how to write phd after a name

How to use the PhD title and all the little doctorate “rules”

There are many conventions in the academic world that can make it difficult to navigate the PhD title. The PhD title is awarded to those who have completed a doctoral degree but, not many people know how to use it once they have it.

This article will go through everything you need to know about using the PhD title and when you can start using it.

The “rules” are relatively simple and can be broken as they are not officially set in stone – other than when you can officially call yourself a doctor.

There is no one correct answer but it may be misleading if you use the PhD title incorrectly. Here are the recommendations for effective communication.

It very much depends on the setting. Here are some examples of how I would use my PhD titles awarded to me after my PhD degree.

How do you Write PhD correctly after a name? Is it ph d or phd?

It can be confusing to know exactly how to write PhD after your name. Which bits are capitalised? Is there a ‘.’ In the middle?

When writing a name with a PhD after it, the correct way to do so is to use “PhD” or “Ph.D. or Ph.D”

Depending on the preference of the individual, either form can be used.

However, if the individual has a business card that states their degree in full, then the more formal “Doctor of Philosophy” should be used.

It is important to note that using “PhD” without any periods is incorrect; this abbreviation should only be used in informal contexts such as emails or text messages. I tend to use PhD in my YouTube videos and some people have pointed out that this is incorrect…

Following the individual’s preferred format will ensure that their name and credentials are properly represented.

Should you use Dr as well as PhD?

Some people like to use Dr and PhD in their official titles. There are a couple of important points that you need to know about markers and academic titles.

• A person can have more than one marker in their name. For example my full title is Dr Andrew Stapleton, PhD, MChem.
• The doctor title at the front can be used as a variant to the PhD at the end.

It can be a little bit ambiguous if I was to use Dr Andrew Stapleton, PhD as there are two markers. This could mean that I have two PhD’s, it could mean that I have a PhD and a medical doctorate, or it could just be that I want to use both the doctor and the PhD tags for the one degree.

However, in my experience, I still like to use the doctor title at the front and the PhD tag at the end of my name for official purposes.

Academics would rarely use the PhD suffix in everyday communication. They would much rather just use the doctor title.

What is the proper title for a PhD?

The proper title for a PhD is Doctor of Philosophy. However, some teachers and professors like to be referred to without their official title.

If you are not sure about how your professor, lecturer, or friend with a PhD wishes to be officially addressed you can ask them.

Most of the time, I like to refer to my colleagues with their doctor title for official purposes, but I do not include the PhD at the end of their name. That is much better suited to a business card.

Your lecture may wish to be referred to as:

• Dr [last name]
• Dr [first name]

Asking them in the early stages of your relationship is the best way to work out which one they prefer.

If in doubt, always go for the more formal name and nomenclature.

When can you start to use your PhD title after your doctorate?

When you have earned your PhD, you can start using your title immediately. Although, it can be a little bit confusing as to when you have actually passed your PhD. Is it when you have submitted your dissertation? Is it when you have received the comments back?

The University of Adelaide says that you can use it from your conferral date:

Students can be conferred on one of five dates during the year and for PhD students the conferral date will be the first available following the completion of all the academic requirements of your degree, including final thesis lodgement and the disbursement of any outstanding financial obligations to the University.

I started using my PhD title as soon as my confirmation letter arrived at my house. It was the first letter from the University that referred to me as Dr Stapleton. It was incredibly excited.

Generally, it is acceptable to use the title “Dr.” both professionally and socially but socially, people very rarely use it – at least in Australia. But you should never use it if you are a PhD student, PhD candidate or enrolled in a PhD program without a previous PhD qualification. 

I do use it in professional settings but it always makes me feel a little bit awkward.

However, there may be some restrictions for certain settings. For example, if have a research degree resulting in a doctor title and you are working in a medical setting – some institutions do not like you to use Dr as it can confuse patients into thinking that you have a medical degree. 

Instead, they ask that you use the PhD tag at the end of your name rather than the doctoral title for official and professional communications.

What is the correct way to write PhD?

When writing about someone’s PhD, the correct way is to write the term in full and capitalize each letter.

This should be done for all academic degrees, not just PhDs.

For example, it would be “Doctor of Philosophy” or “PhD” instead of “Ph.D.”, “Dr.”, or “DPhil”.

Additionally, it is common to mention the field of study in which the degree was earned if known, such as “Doctor of Philosophy in Mathematics”. It is also good practice to include the institution that granted the degree if it is a recognized one.

When writing about someone’s PhD, use proper capitalization and include relevant information like field of study and institution if known to ensure accuracy.

How do you put a PhD in a title?

Putting a PhD in a title is not as complicated as it may sound.

Generally speaking, the proper way to list a PhD in an academic or professional setting is by writing “Dr.” before the name, followed by the person’s full name and the appropriate abbreviations for their degree.

For example, if John Smith has earned a doctorate in psychology, his credentials would be listed as “Dr. John Smith, Ph.D.”

In some cases, such as when addressing someone formally in speech or on a business card, it may also be acceptable to list their credentials as “John Smith, Ph.D.”

Depending on context and personal preference, some people may also choose to list their higher degrees after their names by writing out the entire degree instead of just its abbreviation.

For example, John Smith could choose to write his full title as “John Smith, Doctor of Psychology”

However, I have not seen this in real academic life.

Should the font size of Ph.D. be the same as someone’s name?

The question of whether the font size of a Ph.D. should be the same as someone’s name is an interesting one.

On one hand, it could be argued that the Ph.D. deserves to be highlighted and therefore should be given a larger font size than someone’s name to denote its importance.

On the other, it could be argued that this would not be necessary or appropriate, and that treating everyone equally regardless of their title or degree is more important.

It depends on context and usage – if both names appear in the same document then they should likely have the same font size; however, if one appears in a formal setting such as a diploma or certificate, then it may make sense to give it a larger font size than someone’s name to emphasize its importance and significance.

Ph.Ds (or PhDs) are an important academic achievement and should be respected accordingly but without going overboard by giving them overly large fonts sizes which can take away from rather than add to their importance.

Wrapping up – doctoral title rules

this article has been over everything you need to know that using the PhD title properly and effectively.

The doctor title can be used in place of the PhD and for incredibly formal communications, such as a business email or card, you can use both.

However, sometimes using both can cause confusion as to whether or not there is a reason first using both the doctor and PhD tags. Nonetheless, many people still use both.

Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.

Thank you for visiting Academia Insider.

We are here to help you navigate Academia as painlessly as possible. We are supported by our readers and by visiting you are helping us earn a small amount through ads and affiliate revenue - Thank you!

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PhD, Ph.D., Dr.

In English, PhD can be written with or without periods; both are correct. The trend today is to drop periods with abbreviations of academic degrees. However, many sources, including the Canadian Oxford Dictionary , still recommend the use of periods: Ph.D.

When you are addressing a person with a doctoral degree, it is considered more polite to use the title Dr. or the academic abbreviation PhD with the person’s name, instead of the simple courtesy titles Mr. or Ms.

Note: Do not use both the title and the degree. If the degree is listed after the name, the title is not used before the name.

• Chris Cameron, PhD.
• Dr. Chris Cameron

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From admission to dissertation. Tips on making the PhD journey happy, productive and successful

How To Write PhD? Is it ph d or phd

How do you write phd correctly after a name is it ph d or phd, here are the steps to write phd correctly:.

• Firstly, “P” must be in a capital case.
• Secondly, “h” is in small case with no space after “P”
• Thirdly, use period/full-stop after “h”
• Fourthly, Write “D” in capital case.
• Fifthly, keep Period after “D”
• Finally, the correct way to write is Ph.D .
• Or, It can be also written as PhD in a sentence.
• As per APA style, write Ph. D
• As per Chicago style, write PhD
• As per MLA style, write it as Ph. D.

For example this is how to write PhD title after your name: Dr.John Mathew, Ph.D. You can write PhD after name on your business cards, resumes, CV’s or identity cards or on nameplates etc. Some have confusion with the use of comma and full stops while writing PhD title after name. Here is my indepth review how to write out properly PhD.

Writing a PhD title after name

Use capital “p” and “d” in the word ph.d..

You must write ‘P’ as capital and ‘D’ as capital letters. Though there is no strict rule on how to use capital and small letters, many of them do this way. Both letters which I have just mentioned must be written in Capital because those letters are the heart of the abbreviationPh.D. There is no other way of writing. Even if you search the whole world and ask many people and read many books, this is how PhD title is written.  Sometimes there are possibilities that both letters are written in small letters by mistake. You need to correct instantly if such is the case. Otherwise, it looks awkward when someone looks at it or reads it.  Usually, mistaken words are clearly observed than that of rightly written ones.

Use small letter ‘h’ in the word Ph.D.

The letter ‘h’ is what written small letter in this 3 letter word is.  We write it in a small letter after name because this letter ‘h’ is in the middle of the word Ph.D.  Here also don’t write mistake by using capital letters. This is the reason why many people write a PhD title after the name wrongly. They are confused about where to use capital letters and were not to use small letters. I suggest you practice all the letters in one or other way.

Why do we write a PhD title after the name?

We write a PhD title after the name to know that one has completed his doctoral studies and it is a sign of knowledge and status.  We write a Ph.D. even for other purposes. For example, if someone is working in a university, it is mandatory that his qualification must be known to all the students and as well as the staff. This is why we write the Ph.D. title after the name. Not only in the university but also to the competent authorities who come for an inspection to the university must know the status of the faculty profiles.  So the title Ph.D. is written after every faculty name as a title.

Should we use bold letters

I say a big no. You cannot write bold and fashioned way while writing PhD title after your name. As you write you must make it look similar along with the name without any difference. There is no way that you must write the Ph.D. title in bold fonts. This way, it looks very odd for those who look. Instead of reading your name, they will read Ph.D. firstly. So there is a chance of not remembering your name. So never use bold fonts while writing PhD title after your name.

