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10 Indexing and Abstracting Sources: Use and Evaluation

Vara Lakshmi Rudrabhatla

I.  Objectives

The objective of the module is to

• Introduces the concept of secondary sources and their importance
• Describe different types of indexing and abstracting sources
• Identify distinct criteria for evaluation of indexes and abstracts

II.   Learning Outcome

After learning this module, the students can

• Understand the concept of indexing and abstracting sources
• Understand the importance of these sources in information retrieval
• Distinguish different types of indexing and abstracting journals and their use
• Identify some of the important indexing and abstracting sources

III. Module Structure

• Introduction
• Origin and development
• Uses and functions
• Types of indexing sources
• Difference between index and abstract
• Purpose and use of abstracting sources
• Types of abstracting sources
• Evaluation of indexing and abstracting sources

1. Introduction

In the previous Unit you might have been acquainted with the categorization of documentary information sources as primary, secondary and tertiary. A secondary source of information is one that was created based on the primary sources like journal articles, research reports, conference publications etc. The secondary sources are again conditioned by the nature of information they deal with and may vary.

Secondary Sources 

• Reference information – Encyclopedias, geographical sources, directories, yearbooks, almanacs, handbooks, manuals etc.
• Bibliographic  information  –  Catalogues  /  OPACs,  union  catalogues,  Subject bibliographies / Webliographies
• Analyzed and surrogated/ consolidated – indexes, abstracts

Out of the three, the analysis and consolidation are value added as the original documents are scanned, analyzed for subject terms / key words and repackaged as indexes and abstracts. The popular name for such sources in the electronic environment is ‘aggregator’ type. They have an important role in dissemination of information; therefore let us have a detailed discussion on indexing and abstracting sources.

When we talk about indexes and abstracts little clarification is required as indexing abstracting are discussed in library science in the context of i) source and ii) service. Indexing is also important in third context i.e. iii) subject indexing. In special libraries the information is analyzed and consolidated customizing for institutional requirements and is called as indexing and abstracting service. Further while organizing the documents, more specifically micro documents (journal articles etc) the library and information system follows standard terminology called indexing language (e.g. L.C. List of Subject Headings, Classification Schemes, Thesaurus) that is referred to as subject indexing. However in this Unit the focus is on indexing and abstracting periodicals as sources i.e. the information sources that has indexed and or abstracted the primary sources thus providing a key to open the treasure of primary sources. Other aspects will be discussed at appropriate sections.

2. Indexing sources

The word index is derived from the Latin word ‘indicate’ that means to indicate or point out the information where it is available. It is a location tool.

The American National Standards Institute has defined as “systematic guide to items contained in or concepts derived from a collection. These items or derived concepts are represented by entries arranged in a known or stated searchable order.”

According to Krishna Kumaran index is “a systematic guide to the text of any reading matter or to the contents of other collected documentary material, comprising a series of entries, with headings arranged in alphabetical or other chosen order, & with references to show where each item indexed is located”.

So it is a method of document representation that tells a user quickly where an item is to be found and where it is filed.

It is very useful tool and helps to know the sources of information as well as its location. It facilitates the identification or selection of desired documents containing the required information after they have been stored or shelved in a library. It may be published separately or as a part of the work.

2.1  Origin and development

Indexing owes its origin to the traditional book index which has gradually seen considerable improvements and developed as bibliographic index/ subject index. Specific aspects of a subject are given in the form of subject headings or keywords. Later there was the growth of primary sources especially the periodicals. There aroused a need to have a bibliographical control apparatus that indexes all published periodical articles in a given subject. Pole’s Index to periodical Literature (1848) and Index Medicus (1879) were some of the earlier examples of indexing periodicals. However Index Medicus ceased its print version from 2004 and available as PubMed database. Now indexing periodicals in print or electronic databases are available in almost all subjects.

The coverage of an indexing periodical is generally restricted to subject, but rarely may cover geographical or specific material collections.

Structure of index :

Basically the index is having two parts:

Searching  part  –  keyword,  subject,  title,  author  that  represents  the  original document and used a tool for search,  Citation – brief information of the document that facilitates identification of the originaldocument.

2.2  Uses and functions Uses

Libraries generally hold good collections of periodicals as they provide current information and form basis for research and academic pursuit. However their use is limited unless the contents of each journal are brought into notice of users. Further a library cannot subscribe all journals available in a subject but would like to know what is available and in which journal so that if necessary they can procure that information. For instance according to Ulrichsweb ( www .ulrichsweb.com/ulrichsweb/analysis/) , there are 107,765 active journal publications of which 94,687 are academic scholarly journals. It is almost impossible for any library to subscribe them all and for scientist or researcher to find relevant information out of the overload of information available. Through application of subject indexing, access to periodical literature has been tremendously increased. Therefore the primary uses of indexing sources are:

• Overviews of the subject – The periodicals are published in thousands. With such wider coverage of journals the indexing periodicals provide the users with an overview of the current developments and research trends in the respective subject.
• Access to information – A researcher / scientist or academician can access only those journals that are subscribed by the library in print or electronic. However access to major output of literature in his / her subject is possible through an indexing periodical. They can access more information than subscribed ones as indexing periodical has wider coverage. After going through the index for a particular topic, the reader can select items of interest and search for the primary source.
• Resolves language problem – The journals are being published from different countries in different languages. The general belief is that at least 40-50 percent of journals are published in other than English language. Because of this the scholarly community is deprived of accessing literature available in foreign languages. An indexing periodical provides entries in English language translating the original thus resolving the language problem.
• Resolves problem of information explosion – Exponential growth of literature is a common phenomena in every scientific subject. For example Chemical Abstracts indexes around 10,000 major scientific journals and patent documents from 63 patent authorities (Source: https://www.cas.org/about-cas/cas-fact-sheets). PubMed includes 5051 journal titles (Source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/num_titles.html). A comparatively new subject like Library and Information Science has more than 440 journals (source: LISA). Thus the indexing periodicals are the bibliographical control apparatus that gathers information of all journal publications analyzes and consolidates information and publishes at regular periods. Thus they help in resolving the issues associated with proliferation of scientific literature.
• Explore content beyond library – They help to explore library contents beyond visible in the library catalogs or OPACs, i.e. in some services these link periodicals subscribed by the library. Online indexes & abstracting services have direct links to library collection – telling about library holdings. Create networks of links with many full text resources.
• Enhance retrospective coverage – The indexing sources generally prepare annual cumulations and arrange them in alphabetical and subject order. These cumulative indexes provide retrospective coverage that helps the user to search from the first issue of the index. Online indexing sources covers offers this facility as archives that connects the user to lot of discipline specific related links.

