessments of stress, anxiety, and arousal ( 54 ). For example, a plethora of studies have examined how short-term interactions with dogs can influence stress by measuring physiological biomarkers. Studies have found that dog interaction can influence parameters such as blood pressure, heart rate, and electrodermal activity ( 55 ) as well as neurochemical indicators of affiliative behavior [e.g., beta-endorphins, prolactin, and dopamine; ( 56 )].

However, one of the most popular physiological measures in HAI research is the stress hormone cortisol ( 57 ). Studies have found that short-term interactions with a dog can decrease both subjective stress and circulating cortisol concentrations [e.g., ( 58 )]. Cohabitating with a dog has also been found to impact circulating cortisol after waking among children with ASD ( 39 ) and military veterans with PTSD ( 59 ). Experimental studies have also examined how having a dog present may modulate the stress response and cortisol secretion among individuals undergoing a stressful situation. Among adults, studies have found that having a dog present during a socially stressful paradigm can attenuate cortisol compared to when alone or with a human friend ( 60 ). A recent randomized controlled trial similarly found that interacting with a therapy dog, for 20 min, two times per week, over a 4-week period resulted in reduced cortisol (basal and diurnal measurement) among typically developing and special needs school children compared to the same duration and length of delivery for a yoga relaxation or a classroom as usual control group ( 61 ). However, it is of note that many methodologically rigorous studies have not found significant effects of interacting with a dog on physiological parameters, including salivary cortisol ( 21 , 62 , 63 ). A recent review of salivary bioscience research in human-animal interaction concluded that significant variation exists with regards to sampling paradigms, storage and assaying methods, and analytic strategies, contributing to variation in findings across the field ( 57 ).

As research quantifying the physiological outcomes from dog interaction continues to increase, so does research attempting to understand the underlying mechanisms of action leading to stress reduction. One theoretical rationale for dogs' stress-reducing benefits consists of the dog's ability to provide non-judgmental social support ( 60 ), improve positive affect ( 64 ), and provide a calming presence ( 22 ). Dogs may also contribute to a feeling of perceived safety and provide a tactile and grounding comfort ( 65 ). For these reasons, dogs are often incorporated into treatment and recovery for individuals who have experienced a traumatic event ( 66 ). Another mechanism contributing to these stress reducing benefits may be tactile stimulation and distraction derived from petting or stroking a dog. For example, Beetz et al. ( 67 ) found that the more time a child spent stroking the dog before a stressful task, the larger the magnitude of cortisol decrease. In fact, calming tactile interactions such as stroking, touching, and petting may be a key mechanism explaining animal-specific benefits to stress physiology, as touch is more socially appropriate in interactions with animals than as with other people ( 22 ). While there are many hypothesized mechanisms underlying positive psychophysiological change following human-dog interaction, more research is needed to determine how individual differences in humans, animals, and the human-animal relationship affects outcomes ( 21 , 57 , 62 , 63 ).

Another mechanism in which positive dog interaction may result in psychophysiological benefits is via the secretion of oxytocin. Oxytocin not only buffers the stress response and cortisol secretion ( 68 ) but is also involved emotion, trust, and bonding ( 69 ). The oxytocin system has been hypothesized to be a primary mechanistic pathway involved in human-dog interactions ( 70 ). Positive dog-owner interactions including stroking, petting, and talking have been shown to result in increased oxytocin levels in both dog owners and dogs, which has been related to the strength of the owner-dog relationship ( 71 ) and dog-human affiliative behaviors ( 72 , 73 ). Some studies have also found differential effects in oxytocin reactivity after dog interaction between human males and females ( 74 ), giving context to potential gender and/or hormonal differences in dog-human interactions. However, even though the oxytocin system exhibits potential as a pathway by which dogs provide psychophysiological benefits, it should be noted that mixed findings and methodological and measurement differences limit strong conclusions ( 75 ).