Should we use Italic Letters

Again it is a big no. Do be too creative while writing a Ph.D. after your name. The use of italics is a big mistake. Do not use such writing in italics. Every time you use italic, again it looks very different from the original name adjacent to it.

Is Ph.D. a title after your name?

Do you think it is a PhD title or just a status?  It is both status and title.  Though in my personal opinion it is not a title, many call it as a title. But if you ask me I would tell it is a status word that is symbolically represented a matter of qualification. This is only my personal opinion about the title of Ph.D. So if at all you have some doubts about how this title arose as a part of history, you must read a vast number of history books about the Ph.D. title. It all requires for you to understand that a Ph.D. is not a title finally and just a resemblance of qualification.

Is it good to put PhD after title in your identity cards?

No, you must not use the title Ph.D. after your name in any type of identity card. These cards are existing irrespective of your qualification. This is meant to identify you as you are. There is no necessity what you have achieved. There is no need for knowing your qualifications. So in any type of identity card which is issued by the government like passport and voter card etc, you cannot use such title after your name. But there is one exception that the identity card at university or college or at job area must be given with Ph.D. title. If you ever need expert help with writing your Doctoral level papers, go to WriteMyPaperHub and send your request to  write my PhD thesis for me .

Should we use the subject name when using a Ph.D. with the name?

This thought is quite awkward. But I must still mention this. There are some who use the subject name after the Ph.D. title along with the name. Like for example Dr. Luke, Ph.D. in Linguistics. Using this way is quite reasonable if there are some important debates or international meetups. Otherwise, I don’t suggest such type of writing after your name.

What happens if you don’t use a Ph.D. after your name?

If you do not use the Ph.D. title after your name, people around you won’t know that you are a doctoral research fellow. So it is very important to let them know it. You can only use this if at all there are some students around you or any known people. If there are unknown people around you, then there is no way that it is mandatory to use a Ph.D. after your name. Anyhow, I say that there is no danger of not using Ph.D. after your name.

Should comma be addded before or after PhD

Yes, a comma is a mandatory thing to be added after Ph.D. This is a rule. Otherwise, it is mixed combined with your original name. It will become part of your name. So comma is good after your name. I have already given the example above on how to put a comma after your name. But let me give here one more example as a matter of understanding.  Dr.Mohima, Ph.D. If you see the name, for example, there is a comma used after the name to separate Ph.D. from it. So try to put a comma. But never use another punctuation mark as such full stop or colon after your name. I have seen people using other punctuation marks like semicolon after name and then they write the title Ph.D. Some don’t use at all. All such things are mistakes. Use the only comma after your name always.

Can we write Dr instead of Ph.D. after the name?

Writing a doctor instead of a Ph.D. means a different thing. So you cannot use such way. As this is not the right format. ‘Dr’ is used at the beginning of the name as another title. But after the name, it must be a Ph.D. and not ‘Dr’

Should we write a Ph.D. at all after one’s name that is too long?

Sometimes it so happens that your name is too long to write Ph.D. after it. During this trouble, you must cut out some part of the name and type PhD as a title after your name. There is no other way to do it.  Usually, longs name are common in some countries like Germany and India. But in the USA we have shorter names. Whatever may be the length, you must try to use the most used name and eliminate the rest of the name. This way you can use the title Ph.D. comfortable after your name. Always try to use the same name. Don’t change the name or cut your name in different ways on different days. These will again a problem to your recognition.

Should we write phd or ph d on business card, welcome banners during functions?

On welcome banners and business cards, it is very important to mention the title Ph.D. This will be more serious if you do not use the Ph.D. title after the name. There are many people watching that public banner. If you do not write the title after the name, you are disrespecting the guest totally. So be aware of using the title ofPh.D. whenever you have public functions or welcome banners or during some important meetings.  This is a sign that others should treat the guest better than the other out there.

Should the font size of Ph.D. be the same as someone’s name?

The name and the title Ph.D. must be in the same size. There must not be unusual differences. Font sizes matter a lot. Don’t use wrong font size or awkward fonts while using your title Ph.D. after your name. The best font could be like Ariel, Lato, Times New Roman, etc. These fonts will look better as a Ph.D. title after your name. Initially, there is some confusion about using the right font. But once you learn the size usage, you are comfortable using them rightly. Even when you write manually, you can easily write with similar size throughout. This requires a good amount of practice to write the Ph.D. title after your name with good font limitations.

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Syam Prasad Reddy T

Hello, My name is Syam, Asst. Professor of English and Mentor for Ph.D. students worldwide. I have worked years to give you these amazing tips to complete your Ph.D. successfully. Having put a lot of efforts means to make your Ph.D. journey easier. Thank you for visiting my Ph.D. blog.

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How to Use Dr and PhD with a Name

In English, as in many other languages, professional titles have abbreviations. These are for writing convenience but people will sometimes annunciate them while speaking. Two of these, Dr and PhD, are very common references when talking about the specific name of a doctor.

Therefore, it means you’re referring to people and in this case, it’s a college-trained and licensed individual who practices things like medicine, psychology, science, mathematics or some other field of study. But, like with most other things in English grammar, there is a particular use of Dr and PhD.

To use “Dr” to indicate a doctor, most particularly in the fields of medicine and science, you will put it before a person’s name. You can indicate first and last name. But, if you want to be casual or informal, you can use Dr before only mentioning a first name.

Use only a last name after the “Dr to be formal or informal depending on the circumstances. This will often accompany a period (.) after the abbreviation of Dr.

Dr. Michael Yeadon

Dr. Sherri Tenpenny

Dr. Carrie is my physician.

Dr. Maloney has been a scientist for 35 years.

There are some people who receive doctorate degrees, the highest education one can receive in any given subject. While they are doctors, they aren’t medical, scientific or psychological doctors. For instance, they could have a doctorate in things like politics, journalism, economics or some other such thing.

Therefore, you say or write their name and follow it with PhD. to indicate Doctor of Philosophy. But, you can also use it to be superbly formal with a medical or scientific doctor. This means you can use both Dr and PhD in the same line. But, here, you will add a comma (,) after the last name.

Sarah Kimmons PhD

Dr. Shane Ammora, PhD

Mnemonic Device

To remember where to use Dr versus PhD, is that Dr will always come before a name and PhD will appear after. However, both can appear around the same name. Therefore, the following example is a visual for those who memorize best that way:

Dr. DOCTOR, PhD

Whenever you want to write or mention the name of someone who’s a doctor, you’ll either use Dr or PhD to indicate their title. But, Dr comes before and PhD will be after.

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AP Style Academic Degrees

Home » AP Style » AP Style Academic Degrees

Sometimes it is necessary to establish the credentials of a subject in your text. When you need to do this, the AP Stylebook prefers you to write out the title of a degree in a phrase and to avoid using an abbreviation. For example,

• Correct: John Smith, who has a doctorate in astronomy, showed us constellations in the night sky.
• Wrong: John Smith, who has a Ph.D. in astronomy, showed us constellations in the night sky.

Bachelor Degree or Bachelor’s Degree?

AP Style states that you should use an apostrophe in bachelor’s degree and master’s degree. For example,

• Correct: I have two bachelor’s degrees and one master’s degree.
• Wrong: I have two bachelors degrees and one masters degree.
• Wrong: I have two bachelor degrees and one master degree.

An associate degree, however, does not use an apostrophe. For example,

• Correct: I received my associate degree before my bachelor’s.
• Wrong: I received my associate’s degree.

There is also no apostrophe in Bachelor of Arts, Master of Science, etc.

• Correct: I have a Bachelor of Arts in Linguistics.
• Wrong: I have a Bachelor’s of Arts in Linguistics.

Abbreviation of AP Style Academic Degrees

Use such abbreviations as B.S., M.S., LL.D., J.D., and Ph.D. only when you need to identify many individuals by degree on first reference and doing so in the AP Style academic degrees preferred way would be cumbersome. You should use abbreviations like these only after full names, never after just a last name.

When an academic abbreviation is used after a full name, commas should set it off. For example,

• Charles Smith, Ph.D., will present tonight’s lecture.

You should never precede a name with a courtesy title for an academic degree and then also follow it with the abbreviation for the degree in the same reference. For example,

• Wrong: Dr. Smith, Ph.D., will present tonight’s lecture.
• Correct: Dr. Smith will present tonight’s lecture.
• Correct: Charles Smith, Ph.D., will present tonight’s lecture.

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Style Manual

Secondary navigation, academics and professionals.

Follow these rules to address and title academics and professionals correctly. The guidance focuses on academics, medical practitioners, dentists and veterinarians. Apply the rules when writing about individuals in other professions.

Use initial capitals for the titles of individual academics and professionals

The academic and professional titles held by individuals usually have initial capitals. This includes honorary titles.

Use lower case if you use a title generically .

• Adjunct Professor Monty Chiratte [Honorary academic title]
• All general surgeons at the hospital attended Wednesday’s forum. [Generic use]

Use full titles in certain contexts

Academics and professionals are often addressed by their ‘full title’. A full title includes the title or honorific (with initial capitals), name, post-nominals, position and organisation.

Use a full title:

• to introduce an individual as speaker
• in address and signature blocks in correspondence
• in official records of proceedings
• in lists in organisational publications such as annual reports.
• if it is important to know where an individual works.

A full title is often about using titles in a display or presentation context (display text).

• Professor Margaret Gardner AC, President and Vice-Chancellor, Monash University [Full title]

Titles immediately before a name

Use initial capitals for titles that appear immediately before a person’s name. Do this unless the title is generic .

Also use initial capitals for the shortened forms of titles.

• Our new vice-chancellor and president is Professor Rufus Black.
• We welcome Dr Jamilah Mulyadi to our clinic. Dr Mulyadi is now available for skin examinations.