The indexes play a vital role in literature search and informing about availability and location of relevant documents in response to users request.

• It facilitates subject, author and title approach to seek information
• It provides information on contemporary or current issues
• It facilitates search through specific subject headings
• It also reveals trends in the growth of a subject.

Usually an index is arranged alphabetically but may sometimes be arrange chronologically, geographically, numerically, or in any other suitable manner, depending upon the requirement. Thus the primary function of an indexing periodical is

• compilation of title of articles under standard index terms;
• providing bibliographical details for identification of the item and
• arranging them in alphabetical order for easy retrieval.

Generally titles of new books, conference proceedings, pamphlets and etc. are also included in the indexes.

To sum up the basic characteristics of indexing sources are:

–     These offer value added services, like enhanced retrospective coverage, etc.

2.3 Types of indexes

The information sources are generally categorized further based on the nature of information they contain. You might have already learnt that encyclopedias and dictionaries divided as general, special etc. Similarly, the indexes are categorized broadly into three types based on the nature of information they provide:

• Citation indexes

Majority of the indexes are now available in print and electronic form. The electronic versions of indexes are referred to as ‘secondary databases’.

2.3.1  General

General indexes coverage is wider and may or may not be confined to a subject field.

•    General indexes that lists periodical publications. e.g.

i.  The  Readers’  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature,  Fortnightly/  Monthly,  New  York, H.W.Wison, 1900-

Database: http://www.ebscohost.com/academic/readers-guide-to-periodical-literature

ii. Index India (Quarterly) Jaipur, Rajasthan University Library. 1967- 1997.

iii. Guide  to  Indian  Periodical  Literature.  Quarterly.  New  Delhi,  Indian  Documentation Service 1964-

•    General indexes for Table of Contents: These are the alert type of indexes that lists Title / content pages of different journals in offing.

Ex. Current Contents (weekly) Institute of Scientific Information, Philadelphia (Now part of Thomson Reuters)

Database: one of the databases on Web of Knowledge (Thomson Reuter)

http://thomsonreuters.com/web-of-knowledge/

•    General indexes for literary works.

Play Index (H.W.Wilson) Content includes approximately 31,000 plays—published individually or in collections—dating from 1949 to present time. Available in print and online.

Database: http://www.ebscohost.com/academic/play-index

Short  story  index  (Annual)  –  index  to  thousands  of  short  stories  –  from  classics  to experimental fiction.

Database: http://www.ebscohost.com/academic/short-story-index

•    Subject indexes – Coverage includes all subjects and all types of documents. E.g.

i.  Library Literature. Bi Monthly. (Cumulated yearly). New York, H.W.Wilson, 1934-

Database: http://www.ebscohost.com/public/library-literature-information-science-index

ii.      Biography  Index  Past  and  Present.  Quarterly  (Cumulated  annually)  New  York, H.W.Wilson, 1946-

Database: http://www.ebscohost.com/academic/biography-index-past-and-present

•    Indexes to single magazines, either at the end of a volume or as separately published works.

E.g. Scientific American Cumulative Index.

•    Newspaper / Press indexes: There is a growing number of newspaper indexes in the world.

Newspaper Indexes are reference tools for accessing retrospective information published in newspapers. They may vary in their coverage, i.e. it may be a compilation of articles of  single news paper or may be an index to more than one news papers. Whatever be the coverage, it makes the content accessible through subject approach. These are of immense use for researchers. The best known newspaper indexes are

New York Times Index (Print) (Weekly1913- ) New York, New York Times Company. Database: www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/help/siteindex.html

Accessible   from   ProQuest   as   New   York   Times   with   Index   (1851   onwards).

http://www.proquest.com/assets/literature/products/databases/HNP_NYT.pdf

ii. Index to the Times of India. Three times a year. Bombay, Times of India Reference Department, 1973-

E-Version: epaper.timesofindia.com/index.asp

•    Translations: E.g. Index Translation. Annual. Paris, UNESCO, 1948- http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php- URL_ID=7810&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

2.3.2  Subject

Subject indexes, covering not only several periodicals but also material found in other books, pamphlets, government documents and reports. The purpose is to index material in a narrow subject field. There are indexes to reports both published and unpublished, govt., documents, proceedings of conferences, and other materials which can be defined as serials i.e., any publication issued in parts over an indefinite period.

i.  Conference Papers Index, Monthly. Bethesda, Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, 1973-.

ii. Indian Science Index, Annual. New Delhi, Indian Documentation Service, 1975-

iii. Index  to  Scientific  and  Technical  Proceedings.  Monthly.  Philadelphia,  Institute  for Scientific Information. 1974-

Specific subject indexes:

i.  Current Papers in Physics. London, Institution of Electrical Engineers. 1966-. It indexes 65,000 papers annually from over 900 physics periodicals of the world.

ii. Index Medicus, Monthly. Washington, National Library of Medicine, 1960- . It indexes about 5051 periodicals by author and subject giving a citation under each entry. It is cumulated annually. The subjects covered include veterinary medicine, sociology, zoology, biology, chemistry, psychology besides medicine and health. In the subject section, references are grouped according to the language of the articles, with English articles getting preference, followed by articles in other languages, all arranged alphabetically by language. Titles in foreign language are translated into English.

The Cumulated Index Medicus was brought out by American Medical Association since 1960-  to  2000  and  was  stopped  after  41  volumes  due  to  lack  of  demand.  MEDLINE

(1965)ismade     available     through     OCLC     (the     online     vendor)     and     now     as PubMed. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/

iii.   Index to Indian Agricultural Periodicals. Monthly, Pant Nagar (UP), G.B.Pant University of Agriculture and Technology. 1969-.

iv.   British Education Index. Three issues per year (cumulated annually). London, Library Association, 1955- . It covers about 70 periodicals from UK on Education. It is compiled by librarians of the British University Institute of Education, Leeds. Index is in two parts: Author and subject, each arranged alphabetically. http://www.leeds.ac.uk/bei/index.html. Now the index is available through ProQuest Dialog

2.3.3  Citation Indexes

The citation indexing is based on two factors:

• A  document  giving  citations  of  the  previously  published  document  indicates  subject relationship between the current document and old document and

• The documents which cite the same publication have some subject relationship with each other.