In regards to pet dog ownership, many studies have also sought to understand the biological effects of long-term interactions with a pet dog. Some research suggests that sharing animal-associated microbes with a pet dog can have long-term impacts on human health ( 76 ) while others have found that cohabitating with a pet dog can be beneficial for child allergies ( 77 ) and immune system development ( 78 ). However, most research on the long-term health impacts of pet dog ownership has focused on cardiovascular functioning. Epidemiological research suggests that dog ownership is linked to greater physical activity levels (presumably linked to dog-walking), and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease, stroke, and all-cause mortality [for a summary see ( 79 )]. A recent meta-analysis of ten studies amassing data from over three million participants found that pet dog ownership was associated with a 31% risk reduction for mortality due to cardiovascular disease ( 80 ). However, dog ownership research of this nature will always suffer from an important chicken and egg type question: do dogs make us healthier, or do healthy people opt to own dogs?

Social Influences

A final way in which dog companionship and interaction may contribute to human health and well-being is through the social realm. Dogs may impact social functioning by providing direct social support ( 81 ) and a source of an attachment bond ( 82 ) which in turn may contribute to better social and mental health by providing companionship. Acquiring a pet dog has been reported to reduce both short-term and long-term self-reported loneliness ( 83 ). Particularly for those who live alone, dog ownership may serve as a protective factor against loneliness in times of social isolation, such as during the COVID-19 pandemic ( 84 ). Among older adults living in long-term care facilities or who live alone, dog visitation may also decrease loneliness by providing a source of meaningful companionship and social connectedness ( 85 , 86 ). However, the literature on pet dogs and loneliness is also characterized by mixed findings, raising the possibility that dog ownership may be a response to loneliness rather than protection from loneliness. Further, there remains a lack of high quality research in this area which limits any causal conclusions ( 87 ).

Another way in which the social support from a pet dog may benefit social functioning is by facilitating social interactions with others. For example, observational studies have found that being accompanied by a dog in public increases the frequency of received social interactions ( 88 ) and social acknowledgments [e.g., friendly glances, smiles; ( 89 )]. For those who engage in dog walking, social interactions are perceived as a rewarding side effect ( 90 ). Dogs can also provide a source of social capital, defined as the glue that holds society together ( 91 ). The research of Wood and colleagues ( 92 ) suggests that dogs can function as facilitators for social contact and interaction, with pet owners reporting higher perceptions of suburb friendliness and more social interactions with neighbors compared to non-pet owners.

For children and adolescents, pet dog ownership may contribute to healthy social development. Positive child–pet dog interactions have been shown to have benefits to children's social competence, interactions, and play behavior [for a review see ( 93 )]. Not only can children form attachment relationships with dogs ( 94 ), but pet dogs may promote feelings of safety and security ( 95 ) that can facilitate childhood social development. Pet ownership may also help children develop skills to form and maintain social relationships with their peers ( 96 ). For example, cross-sectional studies found that children with a pet dog in the home have fewer peer problems and have more prosocial behavior with children without a dog [e.g., ( 97 , 98 )].

Among children with developmental disorders, dog interaction has also been similarly shown to impact social functioning. For children with ADHD, two randomized controlled trials have found that 12 weeks of visits with a therapy dog, incorporated into curricula designed to improve skills and reduce behavioral problems, can result in improved social skills, prosocial behaviors, and perceptions of social competence ( 42 , 43 ). One potential explanation for these benefits is that children may interpret the dogs' nonverbal communication as less threatening and easier to interpret than human interaction ( 99 , 100 ). A recent eye-tracking study found that children with ASD exhibit a bias in social attention to animal faces, including dogs, compared to human faces ( 101 ). The presence of a dog in clinical applications may also promote more social engagement with a therapist while reducing negative behaviors ( 102 , 103 ). Further, there is some evidence that having a pet dog in the home can have a positive impact on social interactions of children with ASD, especially among verbal children, while teaching children responsibility and empathetic behavior ( 104 , 105 ).