Shortened forms for titles immediately before a name

Only use shortened forms of titles in limited circumstances. People might understand common contractions like ‘Prof’ for ‘Professor’, but some shortened forms are confusing. For example, the initialism for ‘Pro Vice-Chancellor’ is ‘PVC’. To ensure your content is readable, write the title in full.

Shortened forms are sometimes necessary because of limited space. For example, shortened forms often appear in tables. List the full form of any title that people might find confusing in a note .

The space available for image captions can be limited, but write the full names and titles as a default. If you have to use initials and the shortened forms of titles in a caption, always include the full forms in body text to provide context.

‘Dr’ is an exception in all instances. Like ‘Ms’ and ‘Mr’, ‘Dr’ is easy to understand when it appears before a name.

• Departmental officers recently attended Upsilon University’s annual Copyright Symposium. The academic panel (pictured below), chaired by Vice-Chancellor Tom Dhillon , discussed recent cases with implications for fair dealing provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. [Body text: spelt-out titles]
• Left to right: Associate Professor Sara Baird, Vice-Chancellor Tom Dhillon, Dean Frank Ealing, Adjunct Professor Olena Iraklidis, Dr Celia Nieminen [Image caption: preferred style]
• Left to right: Assoc Prof S Baird, VC T Dhillon, Dean F Ealing, Adj Prof O Iraklidis, Dr C Nieminen [Image caption: only for limited space]

Titles that replace a name

Use initial capitals for official titles that replace a name.

Titles replacing a name also have initial capitals:

• when you address someone directly
• for salutations in correspondence.

For all other uses, titles that replace a name should be lower case.

These other uses include abbreviated titles and titles given by an organisation to a role or position. Academic and professional organisations might capitalise such titles as a mark of respect or status, but this is not Australian Government style . Treat them as generic and use lower case.

• The  Vice-Chancellor of the University of Tasmania visited last week. [Initial capitals: official title replacing name]
• The vice-chancellor visited Burnie campus last week. [Lower case: abbreviated title replacing name]
• Dear Chancellor [Initial capital: salutation]
• ‘We note your concerns Doctor . Thank you for bringing this evidence before the committee’. [Initial capital: direct address]

Titles after a name

Use lower case for most titles that appear after a name. These titles describe the individual and are generic.

There is one exception. Only use initial capitals for titles after a name in a full title .

This includes for:

• address and signature blocks in correspondence
• lists in organisational publications such as annual reports.

Follow your organisation’s template style for signature blocks. Templates apply design elements and list all elements in correct order. Some organisations prefer all capitals for names, titles and the organisation’s name.

• They met with Associate Professor Dianne Stephens OAM, medical director of the National Critical Care and Trauma Response Centre.  [Lower case: generic descriptive title in body text]
• Associate Professor Dianne Stephens OAM, Medical Director , National Critical Care and Trauma Response Centre  [Initial capitals: full title]
• Professor Chris Goodnow FAA FRS Executive Director Garvan Institute of Medical Research 384 Victoria Street Darlinghurst NSW 2010 Australia  [Initial capitals: full title for address block]
• Dr Fatima Dashti FASM Director (Research) Institute for Viruses telephone email website  [Initial capitals: full title for signature block. Order of elements might vary.]
• #LIVE #COVID Update with Professor Paul Kelly, Australian Government Chief Medical Officer, Department of Health. [Initial capitals: full title to introduce speaker in government video.]

2021 Innovation Award recipients

Dr Joanne Zheng Senior Research Scientist AcmeCo Australia Professor Alexander Bannon Senior Lecturer in Rehabilitation Medicine Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences University of Adelaide [Initial capitals: full titles for list in annual report]

Use lower case for titles used in a generic way

Generic use of academic and professional titles includes:

• titles that describe a named individual
• plural titles
• common nouns.

As shown in the previous section, most titles that appear after a name are generic.

Some titles appearing immediately before a name are also generic because they describe the individual. These titles are usually preceded by ‘the’ or a modifier. Adjectives are modifiers because they restrict the meaning of a noun.

• Professor Bartlett, the university’s vice-chancellor , welcomed alumni to the reception. [Lower case: descriptive title after a name]
• The research fellow Lydia Mbegngue wrote extensively on this topic. [Lower case: title before a name, modified by ‘the’]
• Several postdoctoral fellows in the research facility met last week. [Lower case: plural title]
• A provost oversees a university’s academic performance. [Lower case: common noun]
• Dhriti Saxena is a local doctor in general practice. [Lower case: common noun and descriptive title after a name]
• They met with former medical director Tom Perera. [Lower case: title immediately before a name, modified by ‘former’]
• Two doctors from this practice attended the conference. [Lower case: plural title]
• It is important to see your doctor to develop an asthma action plan. [Lower case: common noun]

Use title, name and post-nominals at first mention

When you write about an individual, it’s respectful to use their title.

The first time you mention someone in body text, use their academic or professional title before their first name and last name, followed by post-nominals.

If you mention the individual again, only use the title and last name. Some academic titles have an accepted abbreviated title you can use after the first mention.

• Emeritus Professor Stephen Duckett has extensive experience in health care at senior leadership level. Professor Duckett’s membership of the RMIT Council concludes in 2022.
• [‘Professor’ is the accepted abbreviated title for an Emeritus or Emerita Professor.]

Never use the shortened form of the title in body text (‘Prof’ for example), except for the contraction ‘Dr’.

This year’s graduate cohort asked Deputy Vice-Chancellor Jonquil Johansson to moderate their debate.

DVC Jonquil Johansson to moderate their debate.

Write post-nominals after the name in academic and professional titles

Post-nominals are letters after a name that stand for academic, civil and military awards and honours .

Make sure you write post-nominals in the right order .

Don’t use commas before or between post-nominals.

• Professor Sally Wheeler OBE MRIA FAcSS FAAL

Use post-nominals at first mention only

The first time you write a name in body text, use the academic and professional title along with the first and last name. Include the post-nominal for a civil or military honour in the title.

If you mention the name again, use the title and last name, but don’t include the post-nominal.

• Dr Ziggy Switkowski AO has been chancellor of RMIT since 2011. Dr Switkowski is also chair of NBN Co.

Include post-nominals in the shortened forms of titles

Retain any post-nominals for civil and military honours when using the shortened forms of titles.

• Attendees: Dr Z Switkowski AO , Prof M Bean CBE , Dr S Andrews, Ms J Latchford, Prof S Duckett, Ms T McLaughin and Mr D Hoogstra. [Extract from minutes of a university council meeting]

Use post-nominals for academic and professional qualifications in 2 contexts

Post-nominals can also stand for tertiary and professional qualifications.

Use these post-nominals:

• for correspondence within the academic community
• to show relevant expertise.

Don’t include both ‘Dr’ (doctorate) and ‘PhD’ (Doctor of Philosophy) for the one name. It is conventional to use either the title or the post-nominal. This also applies to PhD equivalents such as ‘LLD’ (Doctor of Laws).

Don’t include post-nominals for master and bachelor degrees in correspondence.

• Dr Zdenka Svoboda or Zdenka Svoboda PhD [Individual with doctorate]
• Dr Amin Salke MD FRACGP [Medical practitioner]
• Brent Hulot CPA [Accountant]
• Mark Price BEngTech TMIEAust [Engineer]
• Mia Lillard BCom CFP [Financial planner]

Titles for academics

In most contexts, address academics with their full title: title or honorific, name, position, post-nominals and academic institution.

• Associate Professor Peter Spencer, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University [Full title]
• Distinguished Professor Larissa Behrendt AO Director of Research Jumbunna Institute for Indigenous Education and Research University of Technology Sydney PO Box 123 Broadway NSW 2007 Australia    [Full title: address block]

An academic who is knighted

Use ‘Sir’ or ‘Dame’ after the academic title.

• Chancellor Dame Leonie Kramer AC DBE
• Chancellor Sir Albert Axon KBE

Emails and letters to academics

Keep the initial capital for the title in correspondence when you’re writing to a specific person.

In formal correspondence:

• Open with ‘Chancellor’ (or ‘Vice-Chancellor’, ‘Professor’ and so on).
• Conclude with ‘Yours faithfully’.

In less formal correspondence:

• Open with ‘Dear Chancellor’ (or ‘Vice-Chancellor’, ‘Professor’ and so on).
• Conclude with ‘Yours sincerely’.

Don’t include a comma after these phrases. Australian Government style is to write salutations without punctuation.

Dear Associate Professor … Yours faithfully

Dear Assistant Professor … Yours sincerely

Dear Associate Professor , … Yours faithfully ,

Dear Assistant Professor , … Yours sincerely ,

How to address associate and assistant professors correctly in correspondence differs by country and educational institution.

For Australian correspondence, write ‘Dear Associate Professor’ and ‘Dear Assistant Professor’ not ‘Dear Doctor’ or ‘Dear Professor’.

People with doctorates

You can address people who hold a doctorate as ‘Doctor’ or ‘Dr’ (without a full stop). Today, it is acceptable to use ‘Dear Dr Name’ for both formal and informal correspondence.

When writing ‘Dear’ without the person’s name in emails and letters, write the title ‘Doctor’ in full.

Don’t include a comma after these phrases.

• Dear Dr Muecke
• Dear Doctor

A holder of a doctorate who is knighted

If the holder of a doctorate is knighted, don’t address them as ‘Doctor’.

Instead, address the person by ‘Sir’ or ‘Dame’. Write the post-nominals for the knighthood after the name, followed by any other post-nominals. Don’t insert commas before or between the post-nominals.

• Dame Bridget Ogilvie AC DBE FRS FAA

Titles for medical practitioners, dentists and veterinarians

Use ‘Doctor’ or ‘Dr’ for medical practitioners, dentists and veterinarians, whether or not they hold a doctorate. Those with a doctorate may choose to add the post-nominal ‘PhD’.