A citation index has its own merits because in this type of indexing the relevance information is very high. Multi-disciplinary coverage, convenience and speed are the advantages. Its success depends on the efficiency of citation practice of authors. If the authors cite proper references then the relation between cited and citing documents will be reflected correct and citation index will function properly. Otherwise, citation index will lose its effectiveness. Best examples of citation indexes are

i. Science Citation Index: Quarterly. (Cumulated annually) Philadelphia, Institute for Scientific Information. 1963. The Science Citation Index (SCI) provides access to current and retrospective bibliographic information, author abstracts, and cited references found in 3,700 of the world’s leading scholarly science and technical journals covering more than 100 disciplines. The Science Citation Index Expanded format, available through the Web of Science and the online version, SciSearch cover more than 5,800 journals. Database: http://thomsonreuters.com/web-of-science/SCI provides an integrated search system for a comprehensive coverage of the periodical literature of science. It consists of three separate but related indexes: Citation index, Source index, and Permuterm subject index. Each of these covers the same articles adopting different approaches to the information. SCI is based on the principle that scientists can determine much about the subject content of as new article by examining its reference citations to earlier articles. This index claims many advantages. It draws together related articles more effectively than any other system. And it is achieved without the logical inconsistencies of human indexers, without the use of indexing terms that may become obsolescent, and without delay as occur in other indexing methods.

Key Advantages & Capabilities:

• Allows researchers to conduct broad-based, comprehensive searches that uncover all the relevant information they need
• Provides cited reference searching, the unique ISI search and retrieval feature that lets users track the literature forward, backward, and through the database, breaking through disciplinary and geographic boundaries
• Enables users to conduct multidisciplinary searches to discover hidden subject relationships

Other important publications from the same publisher are Social Science Citation Index; Arts and Humanities Citation Index.

ii. Indian Citation Index : Indian Citation Index (ICI) is developed by “The Knowledge Foundation” (a registered society) with the required support of M/s DIVA ENTERPRISES Pvt. Ltd. ICI provides a multidisciplinary research platform covering about 1000 scholarly journals from India. The ICI database also produces other useful byproducts like Indian Science Citation Index (ISCI), Indian Social Science and Humanities Citation Index (ISSHCI), Indian Journals Citation Reports (IJCR), Indian Science and Technology Abstracts (ISTA), and Directory of Indian Journals (DOIJ). (Source: http://www.indiancitationindex.com/ici.aspx)

2.3.4  Indexes to Special type of materials:

Indexes to dissertations and theses– There are a number of indexes and databases available listing thetheses and dissertations. The coverage may vary from global, regional to national level. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Database includes full text dissertations from around the world that are available for download. http://www.proquest.com/en-US/catalogs/databases/detail/pqdt.shtml

DART-Europe is a partnership of research libraries and library consortia who are working together to improve global access to European research theses.http://www.dart-europe.eu/About/info.php Shodhganga – a repository of ETDs of Indian Universities. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/ Indexes to Software and CD-ROMs –There are lists on software and CD ROMs that are reviewed and indexed.

Ex. Software and CD-ROM Reviews on file (formerly software reviews on file) New York, Facts on File, Inc., (c1996- ). It is monthly publication available in print.

3. Abstracting sources

The abstracting sources are important links in the chain of communication between the originator of information and the user. It represents or surrogates the original information as brief summary. You might know about annotated bibliography that is prepared for macro thought i.e. books. Similarly for journal articles i.e. micro thought abstracts are prepared.

There are various definitions of an abstract. An abstract is the “presentation in the author’s own language, of all the points made in the same order as in the primary documentary information – that can be a book, a research report, a periodical article, a speech, the proceedings of a conference, an interview, etc.” (Robert L Collinson)

According to Librarian’s Glossary, it is “a form of current bibliography in which sometimes books, but mainly contributions to periodicals are summarized. They are accompanied by adequate bibliographical descriptions to enable the publications or articles to be traced and are frequently arranged I classified order.”

According to Maizell “An abstract, simply defined is a condensation that presents succinctly, the objectives, scope and findings of a document. This information is usually conveyed together with an indexing system, which further helps to identify document content. An abstract as a rule, is aimed at a specific group of users who either may not have easy access to the original document.”

In simple words, an abstract is a summary of document along with adequate bibliographical details so that one can trace the document. The concerned document may be a book, an article from a periodical or some other form of recorded knowledge, but mainly the contributions to periodicals are listed.  The abstracts are arranged in some systematic order, mostly in classified order.

Like other bibliographies, the abstracts may be selective or comprehensive, and may be prepared by an individual or an organization or it may be a project some commercial organization supplied regularly against subscription., Often, the special libraries prepare abstracts in limited field for use of its own clientele, to keep them aware of current progress in their subject of interest, These are brought out in mimeographed form as ‘Abstract Bulletin’, though it is rather a costly affair and its scope is limited to the range of periodicals subscribed by the library. On the other hand, a comprehensive abstracting journal covers the maximum number of periodicals on the subject and its allied fields, irrespective of language.

Structure of abstract : Basically the abstract is having three parts:

Searching mechanism – keyword, subject, title, author that represents the original document and used a tool for search

Citation – brief information of the document that facilitates identification of the original document

Abstract – a brief summary of the original article

3.1.  Difference between Indexing and abstracting sources

Indexing and abstracting periodicals provide modern research libraries with ample facilities to collect and disseminate information or articles published in a wide range of periodicals, all of which can never be possessed by a library. This has lead to the development of indexing and abstracting periodicals that are available in thousands at present in both print and online.

An index is only a key to find out where a specific data or information is located in various types of documents with focus on periodicals.

Abstracting sources are an extension of indexes. They perform the same function in locating and recording the contents of periodicals, books and various types of documents; they differ from indexes in that

• By definition, they include a summary of the material indexed; they tend to be confined to relatively narrow subject areas;
• The abstract covers the main points of a piece of writing that follows the same language and terminology as used in the original. Indeed it is a brief representation of the original. The added value helps the user to determine the usefulness of the full article.

3.2  Uses of abstracting sources

By now you might have guessed that abstracts are more advantageous than indexes as they are providing a brief summary of the original in addition to the information details provided in an index. In other words the abstract is a surrogate to the original and the reader can get an overview of the original article information. The uses of abstracting journals can be summarized as follows:

• They serve those users who either may not read or may not have an easy access to original document with an outline for reading.
• It helps the reader to decide whether to read the entire article or not i.e. the contents of the article are suitable or not.
• It overcomes the language barrier and to prevent duplication.
• It gives up-to-date information and is useful for current and retrospective literature search.

One can select papers for study and it is a time saving device.