Potential Mechanisms of Action

We have discussed how, in the psychological realm, interacting with a dog can positively relate to depression, anxiety, and well-being as well as psychological functioning in the areas of cognition, learning, and attention. It is interesting to note that most psychological constructs are measured using self-report indices, such as the Beck Depression Inventory ( 106 ) or the UCLA Loneliness Scale ( 107 ), while a smaller group of constructs are measured using speed and accuracy to detect targets (attention) or to remember information (learning and memory). In the biological realm, we discussed how interacting with dogs can influence stress-related physiological parameters and long-term biological and cardiovascular health. Biological measures are often recorded in real-time, such as heart rate or blood pressure, or are collected at critical time points during the study (e.g., saliva, urine, or blood samples for such measures as cortisol or oxytocin). Finally, we discussed the social realm, in which interacting with a dog can provide social support, facilitate social interactions, and improve social development and social skills. Measures used to assess variables in the social realm include self-report indices (e.g., demographics such as marital status, numbers of family members and friends), real time observations of social interactions (e.g., video analyses of interactions using ethograms), and parent/teacher reports of social functioning [e.g., Social Skills Rating System; ( 108 )]. To better understand and organize these various findings, we now consider potential mechanisms of action in the context of the biopsychosocial model, and as part of this discussion we will consider the potential for different types of measurement to have their own influence.

The mechanisms that underly positive human-dog interactions are likely to be interrelated and broadly, yet differentially, impactful across the three influencers of health (biological, psychological and social). According to the biopsychosocial model, impacts on one of the influencers of health is likely to impact the others ( 14 ). Further, an underlying mechanism of change may have a larger immediate impact on one realm than on the other two ( 15 ). Although this applies to the many influences we have discussed above, we will describe a reduction in stress as a more detailed example of how the biopsychosocial model can be considered. Stress is likely to have an immediate and measurable impact on the biological system through endocrinological (e.g., changes in cortisol) and psychophysiological (e.g., changes in blood pressure) processes. This same reduction in stress is likely to impact the psychological system through changes in mood or affect, concentration, and motivation, but that impact may not be immediately measurable or may be smaller in magnitude. This conjectured delay or reduction in effect size stems at least in part, from the way these changes are typically measured and the time course for potential effects to become measurable. For example, some biological changes indicative of increased stress (e.g., heart rate) can be measured in direct correspondence with the experimental manipulations (e.g., interacting with the dog vs. experiencing a control condition), and provide real time biological indications of changes in stress levels. Psychological indications of stress may be measured by a self-report survey instrument assessing state or trait anxiety. This type of measure cannot be completed in real time during the various experimental conditions (e.g., interacting with the dog vs. experiencing a control condition), but must be completed at some point following the experimental manipulation. It is possible that psychological measures are not as immediately sensitive to changes in the constructs they measure because of the required delay between manipulation and measurement. Such a delay may underestimate the real time effect as it may fade over time. Finally, reductions in stress have the potential to impact social systems by increasing social approaches and acceptance of approaches by others, but that impact may be of a small size or require even more time to be measurable. For example, exposure to stress may have immediate physiological effects, but it could take more time (prolonged exposure to stress) for those effects to impact some measures of social influence such as number of friends.

In Figure 2 , the mechanism of stress reduction is used as one example for the purposes of this discussion to exemplify how human-dog interactions may influence human health and well-being, as explained by the biopsychosocial model. Stress reduction may have a more immediate or larger impact on the biological realm as demonstrated by the larger arrow, while having a smaller (or perhaps delayed) impact on the psychological realm and an even smaller (or potentially more delayed) impact on the social realm.

Figure 2 . An example of the potential for differential impact (represented by the different arrow thickness) of one mechanism of action (stress reduction) on the three realms of influence of overall health and well-being (depicted by the larger encompassing circle).

Based on the research described earlier, we have seen that interacting with a dog can have stress reducing impacts in the biological realm such as decreased cortisol, heart rate, and blood pressure, and increases in oxytocin. In the psychological realm, stress reduction can be a driver of immediate improvements in self-report measures of stress, mood, and anxiety and more delayed improvements in overall mental health and quality of life. The social realm is also likely to be directly and indirectly impacted by this stress reduction from both immediate and delayed psychophysiological changes as well as more long-term improvements in social support, social networks, social development, and overall social health. Therefore, it is important to consider the dynamic nature of these three realms in that there may be a strong immediate effect of dog interaction on one realm, but a lesser, delayed impact in the other two realms. Similar to our more detailed example of stress above, other influences we have discussed (e.g., social support, positive affect, etc.) are likewise mechanisms that operate in a similar reciprocal biopsychosocial framework. Further, although it likely that the three influences are interrelated, it is not known from the current evidence the degree to which they may be interrelated and thus have shared and overlapping effects on one another and on overall health and well-being. Therefore, a consideration of mechanisms that influence human-dog interactions from a dynamic and flexible biopsychosocial perspective, instead of from a single realm, is an important addition to the study of human-animal interaction.