Use ‘Professor’, ‘Associate Professor’ or ‘Assistant Professor’ for doctors who hold these titles at academic institutions. Some doctors who hold professorships choose to use ‘Dr’ when working in clinical practice.

Surgeons in human medicine are traditionally called ‘Mr’, ‘Ms’ or their preferred gender-appropriate honorific. Some surgeons prefer to use ‘Dr’. For example, a search of the website of the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons shows that council members use ‘Dr’, ‘Miss’, ‘Mr’, ‘Ms’, ‘Professor’ and ‘Associate Professor’.

It is best to contact the doctor’s practice if you are unsure of their preferred honorific. You are unlikely to cause offence if you use the title (or honour) awarded most recently.

• Doctor Farida Khan [Medical practitioner]
• Dr Wilson Chang MBBS [Medical practitioner]
• Dr Tina Macleod MD PhD [Medical practitioner with doctorate]
• Dr Phil Smith BDS [Dentist]
• Dr Eve Fenton BVSc DVM [Veterinarian]
• Miss Patricia Woo MBBS FRACS FAOrthA MsurgEd [Orthopaedic surgeon]
• Professor Henry Nicklin MBBS FRANZCP [Psychiatrist with academic title]

Release notes

The digital edition includes the information from the sixth edition with updated and additional examples.

Capitalisation rules in digital edition are linked to the title’s position in relation to the name. The digital edition also introduces the concept of a ‘full title’, mostly used in display contexts.

The sixth edition included relevant information about titles for academics and professionals.

The Content Guide had very brief information about abbreviations for some academic qualifications.

About this page

American Psychological Association (2020) ‘6.15: Job titles and positions’, Publication manual of the American Psychological Association , 7th edn, American Psychological Association, Washington DC.

Oxford University Press (2016) ‘5.10: Titles of office, rank, and relationship’, New Oxford style manual , Oxford University Press, Oxford.

University of Chicago (2017) ‘Names, terms and titles of work’, Chicago manual of style, 17th edn, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Australian Health Practitioners Regulation Agency (Ahpra) (2021) National boards , Ahpra website, accessed 20 June 2021.

Australian National University (n.d.) University executive , ANU website, accessed 8 June 2020.

Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (2016) It’s an honour , PM&C website, accessed 13 June 2020.

Engineers Australia (n.d.) Engineer of the Year Awards , Engineers Australia website, accessed 8 June 2020.

Garvan Institute of Medical Research (2021) ‘ Leadership ’, About the Garvan Institute , Garvan Institute website, accessed 7 June 2021.

Medical Board of Australia (2012) ‘ Medical registration: what does it mean? Who should be registered? ’, Codes, Guidelines and Policies , Ahpra website, accessed 26 July 2021.

Monash University (n.d.) ‘ Senior Monash staff ’, Organisational governance and structure , Monash University website, accessed 10 June 2020.

Murdoch University (n.d.) ‘ Environmental & Conservation Sciences ’, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education: academic operations , Murdoch University website, accessed 19 July 2021.

National Centre of Biography (n.d.) Australian dictionary of biography , Australian Dictionary of Biography website, accessed 19 July 2021.

National Critical Care and Trauma Response Centre (NCCTRC) (n.d.) ‘ Our people ’, About Us , NCCTRC website, accessed 6 July 2021.

Podiatric Board of Australia (2012) ‘ When is it necessary to be registered as a podiatry practitioner? ’, General Registration , Ahpra website, accessed 26 July 2021.

RMIT University (2021) Governance and management , RMIT University website, accessed 22 June 2021.

Royal Australasian College of Surgeons (RACS) (n.d.) Council , RACS website, accessed 28 June 2021.

The Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia (n.d.) Australian honours and awards , The Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia website, accessed 8 June 2020.

The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners (n.d.) Fellowship , The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners website, accessed 8 June 2020.

University of Melbourne (n.d.) ‘ Honorary degree holders ’, Notable alumni and staff , University of Melbourne website, accessed 10 June 2020.

University of Technology Sydney (n.d.)  Jumbunna Institute for Indigenous Education and Research , UTS website, accessed 23 June 2021.

University of Technology Sydney (n.d.) ‘ Our director: Distinguished Professor Larissa Behrendt ’ , Jumbunna Institute for Indigenous Education and Research , UTS website, accessed 8 June 2020.

University of the Sunshine Coast (USC) (n.d.) Office of the Vice-Chancellor and President , USC website, accessed 16 July 2021.

University of Tasmania (2020), Biography , University of Tasmania website, accessed 19 May 2021.

University of Western Australia (2020) ‘ Former officers of the university ’, History of the university , University of Western Australia website, accessed 10 June 2020.

Veterinary Surgeons Board of Queensland (2018) Policy (general) , Queensland Government website, accessed 20 June 2021.

Last updated

This page was updated Thursday 9 May 2024.

Help us improve the Style Manual

How To Use Post-Nominal Abbreviations

Topics on this Page:   How to Use Post-Nominal Abbreviations —– When Can I Start Using My Degree? —– Use of Senior, Jr., II, III, IV. —– Use of Junior, II, and III. —– Punctuation of Post Nominals?

—- Academic Post Nominals —– —– What is the Right Order? —– —– Which of My Post Nominals Should I Use? —— —- What is the Correct Post Nominal for my Degree? —– —– Is There a Comprehensive List of all Post Nominals?

When Can I Start Using My Degree with My Name?

Once your degree is noted on your transcript you officially have the degree. That happens sometime after the faculty decides you have it and the graduation ceremony. You won’t know exactly when.  Best policy is to wait to include your degree’s post-nominal abbreviations as part of your name until the ceremony and you have the diploma in hand.  Until then you are a candidate for the degree.

— Robert Hickey How to Use Post-Nominal Abbreviations

Robert Hickey author of “Honor & Respect”

How to Punctuate Post Nominals

In American English, abbreviations get a periods: Mr., Dr., Ave., St., etc.    U.S. style books suggest periods in post-nominal abbreviations: Ph.D., M.D., M.S.W., or M.B.A.

In British English, abbreviations do not get periods: Mr, Dr, Ave, St, etc.   British style books suggest post-nominals abbreviations without periods: PhD, MD, MSW, MBA.

So how do you write abbreviations: with periods or without periods?  The quick answer is to match the style of punctuation you already follow.

If you want more comprehensive information on abbreviations with names, refer to one of the established manuals of style.  I have a chapter on abbreviations and post nominals in names in my book, but manuals such as The Chicago Manual of Style covers the topic in a much broader way.

What is the Right Order?

What is the order of professional post-nominals.

I am doing a presentation on what the many post nominals in the medical and nursing fields are and what they stand for. There are many and for our nursing convention I am conducting a focus session on the correct order to present post nominals. —— Would you happen to have that information? —- —- —- – Monica, RN, BSN

Dear Monica, There is a standard sequence for all types of post nominals (academic degrees, decorations, honorary degrees, professional associations & affiliations, religious orders, theological degrees, etc., etc., etc.) . In your case here’s the pertinent sequence that I often see with nurses:

——– Academic Degrees —- —- Professional Licenses – R.N. is a professional license. —- —- Professional Certifications —- —- Professional Associations & Affiliations

If you have more than one in a category, place them: —- #1) high to low How to Use Post-Nominal Abbreviations —- #2) if they are of equal precedence –in alphabetical – order within the category

And finally, I like ‘the rule’ not to include more than three post nominals after your name. More than that? Delineate them in your biography/CV/Resume. We love our honors, degrees, and memberships, but others don’t care so much. Focus on what is directly pertinent to others to support the service you are offering & those that are widely recognized. —— —— – Robert Hickey How to Use Post-Nominal Abbreviations

postnominals

What is the Order of Different Types of Post-Nominals?

I have recently earned my Doctorate in Divinity. I already have a PhD, a MS in engineering, and an engineering registration (license)  PE. What is the correct order?  What circumstances do I use them? ———— – Kevin, PE, PhD, DD, MS

Dear Kevin:

The standard order for post-nominals is: —- —- #1) Religious orders —- —- #2) Theological degrees —- —- #3) Academic degrees, arts before professions —- —- #4) Honorary degrees, honors, decorations —- —- #5) Professional licenses —- —- #6) Professional certifications —- —- #7) Professional associations & affiliations

So for you that would be: DD, PhD, MS, PE

If you have multiple post-nominals in one category, list most important/highest first and then in descending precedence order. If you think two are equal, put them in alphabetical order.

Some guidelines on use of post-nominals are: —- —- A) Post nominals are only used with a full name —- —- B) Use just the post nominals pertinent to the situation. Religious where relevant, engineering where relevant —- —- C) Post-nominals are not used socially

– Robert Hickey   How to Use Post-Nominal Abbreviations

Which Should I Use?

Which to use, which of my post nominals should i use.

I have a Doctor of Medicine degree, Master of Science in Technical Management, Master of Science in Chemistry, and B.S. in Biochemistry. I have only ever used MY NAME, M.D. . I see other physicians using THEIR NAME, M.D., M.S. to include the fact that they have other degrees. What is correct? ———— – KTW

I am a holistic health practitioner (H.H.P.), certified aromatherapist (cert aroma), registered aromatherapist (R.A.), master herbalist (M.H.), licensed massage therapist (L.M.T.) and esthetician (L.E.).    Should my name be ——- (Full Name), H.H.P., cert aroma, M.H., L.M.T., L.E., R.A. ———— – HHP

Dear KTW & HHP: Two issues here:

#1) What is pertinent to your clients / the public? Use the highest and most pertinent post nominals when presenting your name to clients, peers, licensing agencies, etc. Make only those which support the services you offer –  to be part of the name .