3.3  Types of Abstracts :

There are various types of abstracts on the basis of information supplied by them.  These are

i.  Title only Abstract: The title of a document is used without amplification to describe the contents of a document.  Thus, it usually states subject and not findings.

ii.  Annotated Abstract : A clause or a sentence is added to amplify the title of an article. Annotated and indicative abstracts differ only in length.

iii.  Indicative or Descriptive Abstract : It displays a general statement of the nature and scope of a document. It does not serve as a substitute for reading the original document. The primary purpose is to give the user several clues to the information contained in the source document and help him to judge whether it is same that he is sought after. Generally these abstracts include procedures, findings and information about the illustrations, tables etc.

iv.  Informative or Comprehensive Abstract : It provides details of the significant contributions to knowledge contained in a document like problem, methodology, major findings and conclusions.However on many occasions it serves as an adequate substitute for the original information and sometimes users rely on informative abstract alone for the purpose of obtaining a specific item of information. For example Dissertation Abstracts International provides informative abstracts.

v.  Slanted Abstract : Information or description reported in a document is oriented to a specific discipline to which the abstracting service e is devoted

vi.  Auto-Abstract : It is produced by a computer analysis of the frequency of use of significant use words in a document and of the frequency with which these high-use words appear in the same sentence. The high frequency words are then traced back to the sentence in which they occurred and their position noted. A score is then assigned to each sentence based on the number and position of the high frequency words it contains. The resultant auto-abstract is a collection of typical sentences forms the original document.

vii.  Telegraphic Abstract : It is a detailed index to a graphic record, which is composed of

• Significant words selected from the document.
• Coded symbols called role indicators which supply a context for the selected words, and
• Punctuation symbols which separate and group the words and role indicators into various units in somewhat the same fashion as conventional punctuation does. e.g. a portion of telegraphic abstract might have this appearance: “Propenoyl Chloride; preparation; reaction; use.”

viii. Graphic Abstract:  In the field of Chemistry where a precise language of communication is available, a new type of abstract has been introduced by the “current abstracts of chemistry and index chemicus” make full use of this language. This has been named graphic abstract. Instead of naming the substances and compounds and their treatments a graphic abstract indicates them by molecular and structural formulae. A chemist finds it easier to get the essence from such an abstract .

Technically, two types of abstracting methods are more popular – indicative and informative.

The “indicative abstract” indicates the type of article and the authors approach and treatment, but does not usually include specific data.

The “informative abstract” summarizes enough of the data finding to relieve the reader of the necessity of always reading the article. In neither case does the abstract, make any critical assessment.”

Examples of abstracting sources

Biological Abstracts provides the latest information in every life science discipline, and contains more than 13.2 million archival records from as far back as 1969, with more than 370,000 citations added each year. Most of the records include informative abstracts written by the author. This database is produced by Thomson Scientific, Inc. Now Biological abstracts is accessible through Thomson Reuters Web of knowledge platform Source: http://thomsonreuters.com/web-of-knowledge/

Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS), a division of the American Chemical Society, is the world’s authority for chemical information. CAS is the only organization in the world whose objective is to find, collect and organize all publicly disclosed chemical substance information. A team of scientists worldwide curates and controls the quality of our databases, which are recognized as the most comprehensive and authoritative by chemical and pharmaceutical companies, universities, government organizations and patent offices around the world. By combining these databases with advanced search and  analysis  technologies ( SciFinder® and STN® ), CAS delivers the most current, complete, secure and interlinked digital information environment for scientific discovery. Source: https://www.cas.org/

Library and Information Science Abstracts , Bi-monthly. London, Library Association, 1950-. LISA, an international abstracting and indexing tool designed for library professionals and information specialists covers such subjects as library science, information science, publishing, book selling, and reprography. About 440 periodicals, conference papers, books and pamphlets from more than 68 countries and 20 different languages are scanned for this. The references are arranged in a classified order according to CRG’s classification of library science. Under the class number and subject the entries are arranged by title, author, host document, volume, issue, year, and pages. These are followed by abstracts. Each entry has its serial number. Author and subject indexes are given for each issue. Both of these indexes are cumulated on an annual basis.

The online version of LISA is hosted by ProQuest CSA at http://www.csa.com/factsheets/lisa-set- c.php

4.  Evaluation of indexing and abstracting sources

The check list for an evaluation of indexes and abstracting services should consist of

• Duplication and gaps
• Depth of indexing
• Subject heading
• Description

i.   Authority (The Publisher) : The Librarian should check out the authenticity and trustworthiness of publishers, preferably by talking to subject experts and to other librarian who may have knowledge of the field and by reading reviews.

ii.  Scope : The indexing and abstracting periodicals should adequately cover the periodicals and other materials in the field of interest and the related areas.

  iii.  Accuracy : Accuracy of information as well as the bibliographical details is an important criteria for evaluating indexing and abstracting sources

iv.  Arrangement : There should be uniformity in presentation of entries following standard pattern. GENERALLY they are arranged in classified (subject) order. There should be different indexes to the content like subject, author, and title. The use of maximum number of subject headings should also be seen.

v.  Retrieval efficiency : The indexes and abstract are basically information retrieval tools hence they are expected to retrieve information with highest recall and precision ratio.

vi.  Currency: The frequency of publication is a fair indication of the currency of service.  However the time lag between the publication and its inclusion in the index / abstract indicates the currency, hence the librarian has to check for the date of original publication and date of its inclusion in the secondary source.

vii.  Format:   The  abstract  must  be  checked  for  its  ease  of  use  of  entries  and  readability. R eadability of format, accuracy, and completeness of biographical information, printing, and font size are other considerations to be kept in view.

viii.  Subject Headings : The type, number, and form of subject headings used in an index / abstract are important. The subject headings generally derived from a standard list like Sears, Library of Congress; in case of electronic databases they follow keyword indexing technique. Some may have developed their own lists like MeSH of Index Medicus/ Medline. In any case subject headings should be standardized and the plan of organization has to be suitable to the material indexed / abstracted. . There should be adequate ‘see’ and ‘see also’ references.

ix.  Description: It is also required to check whether the index / abstract adequately describes the document and whether it has been judiciously edited.

The best evaluation summary has been suggested by users’ attitudes towards indexes and abstracts as under:

• Ease of use;
• Layout and presentation;
• Choice of subject index-headings;
• Optimum use of cross references;
• Overall effectiveness in practical use;
• Minimum amount of “noise”.

Louis Shores has suggested the following check lists for study and evolution of indexes:

i.  Period covered : 1. Date 2. Frequency 3. Cumulations

ii.  Material indexed : 4. Number-in terms of volumes, periodicals, or articles 5. Kinds- books, periodicals, newspapers, documents. 6. Subject-general or special. 7. Style- popular or scholarly. 8. Country.

Form : 9. Complete or selective indexing (if latter, note basis of selection). 10.

Arrangement-dictionary, classified, author, title, subject.  11. Entry fullness-author, title, source, collation, date, etc. 12. Annotation- Information given.

Special features : 13. Distinctiveness– anything characteristic of the index.