Conclusion and Future Directions

In conclusion, the biopsychosocial model is a promising theoretical model to be applied to human-animal interaction research for several reasons. First, the field of HAI has been plagued by mixed findings in which some research suggests that dogs have beneficial effects on human health and well-being and others suggest no effect or even a negative effect [for a discussion see ( 109 )]. This variability in HAI research outcomes caused by differing methodologies, measurement, populations, and interventions is described in detail by Rodriguez et al. ( 110 ). However, we also argue that some of the variability seen in HAI research may be explained by the potential for differential immediate and delayed impacts within each of the three biopsychosocial model realms. For example, if dog interaction shows immediate reduction in physiological measures of stress, how long does that reduction last, and do we see corresponding immediate and/or delayed responses in the psychological and social realms? Therefore, more information about differential impacts of dog interactions on each of the three influencers at various points in time is needed. In addition, it may be necessary to apply a variety of measures (at least one measure per influencer realm) over time to fully disentangle the existing mixed results in the field of HAI.

Secondly, due to the flexibility that this dynamic biopsychosocial model offers in explaining HAI research outcomes, we propose this model as an effective avenue to promote future theoretically grounded research in our field. Saleh ( 111 ) stresses that practice, research, and theory are the corner stones of any field, HAI is not exempt from this consideration. The field of HAI will benefit from applying an accepted model, like the biopsychosocial model, because it provides a useful framework for understanding and predicting how interactions between humans and animals impacts human health and well-being. As Saleh ( 111 ) explains, “it is the result of the relationship between the process of inquiry (research) and the product of knowledge (theory)” that our understanding of a process may become clearer. Therefore, current research should continue to modify and impact a present theory, which should act as a guide for researchers to constantly generate and test the basis of a theory ( 111 ). The findings from such theory-driven research could then help practitioners, as well as health care policy makers, in how to effectively incorporate dogs in therapeutic settings and in homes.

Lastly, the reciprocal relationship of the psychological, biological, and social domains can be used to elucidate the mechanisms that both impact and are impacted by interactions between humans and animals. Theory-driven science (for which we have proposed the biopsychosocial model as a useful framework) should be used to influence and inform research, practice, and policy. Thus, researchers and practitioners applying the biopsychosocial model will be instrumental not only in guiding future research in the field, but also in clarifying existing research as well people's perceptions of benefits derived from canine-human interactions.

Author Contributions

NG provided the initial organization and theoretical framework. All authors wrote and edited the document in shared collaboration and discussed and conceived the idea for the paper.

As part of the conferment of Fellowship status to all authors, the Wallis Annenberg Petspace provided the funding for publication fees of this document.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their appreciation to the Wallis Annenberg Petspace for supporting this theoretical framework and exploration of the Human-Canine bond.

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111. Saleh US. Theory guided practice in nursing. J Nurs Res Pract. (2018) 2:18.

Keywords: dog, human health, human-animal interaction, biopsychosocial, canine, mental health

Citation: Gee NR, Rodriguez KE, Fine AH and Trammell JP (2021) Dogs Supporting Human Health and Well-Being: A Biopsychosocial Approach. Front. Vet. Sci. 8:630465. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.630465

Received: 17 November 2020; Accepted: 25 February 2021; Published: 30 March 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Gee, Rodriguez, Fine and Trammell. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Nancy R. Gee, nancy.gee@vcuhealth.org

This article is part of the Research Topic

Our Canine Connection: The History, Benefits and Future of Human-Dog Interactions

10 Questions And Answers About Dogs

Have you ever wondered why your dog howls? Or why they bury bones in the backyard? Here are 10 questions and answers about dogs that you've always wanted to know!