E.g., Physicians include M.D./D.O./etc. and the post nominals for their professional affiliations – to define their type of schooling and specialty. They might include another less-directly related degree/certification such as a MS – Masters in Science in Chemistry – if they choose. But a Masters in Art History might not be a useful qualification to those looking for a physician. All the degrees/certifications earned would appear on their CV/resume.

#2) Which post nominals will the public recognize? When they are your post nominals you are proud of each one. But a business card or Email signature is not your CV/resume/bio.

When deciding which post nominals to include, ask yourself: is what the post nominal stands for common knowledge? It doesn’t have to be instantly recognizable to everyone on the planet. But it should be common knowledge to the people who see this version of your name.

If they are not well-known abbreviations, it may be better just to list the services you offer. Include ‘Holistic Health Practitioner’ ‘Certified HVAC Repair Specialist’ or ‘Licensed Massage Therapist’ with your name. The details can be on your CV/resume/bio.

– Robert Hickey

What is the Correct Post-Nominal?

What is the correct post-nominal for my degree.

I have searched without success as to how to abbreviate: Doctorate in Education Administration which I have just recently completed. ———— – JEB, Kensington, Maryland

I completed an Executive M.B.A. in Pharmaceutical and Healthcare Marketing.  Should it be abbreviated as E.M.B.A. or just M.B.A. ? —- —- —- – Tim M.

Dear Jeb and Tim: —— Academic post nominals vary with the name of the degree and tradition of the granting institution. For example, if certain institution offers both M.B.A. and Executive M.B.A. they might make the distinction between the degrees by using M.B.A. and E.M.B.A. But another institution might have a different naming pattern. —— Call the Dean’s office and ask. Someone there will know what most graduates use. Ultimately your fellow grads will be the ones most critical of what you use. —— —— – Robert Hickey

How to Use Esquire or Esq.?

For detailed information, see the post:  Esquire. ——  – Robert Hickey

List of All Post-Nominals

Is there a comprehensive list of post-nominals.

Where can I find a comprehensive list of all official post-nominal letters for the U.S.? —– I am working on behalf of data governance of an amusement park and want to make sure we present a comprehensive and accurate list for our guests making reservations online.  This would include anything anyone puts behind their name. —————- – William Maryse

Dear Mr. Maryse:

It is impossible to develop such a list and keep it current.

—- #1) I started such a list for my book. I found universities, societies, and certifying organizations vary on the post-nominals they use for (what looked like to me to be identical…) degrees, honors, and certificates. There is no recognizing agency to decide who can invent a new post-nominal and who gets to use it.

—- #2) You say this is for guests making on-line reservations to an amusement park? I think you should consider limiting it only to Jr., Sr. and   III.   All the other post-nominals (academic, honors, licenses, affiliations) are used only in official situations. Getting tickets to your venue sounds particularly social to me.

How to Use My Post-Nominal?

How to Use Post-Nominal Abbreviations

I Have Two Degrees With The Same Post-Nominal. Can I Use Both?

I will have two master’s degrees, both MS. When I create a business card, do I just write MS once after my name? Do I indicate both? —- —- —- – Dan

I have two Bachelor of Arts Degrees. What post-nominals would be appropriate on her card? Would you use simply a B.A. once, or would you use B.A., B.A.? —- —- —- – Justin

Dear Dan & Justin,

SHOULD I INCLUDE TWO POST-NOMINALS?

—- #1) In academia and research …. list every degree and honor you have earned. All your degrees are pertinent to the academic environment.

—- #2) Outside academia include only degrees directly pertinent to the service you offer / job you hold.

MS, MS would not be wrong – and you might get some questions. If they ask it’s an opportunity to tell them about your education. Regarding B.A., B.A.: In an academic journal it would be pertinent. Outside of academia It is rare to see B.A. included with a person’s name at all.

ACADEMIC POST-NOMINALS ON A BUSINESS CARD?

Whether you include academic post-nominals on your business card depends on several things.

—- #1) A business card is not a resume/CV. A card is to facilitate keeping in contact with another person. What’s important are addresses and numbers.

—- #2) Always include your job title. It defines your role, functions and services.

—- #3) Include pertinent post-nominals [degrees, licenses, certifications] for the professional service you are rendering. This type of post-nominal is included to establish the professional certifications required to provide the service. E.g., a CPA might list only ‘CPA’ after his name since it’s pertinent to his/her professional practice … even though he/she might have a B.A. and a M.A. as well. A business consultant with an M.B.A. might only list his M.B.A. … not less pertinent or lower degrees.

– Robert Hickey How to Use Post-Nominal Abbreviations

Can I Use My Post-Nominals on E-Mail Address Block?

Is it considered correct to use one´s post nominals in one’s e-mail address block? ———— – L-M-N-V

Dear L-M-N-V:

Post-nominals are used in official situations … especially in academia …. on business correspondence. They are not used on social correspondence.

A signature block is an official presentation of your name, so you can include them with some caveats:

—- #1) Include only post-nominals pertinent to the interaction.

—- #2) In academia, more post nominals are included. Outside academia & research B.A. and MA are not included unless they are directly pertinent to the job is one is performing. A therapist/counselor would include a masters in counseling after their name… a business consultant would include M.B.A. Whereas a person with an M.F.A. working in administration at city hall would not include their masters. Even doctorates are omitted if not related to the professional service being rendered: A person with an Ph.D. in a European history should not present him or herself as a ‘Dr. (Name)’ when teaching yoga.

How Many Post Nominals To Use on My E-mail Signature?

I currently have two certifications I include on my e-mail signature block. I will be adding a number of additional certifications over the coming months, and eventually a Masters Degree in Homeland Security as well. Do I use them all in professional email? —- —- —- – Justin Dwight, CHLS, PCP

Dear Mr. Dwight:

A signature block is not your resume where you can list everything.  I like the ‘rule’ not to include more than three post nominals after your name. If you have more than that, delineate them in your biography/CV/Resume.  We love our honors, degrees, and memberships, but others don’t care so much. Focus on what is pertinent to others to support professional the service you are offering.

And finally, your peers are the ones who will have an opinion on whether you have too much alphabet soup after your name – or if you are appropriate.

May I Use a Post-Nominal with My Name If the Degree is from a Free & On-Line School?

A couple of years ago I completed a course in lateral thinking. I found it very thought provoking and useful. Recently that site has advertised a Masters and a Doctorate in Lateral Thinking. It’s an on-line free training. It’s a lot of work, probably similar to the amount required in a university-level Masters. They state that graduates would be able to use the post nominals MLT or DLT, for Master of Lateral Thinking and Doctor of Lateral Thinking .

Bear in mind that this is not an accredited college or a university. I realize that there is no post-nominal police hunting people down, but what is the accepted practice for Masters and Doctorates ? Does an organization like that have the ‘right’ to offer such post nominals, given they are usually bestowed upon graduates of universities?

—- —- —- – Ross Robinson

Dear Mr. Robinson:

—- #1) Can you use it? People can present their name as they wish to present their name. So, yes, you could use MLT or DLT.

—- #2) When can you use it? Degrees are credentials pertinent to providing a service. Post nominals are included in the official/professional form of your name – not the social form. If you are including them on your resume the question is: For what job or service are these degrees pertinent? What field recognizes these degrees to be of value?

—- #3) Where can you use it? Degrees have the most value in the domain in which they are issued – places which recognize the certification. E.g., medical degrees granted by a foreign school of medicine are not automatically recognized in the USA. Some are. Some aren’t. Accredited institutions of higher learning pretty much accept one another’s credits, but for anyone who has tried to have credits transferred knows it is not automatic.

So, an on-line, free degree may be valuable for personal growth and of the most pertinence in cyberspace. Its post nominal might not find itself as part of your name all the time.

When to Use a Bachelors or Associates Degree?

I will be receiving my Associates Degree in Applied Science and intend to receive a bachelors degree in the same field. I am unsure if I can use A.A.S. in a professional context. I realize an associate’s degree is thought to be a minor accomplishment by some, but I have worked hard for it and I would like to incorporate it into my name. ———— – M.H.

In academia, a bachelors or associates degree might be part of the officials form of one’s name.

In business/corporate it’s exceeding rare to see it as part of a name. I am hedging on ‘never’ but I’m not sure I’ve ever seen it where it seemed appropriate.

Absolutely include your degrees on your resume … but don’t include the post-nominals for bachelors and associates degrees on a business card or e-mail signature block. Masters and doctorates with their professional focus are what you see.

How to Use Sequence Post-Nominals How to Use Sr., Jr., II, III,  etc.

Sequence How to Use Post-Nominal Abbreviations

Do You Use Jr., II, III, etc. Forever?

My son is Walter C. Wentz IV. His father and grandfather are deceased. What is the proper designation for him now? What is the proper sequence post-nominal designation for the son he is expecting next month? ——————– –- Audrey Parker How to Use Post-Nominal Abbreviations

Dear Ms. Parker:

Continued use of sequence post nominals is a matter of clarity.

First it is useful to define two types of names:

—- A) Your legal name – which is what on your birth certificate and likely your most important legal documents. Your legal names doesn’t change unless you have it legally changed.

—- B) Your ‘Go-by Name’ – which is what you use in less formal circumstances. This would be what your known by most people.

Here are some situations which arise:

—- #1) Some keep the sequence post-nominals in the ‘Go-By Names’ if their father was well-known … or if they work together … they socialize in the same circles …. or they think the friends/clients/customers will find the post nominals useful.

—- #2) Some never include their sequence post nominals in their ‘Go-by name’. They use a nick name or a simplified version nearly everywhere.

—- #3) Some drop the sequence post-nominals from their ‘Go-by name’ … Jr., II, or III … when their father dies.

—- #4) One might keep the sequence post-nominals because it matters within the family. E.g., his mother is Mrs. Walter C. Wentz III and his wife is Mrs. Walter C. Wentz IV.