Now the indexing and abstracting sources are available as electronic databases on the Web. Therefore additional criteria to be considered include

• Accuracy and authoritativeness of information content
• Regular updating of information and its reliability
• Check for the ownership of domain
• Error-free information
• Useful links to other Web Pages.

5.  Summary

Indexing and abstracting have an important role in dissemination of information hidden in micro documents more specifically periodicals. This module focused on indexing and abstracting journals that are keys to access the store house of primary journals in every subject. With a modest start as back of the book index today indexing journals like Index Medicus, Citation indexes etc. became an inevitable source in libraries both in print and electronic environments. Abstracting periodicals further enhances the dissemination with a brief summary of each article that helps to overcome language barrier also. The abstracting periodicals, like Chemical Abstracts, Biological abstracts etc., with the added value helps users to assess the usefulness of the primary source. The advent of databases, such as STN, Web of Knowledge made these sources easily accessible without time lag.

6. References

• Balakrishnan, Shyama&Paliwal, P.K. Abstracting practices in Libraries. Delhi, Anmol, 2001
• Guha, B.: Documentation and Information, 2nd Ed., Calcutta, World Press, 1982.
• Katz, A: Introduction to Reference Work, Vol. I Basic Information Sources, New York, McGraw Hill, 1982;
• Krishan Kumar: Reference service, 3rdRev.Ed., New Delhi, Vikas Pub., 1987.
• Rowley, J.E: Abstracting and Indexing. London, Clive Bingley, 1982.
• Seetharama, S.  Information  Consolidation  and  Repacking:  Framework,  Methodology, Planning. New Delhi, EssEss Pub, 1997

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Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and Practice

F. W. Lancaster. Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and Practice. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library and Information Science. 2003. 451p. $57.50 plus shipping. ISBN: 0-87845-122-6

This third edition of what has become a classic among textbooks in schools of library and information science (and related programs) has been thoroughly updated to reflect the evolving technological advancements in the field. Focusing on indexing of the subject matter of material, the beginning chapters review the literature and discuss various principles and practices such as “exhaustivity or depth of indexing,” “specificity,” “checktags,” “pre- and post-coordinate indexes,” and “consistency and quality of indexing.” Discussions on abstracting cover such concepts as the different types of abstracts, purpose of an abstract, structured versus narrative abstracts, informative versus indicative abstracts, subject slanting, modular abstracts, and writing and evaluating an abstract.

Various styles of indexing used in printed publications such as Index Medicus, the Engineering Index, and Chemical Abstracts are illustrated in the text; although the author is quick to note that printed tools are used much less today in favor of their online counterparts. In the online world, indexing has even greater importance in the effort to retrieve relevant data efficiently. Related concepts such as weighted indexing, linking of terms, and relational indicators are discussed as aids to precision. The idiosyncrasies of indexing special formats such as images and sounds and the Internet, as well as the use of computer-generated or automated indexing and abstracting, are also reviewed. The author admits that the Web has become so large and complex that it is beyond the scope of any single book to explain all of its components. He suggests the use of Web-based services such as The Extreme Web Searcher's Internet Handbook News and Updates < http://extremesearcher.com/news.html > or Search Engine Watch < http://searchenginewatch.com > to keep current with new developments.

Lancaster quotes several authors who see indexing of the Web becoming more impossible with time, but, at the same time, see that the need for automatic abstracts or summarizations continuing to grow in importance. With automation, the need for human intervention at the local level, be it Website design or local resources management, will also increase.

Part 2 of the work includes chapters with practice exercises, a summary of abstracting principles, sample subject modules, and an extensive list of references. The index has grown by over a hundred pages since the award-winning first edition in 1991, which won the Best Information Science Book Award in 1992 from the American Society for Information Science.

The work is primarily a teaching textbook that gives a good overview of the historic theory and principles behind indexing and abstracting and then discusses various applications, practices, and issues related to content analysis. Adequate representation of the material being described is the core challenge with indexing and abstracting. Another work that addresses this core issue is Explorations in Indexing and Abstracting: Pointing, Virtue, and Power by Brian C. O'Connor [ 1 ]. O'Connor defines “pointing” as the fundamental definition of indexing; “virtue,” the essence of a work, as equal to abstracting; and the two tools together as giving a person “power” to make meaningful use of the information (p. ix). Another related title, Introduction to Indexing and Abstracting by Donald B. Cleveland and Ana D. Cleveland [ 2 ], is more practical than the other two titles in that it provides many examples of what is being discussed and includes a section on “Ninety-nine Web Resources for Indexers and Abstractors,” with leads to useful tools such as indexing services, standards, indexing organizations, and search services. Google < http://www.google.com >, one of the listed search services, is a company working to answer Lancaster's challenge about the daunting task of indexing the Web. Under “Our Philosophy” on the Google Website, cofounder Larry Page states his far-reaching vision: “The perfect search engine would understand exactly what you mean and give back exactly what you want.” Many of the principles discussed in Lancaster's work— precision, specificity, and depth of indexing—are just as applicable and essential in today's online world as companies like Google seek to develop the “perfect search engine.”

Each of the three books discusses the topic of indexing and abstracting with a different emphasis. Lancaster addresses more of the theory and basic principles; O'Connor looks at the topic from a technical viewpoint; while the Clevelands write with a practical slant giving useful examples and suggestions. The three works together provide very comprehensive coverage of the subject. Each would be useful to students in library or information science, those working in indexing and abstracting services, or persons seeking careers in the information and computer industries.

• O'Connor BC. Explorations in indexing and abstracting: pointing, virtue, and power . Portsmouth, NH: Libraries Unlimited, 1996. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cleveland DB, Cleveland AD. Introduction to indexing and abstracting. 3rd ed . Portsmouth, NH: Libraries Unlimited, 2001. [ Google Scholar ]

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Indexing and Abstracting as Tools for Information Retrieval in Digital Libraries

Indexing and abstracting are like Siamese twins in the information retrieval process. Indexing and abstracting are the two approaches to distilling information content into an abbreviated, but comprehensive representation of an information resource(s). They are knowledge organisation tools which usually provide detailed and accurate maps and road signs in the information superhighway. Digital libraries are characterised by an electronic stock of information which can be accessed via computers, and are extension and augmentations of physical libraries in digital forms. They are information retrieval systems (a device interposed between a potential user of information and the information itself) which provide opportunities to access and retrieve information that is often accessible for a variety of reasons. This chapter presents a literature review on indexing and abstracting, information retrieval process, digital libraries pointing out the importance of indexing and abstracting in the information retrieving process and then highlighting the roles played by indexing and abstracting as tools for information retrieval in digital libraries. The chapter posits that indexing and abstracting plays a significant role as information retrieval tools in digital libraries.