1.       Why do dogs wag their tails?

Most people have heard that dogs wag their tail when they’re happy, but this isn’t always the case. Dogs use their tails to communicate all of their emotions with humans, other dogs or even 

Source:   Animal Planet

2.       Why does my dog lick me?

Dogs will often lick their owner or other people as they like the taste of their skin and as a sign of affection. For dogs, licking releases pleasurable endorphins and releases stress.

3.       Why is chocolate bad for my dog?

Though chocolate is a tasty treat for humans, for dogs it is poisonous. Chocolate’s toxic component is theobromine. Dogs process theobromine very slowly, which allows for it to build up in their system to toxic levels. Different types of chocolate have different amounts of theobromine, but chocolate should always be out of reach of dogs.

Source:   Hills Pet

4.       Do dogs dream?

You may notice your dog twitching or emitting light barks in his sleep. And just like us, dogs dream and go through REM sleep, which is the cycle in which humans experience dreams.   Vetstreet   also found that puppies and older dogs usually dream more often than middle-aged dogs!

Source:   American Kennel Club

5.       Why do dogs howl?

There are four main reasons for why dogs howl. Ancestry, communications, sickness or injury, and separation anxiety. Because dogs are related to wolves, they could still have the urge to howl. They might not even know why they’re doing it. Howling is a normal thing for dogs to do as long as it is not chronic, pervasive or invasive.

 Source:   Cesar’s Way

6.       Why do dogs have wet noses?

Dog noses secrete a thin layer of moisture that helps to absorb scents. Then, they lick their nose, so they can essentially taste those scents. Having a wet nose is also one of the ways that dogs can regulate their body temperature.

Source:   Vetstreet

7.       Why do dogs have whiskers?

Dog whiskers have follicles at the base, which have nerves that send messages to the dog’s brain. Whiskers serve as receptors for important information, such as size, shape, and the speed of nearby objects, people, or animals.

 Source:   Live Science

8.       Why do dogs eat grass?

Sometimes dogs will eat grass because they have an upset stomach, and sometimes they may just be craving essential nutrients that they’re not be getting in their regular diet. Generally speaking, most experts see no danger in letting your dog eat grass in small amounts (assuming there is no pesticides and chemicals in the grass). If your dog has a sudden increase in grass eating, there could be an underlying issue, that requires veterinary assistance. 

Source:   Pet MD

9.       Why do dogs chase their tails?

Also called ‘Whirling’, chasing one’s own tail is a natural behavior and a form of play for predator animals. As a puppy, chasing their tail can be a short-term cure for boredom or a way to gain attention. If your dog is chasing their tail as an adult, it may be part of a larger issue, like fleas, worms or even a behavioral problem (i.e. compulsive disorders).

Source:   Wonderopolis

10.    Why do dogs bury their bones, food or other items?

Wild dogs used to bury their food to hide it and save for later so that other animals couldn’t get to it, but now that domesticated dogs have plenty of food, there are a few reasons why they’re still burying things. One reason could be instinct – Just because they’re domestic animals doesn’t mean that they lose the urge. The second reason could be that their owner is giving them too much food/toys and the dog wants to save it for later. Another reason could be that it is a game to them. If your dog wants your attention or is bored, they may steal valuable items from you (such as shoes or TV remotes) in order to get you to play with them.

Source:   Cesar’s Way

Share your photos and videos with us! Did you score a video of Sparky catching a fly ball while jumping into the pool? Did you snap a cute photo of Fluffy in a sleeping slumber? Send your best photos and video

Share your photos and videos with us! Did you score a video of Sparky catching a fly ball while jumping into the pool? Did you snap a cute photo of Fluffy in a sleeping slumber? Send your best photos and videos of your pets to   [email protected]   for a chance to be featured.