An example is Microsoft’s Bill Gates, who is really William H. Gates, Jr., but never used the ‘Jr. ‘   His father, born William H. Gates uses William H. Gates, Sr.  He added the Sr. to his ‘Go-by Name’ to clarify that he is not his much more famous son. He probably did not change his legal name in court. The change is informal and unofficial.

So, if your son names his son Walter C. Wentz V, he’s clearly interested in tradition. He will probably keep using Walter C. Wentz IV as his ‘go-by name’.

If he gives his son a different name …. E.g., Zachery … there is no need for the sequence post nominals.

– Robert Hickey —- How to Use Post-Nominal Abbreviations

Is a Second Son Named After a ‘Senior’ – the ‘III’?

I have a son named him after his Dad. The Dad already has an older son and he named ‘Jr.’. So, we named my son ‘lll’ and Dad now uses ‘Sr.’ Did we do this right? —————— – RR

The key thing is to give each son a unique legal name.  You gave your son a unique name and that’s a good thing!

I understand that heavy-weight boxing champion George Foreman named five his sons: ——– George Foreman, Jr. ——– George Foreman III ——– George Foreman IV ——– George Foreman V ——– George Foreman VI

Typically, III, IV, V, etc./ are used in subsequent generations, but the way you did makes sense to me.  Some might say that II is better, but I see a conflict with Junior.  Note that with “Jr.”there is a comma after the name.  Style books suggest that with II, III, IV  …. no comma after the name.

– Robert Hickey   sequence

When the Husband is a Jr., II, III, IV or V – How Do You Address His Wife?

If the husband is Mr. William Terry, Jr. when does the Junior go with a wife’s name? ————- – Donna Terry

Dear Ms. Terry:

—- A wife using Mrs. and his full name would use his sequence post nominal: —- —- Mrs. (Husband’s Full Name) ——- —- Mrs. William Terry, Jr.

—- A wife who uses does not use his full name does not use his sequence post nominal: —- — – Mrs. (Woman’s Name) ——– —- Mrs. Donna Terry

—- — – Mrs. (Surname only) —- ——– Mrs. Terry

—- Never use: —- —- Mrs. Donna Terry, Jr. —- —- Mrs. Terry, Jr.

postnominal

When He’s a Jr. II, III, etc. How to Write a Couple’s Name?

What is the proper way our name when he is a ‘II’? We are Wesley P. Ames II and Patricia D. Ames

How do I write their names? – — Wesley P. II and Patricia D. Ames – — Wesley P. and Patricia D. Ames II – — Wesley P. Ames II and Patricia D. Ames – — – — – — – — – — – PDA.

He’s the only one who is a ‘II’ … so the ‘II’ only appears when his name is written alone as a unit.

When the names are formally presented …. He’s first. It’s called the ‘Mr. & Mrs. Order’. – — – — (His Name) and (Her Name) – — – — – — Wesley P. Ames II and Patricia D. Ames – — – — – — Mr. and Mrs. (His Full Name) – — – — – — Mr. and Mrs. Wesley P. Ames II

These formulas work all the time … for couples who are and who are not juniors, II, III etc.

– — Never use: – — – — Patricia D. and Wesley P. Ames II

– — Because she is not: – — – — Patricia D. Ames II

When names are combined: – — #1) His given and family name are last and are kept as a unit. – — #2) Since it’s not his full name all by itself, the Jr., II, III etc. is left off. – — – — (Her Given Name) and (His Given and Family Name) – — – — Patricia and Wesley Ames

But one more thing about writing names – especially if you are including names in a program on in a donor list: When I look at donor/contributor lists, in programs or carved on founder’s walls in museums — 90% are: Patricia and Wesley Ames. The other 10% are Wesley and Patricia Ames. I recommend the 90% option.

The final determination is — to write their name the way the persons submits their name to be presented. In the end, savvy organizations present names the way the listed person says they want their name presented. It matters less that the editor doesn’t like the style …. It matters more if the contributor likes the style. It’s their name and it’s their money!

______ How to Use Junior, II, III, IV etc.

How to Use Junior II III IV

Does a Junior or II Have to be a Direct Descent?

Does a numeric post nominal need to be direct descent, as it would with Junior? — – – Adrienne in Hawaii     How to Use Junior II III IV

Dear Adrienne: How to Use Junior II III IV Here’s how these post nominals typically work:

—- #1) Your legal name (what’s on your birth certificate) does not change unless you go to court and have a judge change it. People change their ‘Go-By Name’ names … and as long as you pay your bills no one really cares.

—- #2) A son who is given the same name as his father is (Full Name), Jr.  ‘Jr.’ implies that the person he is a ‘junior’ of – was his father.

—- #3) A boy who is given the same name as a relative (in memory of or to honor that relative, say, an uncle, grandfather, etc. ) is named at birth (Full Name), II. ‘II’ implies that the person he was named for was not his father.

—- #4) Any boy named after a ‘Jr.’ or a ‘II’ is a ‘III’. Any boy named after a ‘III’ is a ‘IV’. etc.

—- #5) If the person you were named for dies … e.g., if you are born a ‘III’. and your father who was a ‘Jr.’ dies … you legally keep being the name you were given at birth. Many men stop using the Jr. as part of their ‘Go-By Name’ when their father dies. My brother did that  But if a father was famous … a son may keep using Jr. for clarity: Frank Sinatra, Jr.; Martin Luther King, Jr.; Al Gore, Jr.

E.g., if you work in the same business as your father and everyone knew him, it may be useful to keep using the ‘Jr.’ with your name so people who knew your dad – will be clear who you are. While some Juniors  use the ‘Jr.’ as part of their ‘Go-By Name’ all the time – many don’t.

– Robert Hickey    How postnominals 

How to Use Junior II III IV How to Use Post-Nominal Abbreviations

How are Sr., Jr., I, II, & III Assigned If the Name Changes Just a Tiny Bit?

My husband’s father’s name is William O’Shea Baxter .

My husband’s name William O’Shea Baxter , Jr.

Our son is William O’Shea Baxter  3rd . He had a son he named him William Shea Baxter , leaving off the ‘O’. Is this child the 4th?

—- —- —- – MAB

When name changes, the starting point of sequence post nominals starts again.

When the legal name passes down exactly, adding the sequence post nominals … Jr., 2nd, 3rd, … makes clear who is who – to banks, government tax collectors, recorders of deeds, borrowers & debtors.

If the legal name changes from father to son in any way … there’s no need to use the sequence post nominals. Each has a unique name.

Of course, there is no Naming Police out there to enforce tradition or review the logic of the way anyone names their children!

postnominals 

Is a Second Son Named After a Father – the ‘III’?

I have a son named him after his Dad.  The Dad already has an older son and he named ‘Jr.’.  So, we named my son ‘lll’ and Dad now uses ‘Sr.’  Did we do this right? —- —- —- —- – RR How to Use Junior II III IV

I understand that heavy-weight boxing champion George Foreman named five his sons: —- —- George Foreman, Jr. —- —- George Foreman III —- —- George Foreman IV —- —- George Foreman V —- —- George Foreman VI

Typically, III, IV, V, etc.  are used in subsequent generations, but the way you did makes sense to me. Style books show ‘Jr.” gets a comma after the name before the “Jr.” ––  II, III, IV don’t the comma.

– Robert Hickey   How to Use Junior II III IV

Related Posts: — — — Author’s Name on a Book — — — Name Badge or Tag — — — Writing the Names of Deceased Persons — — — Names on an Award, Certificate, Diploma or Plaque — — — Naming a Road, Gallery or Building — — — Names on Place Cards — — — Use of Post-nominal Abbreviations — — — Use of Sr., Jr., II, III, IV, etc. Sequence Post-Nominals — — — Name on a Tombstone or Grave marker — — — Use of ‘The Late” with Names — — — Your Signature

When Should You Use the Forms on this Page?

You can use these forms of address for any mode of communication: addressing a letter, invitation, card or Email. (If there are differences between the official and social forms of address, I will have mentioned the different forms.)  The form noted in the salutation is the same form you say when you say their name in conversation or when you greet them. ___ What I don’t cover on this site are  many things I do cover in my book: all the rules of forms of address, about names, international titles, precedence, complimentary closes, details on invitations, place cards, all sorts of introductions , etc. I hope you’ll get a copy of the book if you’d like the further detail.

Not Finding Your Answer?

—- #1)    At right  on desktops , at the bottom of every page on tablets and phones , is a list of all the offices, officials & topics covered on the site.

—- #2)   If you don’t see the official you seek included or your question answered send me an e-mail . I am pretty fast at sending a reply: usually the next day or so  (unless I am traveling.)   Note: I don’t have mailing or Email addresses for any of the officials and I don’t keep track of offices that exist only in history books.

—- #3)   If I think your question is of interest to others, Sometimes I post the question  – but always change all the specifics.

— Robert Hickey 

Recommended Resources:    The Protocol School of Washington (PSOW)  and  Protocol and Diplomacy International – Protocol Officers Association (PDI-POA)     For more information see the Protocol Resources page.

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Professional Title Etiquette: When to Use Your Dr. Title

Socially as well as professionally, medical doctors, dentists, and other professionals are addressed by, and introduced with, their titles. People who have earned a Ph.D. or any other academic, nonmedical doctoral degree have the choice of whether to use "Dr." both professionally and socially.  If, when meeting people with doctorates, you're unsure how to address them, "Dr." is always correct.  If they'd rather the title be dropped, they will let you know.

It's more common for women to use the title "Doctor" socially as well as professionally than in the past. When a married woman uses the title "Dr." (either medical or academic) socially, addressing social correspondence to the couple is a little trickier. If her husband is not a doctor, address letters to Dr. Sonia and Mr. Robert Harris. Her name comes first because her professional title "outranks" his social title. If her husband is also a doctor, the address is either The Drs. (Doctors) Harris or Drs. Sonia and Robert Harris (the order of the names doesn't matter).