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Modelos colaborativos de indexação social e sua aplicabilidade em bibliotecas digitais │ Collaborative models of social indexation and its applicability in digital libraries

RESUMO Este trabalho discute os modelos colaborativos de indexação social e sua aplicabilidade em bibliotecas digitais. Objetiva identificar na literatura científica de ciência da informação os principais estudos cujo foco está relacionado à construção de modelos que propõem a integração da folksonomia em metadados de sistemas de recuperação da informação. Discorre sobre aspectos relativos à folksonomia a partir da perspectiva do processo de descrição dos documentos em ambiente digital, identificando tipos de modelos colaborativos cujas regras podem ser aperfeiçoadas ou diretamente aplicadas para a indexação colaborativa de objetos informacionais em bibliotecas digitais. A metodologia da pesquisa é bibliográfica e exploratória, pautada pela revisão de literatura sobre a folksonomia, modelos colaborativos de indexação social, metadados e bibliotecas digitais. Conclui-se que há a necessidade de criar metodologias para o uso de metadados gerados pelos usuários, com o objetivo de melhorar a representação da informação em bibliotecas digitais.Palavras-chave: Modelos Colaborativos; Indexação social; Folksonomia; Bibliotecas Digitais.ABSTRACT This article discusses collaborative models of social indexing and their applicability in digital libraries. The objective is to identify in the scientific literature of information science the major studies whose focus is related to the construction of models that propose the integration of folksonomy in metadata for information retrieval systems. It discusses aspects of the folksonomy from the perspective of document description processes in a digital environment, identifying types of collaborative models whose rules can be improved or directly applied to the collaborative indexing of informational objects in digital libraries. The research methodology is bibliographical and exploratory, based on literature review on folksonomy, collaborative models of social indexing, metadata and digital libraries. It concludes that there is a need to create methodologies for use of user-generated metadata, aiming to improve information representation in digital libraries.Keywords: Collaborative Models; Social Indexing; Folksonomy; Digital Libraries.

Applications of Thesaurus in Digital Libraries

<p>The purpose of this paper is to report the findings of a systematic literature review carried out to investigate the applications and potential roles of thesaurus in digital libraries. It also describes the process of systematic literature review (SLR) followed to carry out this study. 321 unique publications from Library and Information Science Abstracts (LISA) and Scopus had been subjected to SLR, and 29 papers have been analysed. Various possible applications of thesaurus in digital libraries have been identified and described. Also different approaches followed by researchers in choice of the thesaurus have been identified. Search and browse functionalities offered by thesaurus to the users of digital libraries are described. The discussion presented in this paper can play as cues for the digital library administrators in decision making towards implementing thesaurus for enhanced information retrieval. This study would allow researchers of information retrieval systems, including that of digital libraries, to proceed from more informed standpoints. Also, the discussion can be used to evaluate and improve education in library and information science.</p>

Evaluating the effectiveness of thesauri in digital information retrieval systems

Purpose The purpose of this study is to carry out a systematic literature review for evidence-based assessment of the effectiveness of thesaurus in digital information retrieval systems. It also aimed to identify the evaluation methods, evaluation measures and data collection tools which may be used in evaluating digital information retrieval systems. Design/methodology/approach A systematic literature review (SLR) of 344 publications from LISA and 238 from Scopus has been carried out to identify the evaluation studies for analysis, and 15 evaluation studies have been analyzed. Findings This study presents evidences for the effectiveness of thesaurus in digital information retrieval systems. Various methods for evaluating digital information systems have been identified. Also, a wide range of evaluation measures and data collection tools have been identified. Research limitations/implications The study was limited to the literature published in English language and indexed in LISA and Scopus. The evaluation methods, evaluation measures and data collection tools identified in this study may be used to design more cognizant evaluation studies for digital information retrieval systems. Practical implications The findings have significant implications for the administrators of any type of digital information retrieval systems in making more informed decisions toward implementation of thesaurus in resource description and access to digital collections. Originality/value This study extends our knowledge on the potentials of thesauri in digital information retrieval systems. It also provides cues for designing more cognizant evaluation studies for digital information systems.

Design and implementation of an effective web-based hybrid stemmer for Odia language

<p><span>Stemmer is used for reducing inflectional or derived word to its stem. This technique involves removing the suffix or prefix affixed in a word. It can be used for information retrieval system to refine the overall execution of the retrieval process. This process is not equivalent to morphological analysis. This process only finds the stem of a word. This technique decreases the number of terms in information retrieval system. There are various techniques exists for stemming. In this paper, a new web-based stemmer has been proposed named as “Mula” for Odia Language. It uses the Hybrid approach (i.e. combination of brute force and suffix removal approach) for Odia language. The new born stemmer is both computationally faster and domain independent. The results are favourable and indicate that the proposed stemmer can be used effectively in Odia Information Retrieval systems. This stemmer also handles the problem of over-stemming and under-stemming in some extend.</span></p>

Information Retrieval System

Information Retrieval Systems (IRS) have dramatically changed the ways how people acquire information for their need. Information Retrieval (IR) enables user to find relevant document from collection of countless resources. This article presents an overview of IRS. Objectives of this article is to answer all the basic and specific questions related to IRS. In contrast to other review papers, the authors provide a complete understanding of IR in single paper. Starting from definition and importance it covers retrieval process, performance issues, and comparison among various approaches. This article also includes description of different models along with analysis of their merits and demerits. This article proposes a list of challenges, still unanswered by existing systems. Before offering a conclusion, the major applications of IR are also listed.

Designing Information Retrieval Systems for Children's Use

A rich body of literature investigates children’s information behaviors and how information retrieval systems can best be designed to address their unique cognitive capabilities (Gossen &amp; Nürnberger, 2013). This literature review explores this literature, focusing on the interaction between child development and interface design for children. First, it introduces stages of child development and children’s unique information behaviors and the challenges these present for information retrieval. Then, it describes evaluations of several existing IR interfaces for children. Finally, it reviews systems created to address specific IR challenges that children face.

Efektivitas Sistem Temu Kembali Informasi Perpustakaan Digital Institut Seni Indonesia (ISI) Yogyakarta dalam Tinjauan Recall dan Precision

Today's digital library is a necessity. A system that provides all-digital information and services requires that all aspects of it should be accessed effectively. In the context of information retrieval in digital libraries, the information retrieval systems are important instruments. The system becomes a link between relevant information and its users. Evaluation of the information retrieval system to determine its effectiveness is important to ensure that users receive good retrieval services. Recall and precision are approaches to measure the effectiveness of information retrieval systems that are widely used. This study aims to determine the effectiveness of the ISI Yogyakarta digital library retrieval system based on recall and precision approaches. This study will provide benefits for librarians in knowing the effectiveness of the information retrieval system and the extent of their accuracy in indexing. This research uses an experimental method with a quantitative approach. The researcher chose a sample of the searching keywords purposively and then tested them by searching on the portal http://digilib.isi.ac.id/. The data obtained were analyzed using the formula recall and precision. In this study the subjects tested were interior design subjects. The precision measurement of 10 keywords on the subject of interior design gets 92.37% results while the recall measurement gets 80.79% results. The result stated that precision is higher than recall, it showed that the information retrieval system of ISI Yogyakarta’s digital library is quite effective.