Tags: cats , dogs , Pet Hotel , pet boarding , Best Friends Pet Hotel , play and stay , Kittens , vacation , Dog Boarding , why cant my dog eat chocolate , do dogs have dreams , why does my dog bury bones , why do dogs eat grass , why does my dog howl , why do dogs chase their tails

Welcome to Best Friends Pet Hotel blog. Come join us at The Dog Dish where our pet care experts will share their best advice for keeping your family pets happy, healthy, and well-behaved. We'll also keep you posted on upcoming events and exciting news from Best Friends 38 locations across the U.S.

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This is how inbred purebred dogs have become…

By Alexandra Horowitz Graphics by Sara Chodosh and Taylor Maggiacomo

Dr. Horowitz is a cognitive scientist who studies dogs.

Sex with your sibling is called incest and is illegal in almost all 50 states. Sex with your sibling or other close relations, if you are a dog, is called inbreeding, and inbreeding is part of the practice of pure-breeding dogs.

Breeders are not typically mating siblings, though it is not prohibited by the American Kennel Club and is not unheard of. Any mating within a closed gene pool of candidates will do, as far as breeders are concerned. But according to research published by a team from the University of California, Davis, and Wisdom Health Genetics in Finland, purebred dogs have, on average, a “coefficient of inbreeding” of 0.25, the same number you get when two siblings have a child. This number indicates the probability that two individuals will share two alleles from a common ancestor, like a parent or grandparent. And this number — 0.25 — is a problem.

The results of pure-breeding, on display starting this Saturday at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in New York, are profound. The radical morphological diversity of dog breeds today — from four-pound Malteses, white-haired and small-faced, to 170-pound Great Danes, large of body and of presence — is due to selective breeding.

So, too, are the consequences: the occurrence of several hundred health disorders related to genetics or to adherence to the standards set by breed groups that have emerged since dog pure-breeding took off in the 19th century. These include changes to anatomy so drastic that they affect reproduction (the bulldog’s head is so big that the overwhelming majority cannot be birthed naturally), respiration (the pug’s small skull leads to a constellation of abnormalities that make breathing difficult) and recreation (the German shepherd and other large-breed dogs are prone to debilitating hip dysplasia).

German shepherds used to have straight backs

A German shepherd in 1958.

Erich Andres/United Archives, via Getty Images

Modern shepherds have more pronounced slopes

A German shepherd at the 2013 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show.

Fred R. Conrad/The New York Times

The U.C. Davis research, led by Danika Bannasch, a veterinary geneticist, also found that the more inbred a breed was, the more inherited disease the breed had. (Remember the number they found, 0.25? Healthy rates of genetic similarity occur with a coefficient of inbreeding below 0.05.) This finding aligns with what anyone who has taken biology already knows: When you limit the breeding population, the frequency of potentially unhealthy mutations increases, as deleterious but recessive alleles become prominent.

When we breed to a type, genetic diversity is lost. Now we have dozens of small- and large-scale studies showing the inevitable results of inbreeding with dogs: smaller litter sizes, fewer surviving newborns and even decreasing life spans. A large 2019 study found, controlling for size, that purebred dogs lived over a year less than mixed-breed dogs did. As a society, in other words, we’re trading a year of their lives for the ability to choose their shape, size and color.

More inbred dogs tend to have more health issues

Morbidity is a measure of suffering from disease, shown here as the number of non-routine vet visits for each breed, per 10,000 dog years, as observed by an insurance company.

Parents are cousins

Half siblings

↑ Morbidity

2,500 non-routine vet visits

Inbreeding →

Irish Wolfhound

Mixed breed

Dogs are living examples of a paradox — the paradox of our human impulses. I know no dog people who want their dogs to live a year less than they would, statistically speaking, if they were mutts. But I know lots of people who want to purchase a purebred dog. Why is this? I think it comes down to our psychological tendencies, on one hand, and consumer mind-set, on the other.

Psychologically, we love anecdotal data and are easily persuaded by single data points. As a researcher on dog cognition for the past 20 years, I have seen this demonstrated in reaction to published and replicated research when our experiences seem to belie the results. When I describe research that finds that the guilty look of dogs is a response to their owners’ behavior, not a reflection of their understanding of their own misbehavior, the most common reaction I receive is: But my dog looks guilty only when he is guilty.