The Reverend

In introductions and correspondence, many Protestant clergy are referred to as "The Reverend." While business correspondence is addressed to The Reverend James Norris, (D.D., if held), social correspondence is slightly different: The Reverend (Mr./Dr.) and Mrs. James Norris. In conversation, a clergyman or clergywoman is addressed as Dr./Mr./Mrs./Ms./Pastor/Rector/Reverend Norris.

Addressing a husband or wife who are both "Reverends" follows the same format as a husband and wife who are both doctors: The Reverends Norris or The Reverend Mrs./Ms. Patricia Norris and the Reverend Mr. James Norris. If either of the couple also has a doctorate degree, that person's name would go first: The Reverend Dr. James Norris and The Reverend Mrs./Ms. Patricia Norris.

Today "Esquire" is largely confined to business correspondence between attorneys and justices of the peace. An alternative is to write:

Mr. David Bowman

Attorney at Law

using two lines, no indent, and including the titles Mr. or Ms.

When "Esq." or "Esquire" is used, the name is never preceded by Mr., Ms., Mrs., or other titles such as Dr., and is written David Bowman, Esq. "Esquire" isn't used in introductions: "I'd like to introduce attorney David Bowman/Mr. David Bowman/David Bowman." It also isn't used for social correspondence, as when writing to a lawyer and his or her spouse or addressing a social invitation. Mr. and Mrs. David Bowman is the correct form.

Professional Designations

Professional designations such as CPA (Certified Public Accountant) or CLU (Certified Life Underwriter) are only used on business cards or business correspondence. They follow a person's name, and Mr. or Ms. isn't used: Martha Dawes, CPA; Phillip Olner, CLU. If a person has more than one designation, they're listed in the order received: Phillip Olner, CLU, CFP. Socially, use Mr., Ms., or Mrs. without the professional designation: Ms. Martha Dawes.

Other Titles

Every day we run into people who have an official title. The police officer at the desk is Sergeant Flynn; the head of the fire department is Chief Elmore; the club chef is Chef Rossi; the pilot on your plane is Captain Howe; and so forth. When on the job, such people are always addressed by their titles, just as they are when the matter at hand is related to their work. Socially, many don't use their titles, though they may. Sometimes a title sticks: A local judge, for example, who's been called by his title for a number of years, is usually addressed as "Judge" even after his retirement.

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The PhD Discussion Chapter: What It Is & How To Write It

Sep 11, 2023

Your PhD discussion chapter is your thesis’s intellectual epicenter. Think of it as the scholarly equivalent of a courtroom closing argument, where you summarise the evidence and make your case. Perhaps that’s why it’s so tricky – the skills you need in your discussion chapter aren’t skills you’ve likely had to deploy before: it’s where you start to speak like a Doctor.

In this guide, I want to present a comprehensive guide to the PhD discussion chapter. We’ll look at a number of key topics:

What is the purpose of a PhD Discussion Chapter?

• Suggested outlines for a discussion chapter:

Advice for improving your discussion chapter

This is not a normal blog subscription.

Each week we send two short, thought-provoking emails that will make you think differently about what it means to be a PhD student. It is designed to be read in thirty seconds and thought about all day.

  The PhD discussion chapter is the place where your findings, research questions, literature, theoretical framework and methodology coalesce into a coherent narrative. A common pitfall is when students see the discussion chapter as a summary of everything that has come before. This isn’t the case. Instead, the PhD discussion chapter offers a deep, analytical synthesis of your research, providing context, interpretation, and evaluation of your findings.

It’s the place in which you engage with existing theories, explore the significance of your work, and directly address the “So What?” question, highlighting the real-world implications and academic contributions of your research.

 Let’s dig down into each of these things.

Summarising and explaining the research

Before you launch into the detail, start by laying out your findings in a clear, easy to follow way. This is typically done in the introduction and the first proper section of the chapter.

Starting the PhD discussion chapter by clearly laying out your findings serves as an anchor for your reader and sets the stage for the more complex discussions that follow. This foundational step ensures that the reader is equipped with all the necessary information to fully grasp the significance and implications of your work. It’s akin to laying the groundwork before building a complex structure; without a solid base, the intricate analyses may lose their impact or be misunderstood.

For example, if you’re a PhD student in environmental science studying the effects of a specific pollutant on marine life, begin by presenting the key data points, such as the pollutant concentration levels in various regions and the corresponding health indices of marine species studied. Use tables, figures, or graphs to help visualise the data and make it more accessible.

• Laying out Quantitative Findings : If your research is quantitative, use statistical measures to present your results. Clearly state the metrics you’ve considered, such as means, variances, p-values, etc., and what they imply about your research question.
• Laying out Qualitative Findings : In case of qualitative research, such as ethnographic studies or interviews, narrate the trends, patterns, or themes that have emerged. Use representative quotes or observations as illustrative examples.
• Mixed-Methods Approach : If you’ve used both quantitative and qualitative methods, start by outlining how these different types of data will be integrated in your discussion. This could involve presenting the qualitative findings as a contextual backdrop for quantitative data or vice versa.

Remember, your objective at this initial stage is not to overwhelm the reader with complexity but to build a transparent, easily-followable narrative of what you’ve found. By starting with a clear presentation of your findings, you’re laying the groundwork for a powerful, credible discussion chapter that can tackle sophisticated analyses and weighty implications, underpinned by a comprehensible and compelling dataset.

There will be a necessary degree of overlap and repetition between this section (and the discussion chapter in general) and the findings chapter. However, there’s a subtle difference in the way in which the data is introduced in the findings and discussion chapters .

In the findings chapter, you’re generally presenting raw data or observations without interpreting what they mean. In the Discussion chapter, you take those same findings and begin to explore their implications, relate them to existing theories, and evaluate their significance. The danger, however, lies in creating excessive repetition between the two chapters, which can fatigue the reader and dilute the impact of your arguments.

To mitigate this, consider employing the following strategies:

• Selective Highlighting : Choose only the most critical findings to revisit in the Discussion chapter. You don’t need to regurgitate every data point, only those central to the questions you aim to answer in this chapter.
• Narrative Framing : When you bring up a finding in the Discussion chapter, introduce it as a stepping stone to a broader point or argument, rather than an isolated fact. This technique helps the reader understand why you’re revisiting this information and what new aspects you’ll be unveiling.
• Use Different Presentation Formats : If the Findings chapter is heavy on tables and figures, consider summarising key points in a narrative form in the Discussion chapter or vice versa.

By thoughtfully selecting what to revisit and framing it within a new context, you can transform what might appear as repetition into a coherent and evolving narrative that adds value to your thesis. Read more about the difference between the findings and discussion chapters here .

Interpreting and Contextualising Results 

It’s in the discussion chapter that you offer the interpretation and context for your research findings.

Here, you transition from being a data ‘gatherer’ to a data ‘interpreter’, weaving together the threads of research questions, data, methods, literature and theory to tell a complex story. While the Results chapter may offer the “what,” the PhD discussion chapter sheds light on the “why” and “how.” 

For example, if you’re a social scientist studying the effects of social media on mental health, your results chapter might show statistical data indicating a correlation between social media use and anxiety. However, it’s in your discussion chapter that you would compare these findings to existing literature, perhaps linking them to existing theories or debates. This adds a layer of depth and context that transcends the numerical data, inviting academic dialogue and potential future research avenues.

There are three ways in which you can synthesise your findings:

• Interpretation : Begin by interpreting your findings. Use comparisons, contrasts, and correlations to explain the significance of the results. This is where you should also address any unexpected outcomes and explain them.
• Contextualisation : After interpretation, provide a context to situate your findings within the existing body of knowledge. Link back to your Literature Review and Theoretical Framework to show how your research aligns with or diverges from previous work. More on this below.
• Evaluation : Finally, critically evaluate your own research. Discuss its limitations, the implications of your findings, and offer recommendations for future research.

Whether you’re in natural sciences exploring a new chemical compound or in humanities dissecting a piece of classical literature, the discussion chapter is your opportunity to show that your research not only answers specific questions but also contributes to a wider understanding of your field. It’s not enough to say, for instance, that a new drug successfully reduced symptoms of depression in 60% of study participants. You must explore what that 60% means.

• Is it a statistically significant improvement over existing treatments?
• What might be the physiological or psychological mechanisms at work?
• Could your research method have influenced these outcomes?

There’s an art to explaining and synthesising your findings [Link to “How to Explain Your Findings”], but think of it this way: this is where you shine a light on the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of your findings, delving into the nuances that raw data can’t express.

Evaluating Existing Theories and Models  

Beyond explaining your findings, the PhD discussion chapter allows you to evaluate the existing theories and models that you’ve cited in your literature review  and/or theory framework chapter (not sure of the difference? Click here) . Your results could either reinforce established theories or challenge them, both of which significantly contribute to your field.

• For instance, did your research on renewable energy technologies confirm the economic theories suggesting that green energy can be cost-effective?
• Or did your social research provide empirical evidence that contradicts widely held beliefs in your field?

The PhD discussion chapter therefore serves as the space where the theories, concepts, ideas and hypotheses that make up and informed your theory framework and which you touched upon in your literature review intersect with the empirical data you’ve presented.

You’re not just mapping your findings onto the theories and models; you’re dissecting them, affirming or challenging them, and potentially even extending or refining them based on what you’ve discovered.

For instance, if you’re working on a thesis in psychology concerning cognitive development in early childhood, your Literature Review may have discussed Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. However, let’s say your findings indicate some nuances or exceptions to Piaget’s theories, or perhaps children in a certain demographic don’t follow the stages as previously thought.

Your discussion chapter is where you can make the argument that perhaps Piaget’s model, while generally accurate, might require some modification to account for these cases.