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Indexing and Abstracting as Tools for Information Retrieval in Digital Libraries: A Review of Literature

Introduction.

The world today, as a thousand years ago has two basic needs: wealth and knowledge. The most generous, efficient and effective information manager may not be able to make available to others what does not exist. Likewise, the most gifted intellects may not be able to apply the powers of reasoning and imaginative deduction to information they do not possess. Hence as the dire need for information drives the individual so also it goads the societies. The Web and wireless technologies have indelibly altered our lives (Tensen, 2013).

Rapid developments witnessed in telecommunications, computer technologies and other related technologies (Internet) have made it possible to store and retrieve information in many different forms and from diverse location. The first use of computers in information management in libraries opened the door to new ways of accessing and using information, making it possible to create and access electronic index to collections, electronic databases of journal article, conference papers and so on (Chowdhury and Chowdhury, 2003). Libraries are repositories of information and knowledge. However, more recently, libraries are understood as extending beyond the physical walls of a building, to serving as a ‘gateway’ or ‘information superhighways’ to stored information and knowledge. Such libraries are known and referred to as digital libraries. Libraries connect people and information; digital libraries amplify and augment these connections (Badhusha, 2008). It is pertinent for one to say that one of the most important contributions of web technology has been the creation of digital libraries which gave the means for having unhindered access to diverse information resources irrespective of location.

In digital repositories, the organisation, and access to information, information materials and tremendous amounts of knowledge is guarantee with the aid of information retrieval tools. These tools are indexing and abstracting. They are ancient and dependable information retrieval tools and plays a significant role in the information retrieval process of any information retrieval system be it digital, hybrid or traditional libraries. The indexing and abstracting method guarantees unhindered access to stored information and knowledge and at the same time allow for precision and high recall of information in an information retrieval system.

Indexing and abstracting are like Siamese twins. They are pioneer schemes of early civilization of knowledge classification and document arrangement and are still relevant and serve as the legacy to information retrieval system of the twenty-first Century. According to Cleveland and Cleveland (2000), indexing and abstracting have their distant origins somewhere and at some time when someone realised that written records need to be organised to enhance accessibility. Rubin (2010) describes indexing and abstracting as knowledge organisation tools which usually provide detailed and accurate maps and road signs in the information superhighway.

Traditionally, information retrieval has been a task for professional librarians, however, the availability of the Internet made literature searching directly available to widespread groups of researchers (Schatz, 1997). Information retrieval is the term commonly used to describe many types of literature searching. It is the science of searching for information in documents, searching for documents themselves, searching for metadata which describe documents or searching within databases whether relational stand-alone databases or hypertexually networked databases such as World Wide Web, digital libraries.

Basically, information retrieval system is concerned more with retrieving information about a subject than with retrieving data that satisfies a given query. The major functions of an information retrieval system are organisation and retrieval of information. However, for fast retrieval and ranking, documents in the central repository which provides access and management capabilities to collections and catalogue need to be indexed (Baeza-Yates and Ribeiro-Neto, 2011; Goncalves, 2011).

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Need For Indexing and Abstracting

1.1 What is Indexing?

Indexing is systematically organizing and categorizing information to facilitate efficient retrieval and navigation. It involves assigning descriptive terms, keywords, or subject headings to documents, enabling users to locate relevant information quickly and effectively. Indexing creates an organized structure as a roadmap for users to find specific content within a collection or database. It enhances search efficiency, promotes cross-referencing and linking between related information, and supports information organization. Through indexing, users can easily access and retrieve information based on specific topics, subjects, or criteria, saving time and effort in the search process. Indexing is critical in information management, enabling users to easily explore, analyze, and utilize vast amounts of information.

1.2 What is Abstracting ?

Abstracting is summarizing the key points or essential elements of a document, such as a research paper, article, or report, into a concise and condensed form. It involves extracting the original text’s main ideas, arguments, findings, and conclusions while omitting irrelevant details. Abstracting provides a succinct overview of the document’s content, allowing readers to quickly grasp its essence without reading the entire text. Abstracts typically highlight the document’s main objectives, methods, results, and implications, giving readers a snapshot of its significance and relevance. Abstracting plays a crucial role in information retrieval, enabling users to evaluate the relevance and value of a document before investing time in reading the full text. It is widely used in academic and scientific literature, databases, and other information sources to assist researchers, scholars, and professionals stay informed and make informed decisions based on summarized information.

1.2 Need For Indexing and Abstracting:

In today’s information-driven world, where an overwhelming volume of data is produced daily, efficient organization and retrieval of information is paramount. This is where indexing and abstracting services play a vital role. These services provide structured access points and concise summaries, respectively, to help users navigate through vast collections of information, save time, and extract relevant insights. This comprehensive article explores the essential need for indexing and abstracting services, highlighting their significance in enhancing information access, supporting research endeavors, facilitating knowledge discovery, and promoting efficient information management.

• Enhancing Information Access and Retrieval: Indexing and abstracting services significantly improve information access by creating organized structures and searchable indexes. By assigning descriptive terms, keywords, or subject headings, indexing enables users to efficiently locate specific content within databases, libraries, or digital collections. On the other hand, Abstracting offers concise summaries of documents, allowing users to quickly evaluate their relevance before delving into the full text. Both services streamline the information retrieval process, saving time and effort.
• Supporting Research Endeavors: Indexing and abstracting services are invaluable to researchers and scholars. They enable comprehensive literature searches by categorizing and tagging relevant publications. Researchers can explore related concepts, identify seminal works, and access specialized databases within their fields of study. Abstracts aid in identifying the most pertinent materials and deciding on resource allocation. By providing a comprehensive overview of the document’s content, abstracting supports researchers in assessing the potential value and applicability of the research findings.
• Facilitating Knowledge Discovery: Indexing and abstracting services contribute to knowledge discovery by organizing information and providing access to diverse sources. Indexes create hierarchical structures that allow users to navigate through topics, subtopics, and related terms, facilitating discovering hidden connections. Cross-referencing within indexes ensures users can access relevant information from multiple entry points. Abstracts provide insights into the content and key points of documents, enabling users to identify trends, patterns, and gaps in the literature. This facilitates the generation of new knowledge and insights across various domains.
• Promoting Efficient Information Management: Indexing and abstracting services aid information organization and management. They provide a structured framework for categorizing and cataloging information, making browsing, sorting, and filtering data easier. By grouping related content, indexing helps establish connections and relationships between different pieces of information. This organization enhances the overall accessibility and usability of information, ensuring that users can find and utilize relevant resources effectively.
• Emerging Trends and Future Implications: As technology evolves, indexing and abstracting services adapt to meet the changing information landscape. Automated indexing and abstracting techniques, leveraging natural language processing and machine learning algorithms, are being developed to improve efficiency and accuracy. Furthermore, indexing and abstracting services are expanding to include various media types, such as images, audio, and video, enabling comprehensive multimedia retrieval. Integrating these services with emerging technologies, like artificial intelligence and the semantic web, holds great potential for advancing information access and retrieval.