Pugs used to have more prominent snouts

A pug in 1915.

Imagno/Getty Images

Modern pugs have smushed, round faces

A pug at the 2013 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show.

There are plenty of individual examples of long-lived purebred dogs — several of the oldest living dogs on record, north of 20 years, are purebred — so we hold on to those anecdotes, like a smoker to cigarettes because a grandmother lived until 102 clutching her Marlboros. Also contributing to our paradoxical behavior is our love for buying things, even (sometimes especially) living things. Societally, we treat dogs as commercial products, although each dog purchaser is hoping the dog will become a member of the family, not shelved with our other household objects for display.

In an era when you can get groceries and a new computer delivered to your home in an hour, I am surprised that we can’t buy puppies on Amazon (yet). But we can head online, scrolling through websites and collecting recommendations from other dog purchasers. We start to imagine the kind of dog we would like, with features we can choose. The American Kennel Club and the dog-breed clubs within it are happy to tell you about the features you can expect in your new dog — friendly, good with kids, trainable. The possibility of a reliable dog product is more fun to believe in than the scholarly research that clearly demonstrates that breed type is a poor predictor of behavior. The illusion of certainty mesmerizes us.

Chow chows were smaller, with fewer wrinkles

A chow in 1930.

Fox Photos/Getty Images

Modern chows are slightly larger, with more fluffy fur

A chow at the 2013 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show.

The deluge of evidence showing both the ubiquity of inbreeding and its detrimental results is a chance for reflection. While science is steadily producing more details about exactly how inbreeding is deforming the species we claim to love, there is nothing fundamentally new here: We have known for years about the poor results for dogs. What the evidence may now be showing us, though, is the poor result for us: We are a species that is willfully damaging dogs.

This result is born not just of our obsession with breeds or our willingness to overlook the damage of inbreeding but also of our thinking about dogs as objects to be molded to our desires. We are drawn to the infantile look of big-eyed, flat-faced dogs, and as a result, we inadvertently created dogs whose eyes ulcerate and whose noses and tracheas are small and often nearly blocked. We are drawn to dogs with distinctive coats (Dalmatian: spotted; Rhodesian Ridgeback: with a characteristic line down the spine), the genes for which also lead to disorders (Dalmatian: deafness; Ridgeback: dermoid sinus, a neural tube defect).

Bull terriers had more typical snout bridges

A bull terrier in 1949.

Modern bull terriers have more football-shaped heads

A bull terrier at the 2013 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show.

As a species, we are so attached to the idea that we should be able to buy a dog who looks however we like — flat of face or fancy of coat — that we are willing to overlook the consequences for the species, for the breeds and often for the very sweet, exuberant pup we add to our families.

We have a chance to redeem ourselves. Right now, the American Kennel Club has no constraints on inbreeding (even as it encourages breeders to remember that “crippling or fatal” hereditary diseases may result). But I am not counting on the American Kennel Club. Instead, we could make outcrosses — the introduction of different genetic material to breeds — the norm. Research looking at dog genotypes and phenotypes has found several putative genes associated with longevity in dogs. What if we pursued robust health, instead of breed standards based on appearance, by investigating and working with those genes? If we loosen our grip on the idea that dogs are consumer objects to be designed and from whom we can demand certain behaviors, we will have a chance to meet dogs again on their own terms.

Methodology

The position of each dog breed in the inbreeding chart is an approximation. Within each breed, the inbreeding coefficient for a given dog will vary.

Dogs Are Not Here for Our Convenience

Spaying and neutering puppies shouldn’t be standard policy — and it isn’t automatically the “responsible” choice either.

By Alexandra Horowitz

My Year of Being Very Online About Dogs

The world of dog training has fractured dramatically across ideological differences. It turns out no one is safe from the culture wars — not even your Shih Tzu.

By Alicia P.Q. Wittmeyer and Mark Peckmezian

Things People Say to Their Dogs

Our running commentary tells us a lot about who we are — and who we think animals are.

An earlier version of this article misstated the name of a terrier breed. It is the soft-coated wheaten terrier, not the Irish terrier.

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