• Affirming Theories : If your data aligns closely with the existing theories and models, the PhD discussion chapter serves to strengthen their credibility. Here, you’re lending empirical support to theoretical frameworks.
• Challenging Theories : Alternatively, your findings might contradict or challenge the prevailing theories. This is not a shortcoming; instead, it opens the door for re-evaluation and progress in the field, which is just as valuable.
• Extending or Refining Theories : Perhaps your research uncovers additional variables or conditions that existing models have not accounted for. In such cases, you’re pushing the envelope, extending the current boundaries of understanding.

As you evaluate existing theories and models, be comprehensive yet nuanced. Draw on varied disciplines if relevant. For example, if your thesis is at the intersection of public health and social policy, integrate models from both fields to offer a multi-faceted discussion. Being interdisciplinary can make your discussion richer and more impactful.

Ultimately, the discussion chapter offers you a platform to voice your scholarly interpretation and judgment. You’re participating in a broader academic dialogue, not just narrating your findings but positioning them in a web of knowledge that spans across time, disciplines, and viewpoints.

Discuss Unexpected Results

The discussion chapter is where you also discuss things that didn’t quite work out as planned. In particular, results that were unexpected.

Sometimes the most perplexing data offers the most valuable insights. Don’t shy away from discussing unexpected results; these could be the starting points for future research or even paradigm shifts in your field.

When your research yields findings that diverge from established theories or commonly held beliefs, you’re offered a unique opportunity to challenge and extend existing knowledge.

Take the field of primary education as an illustrative example. Assume you’re researching the efficacy of a specific teaching methodology that prior studies have lauded. However, your data reveals that while the method works wonders for one subgroup of students, it fails to benefit another subgroup. Far from diminishing the value of your research, this unexpected outcome presents an exciting opening. It beckons further inquiry into why the teaching methodology yielded disparate impacts, which could eventually result in more tailored and effective educational strategies.

In the realm of scientific discoveries, the significance of unexpected results cannot be overstated. Alexander Fleming’s accidental discovery of penicillin originated from what appeared to be a ‘failed’ experiment, but it revolutionised medicine. Similarly, the unintended discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation provided pivotal support for the Big Bang theory. In both instances, what seemed like anomalies paved the way for transformative understanding.

The first task when you encounter unexpected findings is to set them apart from the expected outcomes clearly. Delineate a specific section in your discussion chapter to delve into these anomalies, affording them the attention they merit.

Next, engage in hypothesising why these peculiarities emerged. This could be the point where your years of study and your depth of understanding of your subject really shine. Are there confounding variables that weren’t initially apparent? Could there be an entirely unexplored underlying mechanism at play? Take your reader on this exploration with you, and offer educated guesses based on your literature review and study design.

Lastly, don’t forget to consider and discuss the wider implications of these findings. Could they potentially refute longstanding theories or present the need for a shift in the prevailing school of thought? Or perhaps they hint at previously unthought-of applications or solutions to existing problems? Reflect on how these unexpected results might fit into the broader academic conversation and where future research might take these findings.

By earnestly and transparently tackling unexpected results, you exhibit a commitment to rigorous academic research. The willingness to entertain complexity and to follow the research—even when it leads in unpredictable directions—is a mark of scholarly integrity and courage. This holds true irrespective of your academic discipline, from the humanities and social sciences to STEM fields.

Answering the “so what?” Question

 In your findings chapter you would have presented the data. In the discussion chapter, you answer the ‘so what’ question. Make sure to address it explicitly. Why does your research matter? Who benefits from it? How does it advance the scholarly discourse?

 As a PhD student, you’ve already invested a substantial amount of time and effort into your research. Therefore, it’s crucial to articulate its importance not only to validate your own work but also to contribute meaningfully to your field and, in some cases, to society at large.

 Answering the “so what?” question means connecting the dots between your isolated research findings and the larger intellectual landscape. It requires you to extend your analysis beyond the specifics of your study, considering how it advances the scholarly discourse in your field. For instance, if your research closes a significant gap in the literature, makes a theoretical breakthrough,

Example in Public Health : If your research finds that community-led sanitation programs are far more effective than government-implemented ones, then the “So What?” is clear: policy-makers need to see this data. But that doesn’t mean you don’t still need to discuss it.

Example in Literature : If your research uncovers previously unnoticed patterns of symbolism in 19th-century Russian literature, the “So What?” could be a deeper understanding of how literature reflects societal anxieties of the time.

In order to make your discussion chapter compelling and relevant, it’s imperative to always highlight why your research matters. This goes beyond simply reiterating your findings; you need to connect the dots and show how your research fits into the broader academic landscape. Are you challenging existing theories, confirming previous studies, or offering a new perspective? Establishing the academic importance of your work provides a solid footing for its wider application.

Further to establishing academic relevance, also aim to illuminate the real-world implications of your findings. What are the practical outcomes that could arise from your research? Are there specific scenarios or applications where your research could be a game-changer? For instance, if your study uncovers a more effective method of teaching reading to children with dyslexia, explicitly mention how this could revolutionise educational approaches and improve quality of life for those affected. Providing concrete scenarios enhances the applicability of your research, proving that it doesn’t merely exist in the realm of academic abstraction, but has tangible impacts that can affect change.

Limitations and Future Research

 The quest for perfection is more a journey than a destination. This especially holds true in the context of a PhD thesis. Therefore, a well-crafted Discussion chapter should include a section devoted to the limitations of your research, as it establishes the scope, reliability, and validity of your work. Acknowledging limitations is not an act of undermining your research; instead, it embodies scholarly integrity and rigorous academic thinking.

Being upfront about limitations is essentially about being honest, not only with your readers but also with yourself as a researcher. For instance, if you’ve conducted a survey-based study in psychology but only managed to collect a small number of responses, admitting this limitation provides context for your findings. Perhaps the conclusions drawn from such a sample size are not universally applicable but could still offer significant insights into a particular demographic or condition

• Do not shy away from discussing limitations in fear that it might weaken your arguments.
• Clearly delineate the scope of your research, specifying what it does and doesn’t address.

For example, in a medical research study, if your sample size predominantly consists of individuals from a particular age group, admitting this limitation helps frame your research within that context. Or, if you’re a literature student, if your analysis focuses solely on the works of a single author, your findings might not be generalisable to broader literary trends.

Discussing limitations openly doesn’t devalue your work; it adds a layer of trustworthiness. It assures the reader—and the academic community at large—that you have a nuanced understanding of your research context. It demonstrates that you can critically evaluate your own work, a skill that is paramount.

Your PhD Thesis. On one page.

Example outline for a discussion chapter:.

I’ve included a suggested outline for a PhD discussion chapter. It’s important to note that no two PhDs are alike, and yours may well (probably will) diverge from this. The purpose here is to show how all the various factors we’ve discussed above fit together.

Introduction

• Brief Overview of Research Objectives and Key Findings
• Purpose of the Discussion Chapter

Summary of Key Findings

• Brief Restatement of Research Findings
• Comparison with Initial Hypotheses or Research Questions

Interpretation of Findings

• Contextualisation of Results
• Significance and Implications of the Findings

Evaluation of Existing Theories and Models

• How Your Findings Support or Challenge Previous Work
• Conceptual Contributions of Your Study
• Acknowledgment of Study Limitations
• Suggestions for Future Research
• Summation of Key Points
• Broader Implications and Contributions of the Research
• Final Thoughts and Future Directions

Once you’ve navigated through the complexities of your PhD research, you’re now faced with the challenge of bringing it all together in your discussion chapter. While you’ve already considered various facets like summarising findings, evaluating existing theories, and acknowledging limitations, there are some “easy wins”—small, yet impactful steps—that can help strengthen this critical chapter.

The Power of a Well-Structured Narrative

Begin with a well-structured narrative that clearly outlines your arguments. Tell the reader what the destination is at the outset of the chapter, and then make sure each paragraph is a stepping stone to that destination.

Each paragraph should serve a purpose and should logically follow the previous one. This helps in making your discussion coherent and easy to follow.

• Use transition sentences between paragraphs to guide the reader through your argument.
• Make sure each paragraph adds a new dimension to your discussion.

Data Visualisation Tools

Visual aids aren’t just for presentations; they can provide tremendous value in a discussion chapter. Diagrams, charts, or graphs can provide a visual break and help to emphasise your points effectively.

• Use graphs or charts to represent trends that support your argument.
• Always caption your visuals and reference them in the text.

Integrate Feedback Actively

It’s often beneficial to have colleagues, advisors, or other experts review your discussion section before finalising it. They can offer fresh perspectives and may catch gaps or ambiguities that you’ve missed.

• Seek feedback but also know when to filter it, sticking to advice that genuinely enhances your work.
• Don’t wait until the last minute for feedback; give reviewers ample time.

Highlight the Broader Implications

While you’ll delve into this more in your conclusion, don’t shy away from previewing the broader implications of your work in your discussion. Make it clear why your research matters in a wider context.

• State the broader implications but keep them tightly related to your research findings.
• Avoid making grand claims that your research can’t support

In the journey toward a PhD, learning ‘how to write like a doctor’ is more than mastering grammar or honing your prose; it’s about flexing your academic muscles with confidence and authority. It is in the discussion chapter that you really start flexing, and which you really can and need to speak like a doctor.

For many, this is the first instance of challenging the hegemony of existing literature, refuting established theories, or proposing innovative frameworks. It’s an intimidating task; after all, these are the ideas and research paradigms you’ve been learning about throughout your educational journey. Suddenly, you’re not just absorbing knowledge; you’re contributing to it, critiquing it, and perhaps even changing its trajectory. If it feels challenging, remember that’s because it’s new, and that’s why it’s hard. However, you’ve made it this far, and that alone testifies to your academic rigour and capability. You’ve earned the right to be heard; now it’s time to speak with the academic authority that has been years in the making. So, don’t hold back—flex those academic muscles and carve your niche in the scholarly conversation.

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