Indexing and abstracting services are indispensable in our information-rich society. They enhance information access and retrieval, support research endeavors, facilitate knowledge discovery, and promote efficient information management. By providing structured access points and concise summaries, these services empower individuals, researchers, scholars, and organizations to navigate vast amounts of information, make informed decisions, and generate new insights. As the volume and complexity of information continue to grow, the need for robust indexing and abstracting services will only increase, ensuring that users can effectively harness the power of information for research, innovation, and decision-making.

Reference Book:

• Cleveland, A. D., & Cleveland, D. B. (2013). Introduction to Indexing and Abstracting: Fourth Edition. ABC-CLIO.

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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole . Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus. [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

[1] Poliwoda, S., Noor, N., Downs, E., Schaaf, A., Cantwell, A., Ganti, L., Kaye, A. D., Mosel, L. I., Carroll, C. B., Viswanath, O., & Urits, I. (2022). Stem cells: a comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice.  Orthopedic reviews ,  14 (3), 37498. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37498

[2] Poliwoda, S., Noor, N., Downs, E., Schaaf, A., Cantwell, A., Ganti, L., Kaye, A. D., Mosel, L. I., Carroll, C. B., Viswanath, O., & Urits, I. (2022). Stem cells: a comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice.  Orthopedic reviews ,  14 (3), 37498. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37498

[3] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2023). Laboratory-based human embryonic stem cell research, embryo research, and related research activities . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/blog-post-title-one-ed2td-6fcdk ; Kimmelman, J., Hyun, I., Benvenisty, N.  et al.  Policy: Global standards for stem-cell research.  Nature   533 , 311–313 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/533311a

[4] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2023). Laboratory-based human embryonic stem cell research, embryo research, and related research activities . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/blog-post-title-one-ed2td-6fcdk

[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

Sandel M. J. (2004). Embryo ethics--the moral logic of stem-cell research.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 207–209. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048145 ; George, R. P., & Lee, P. (2020, September 26). Acorns and Embryos . The New Atlantis. https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/acorns-and-embryos ; Sagan, A., & Singer, P. (2007). The moral status of stem cells. Metaphilosophy , 38 (2/3), 264–284. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24439776 ; McHugh P. R. (2004). Zygote and "clonote"--the ethical use of embryonic stem cells.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 209–211. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048147 ; Kurjak, A., & Tripalo, A. (2004). The facts and doubts about beginning of the human life and personality.  Bosnian journal of basic medical sciences ,  4 (1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.17305/bjbms.2004.3453

[6] Vazin, T., & Freed, W. J. (2010). Human embryonic stem cells: derivation, culture, and differentiation: a review.  Restorative neurology and neuroscience ,  28 (4), 589–603. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-2010-0543

[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

[8] Sherley v. Sebelius , 644 F.3d 388 (D.C. Cir. 2011), citing 45 C.F.R. 46.204(b) and [42 U.S.C. § 289g(b)]. https://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/6c690438a9b43dd685257a64004ebf99/$file/11-5241-1391178.pdf

[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

[11] Hurlbut, W. B. (2006). Science, Religion, and the Politics of Stem Cells.  Social Research ,  73 (3), 819–834. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971854

[12] Akpa-Inyang, Francis & Chima, Sylvester. (2021). South African traditional values and beliefs regarding informed consent and limitations of the principle of respect for autonomy in African communities: a cross-cultural qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics . 22. 10.1186/s12910-021-00678-4.

[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa.  Stem Cell Res Ther   4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

[20] Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries.  Middle East Fertil Soc J   24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction.  Frontiers in pharmacology ,  13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

[25] Li, X.-T., & Zhao, J. (2012). Chapter 4: An Approach to the Nature of Qi in TCM- Qi and Bioenergy. In Recent Advances in Theories and Practice of Chinese Medicine (p. 79). InTech.

[26] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[27] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

[71] Klitzman, R., & Sauer, M. V. (2009). Payment of egg donors in stem cell research in the USA.  Reproductive biomedicine online ,  18 (5), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60002-8

[72] Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., & Ranney, M. L. (2006). Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa.  Clinical trials (London, England) ,  3 (3), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1191/1740774506cn150oa

[73] Veatch, Robert M.  Hippocratic, Religious, and Secular Medical Ethics: The Points of Conflict . Georgetown University Press, 2012.

[74] Msoroka, M. S., & Amundsen, D. (2018). One size fits not quite all: Universal research ethics with diversity.  Research Ethics ,  14 (3), 1-17.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117739939

[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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Utilisation of social media to bring back users for effective use of physical academic libraries in the 21^st century in nigeria, ekanem b. e. eyo.

Utilisation of social media in the 21 st century libraries enable libraries to provide attractive library services to achieve the ultimate goal of marketing library and information services and reaching out to users to effectively patronise and use the physical library and its resources. The paper investigated the utilisation of social media to bring back users to effectively use the physical academic libraries in the 21 st century in Nigeria. The paper also determined the challenges to utilisation of social media to bring back users to effectively use the physical academic libraries in the 21 st century in Nigeria. The research method adopted for the study was Survey Design of correlational type. Three academic libraries and 55 librarians were totally enumerated. Questionnaire was used to collect data for analysis. The research instrument was validated, to consider its suitability for the study. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, frequency counts, simple percentages, and mean. The findings showed that academic libraries under study underused social media with mean scores below 2.50 criterion benchmark. The paper concluded that the utilisation of social media in library services academic libraries in Nigeria could market, advertise library products and services, promote brands of library images to bring back users to effectively use the library in this 21 st century. The paper recommended that state governments, university authorities and library management should tackle the problems of funding, infrastructural facilities, irregular power supply, among others for efficient and high level utilisation of social media for services delivery in academic libraries for adequate teaching and learning in academic institutions in Nigeria.

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