dissertation on 21st century skills

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• v.22(2); Fall 2021

Infusing 21st Century Skill Development into the Undergraduate Curriculum: The Formation of the iBEARS Network

Alex t. st. louis.

a Andrews Institute of Mathematics and Science Education, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas, USA

Penny Thompson

b College of Education and Human Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA

Tracey N. Sulak

c Department of Educational Psychology, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, USA

Marty L. Harvill

d Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, USA

Michael E. Moore

e STEM Education Center, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Little Rock, Arkansas, USA

The demonstrated gap between skills needed and skills learned within a college education places both undergraduates seeking gainful employment and the employers seeking highly skilled workers at a disadvantage. Recent and up-and-coming college graduates should possess 21st century skills (i.e., communication, collaboration, problem solving), skills that employers deem necessary for the workplace. Research shows that the development of this skillset can help narrow the gap in producing highly skilled graduates for the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) workforce. We propose the development of 21st century skills by utilizing the project-based learning (PjBL) framework and creating the inclusive biologist exploring active research with students (iBEARS) program, allowing undergraduate students to hone their 21st century skills and prepare for transition and success within the workplace.

PERSPECTIVE

College graduates entering the workplace are expected to possess sufficient content knowledge and be proficient in 21st century skills (i.e., communication, collaboration, problem solving, etc.). However, employers notice that recent graduates do not possess these necessary skill sets ( 1 , – 4 ). We introduce a pedagogy embedded within project-based learning (PjBL) that lends itself well to 21st century skills development, within a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education framework. This is a departure from the traditional model found within STEM education, which is normally heavily focused on content dissemination ( 5 ), and we look to help strengthen the development of the students’ practical skills, setting a foundation of success within the global workplace.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Twenty-first century skills, also referred to as soft skills, represent a reconceptualization of the professional skills of the past ( 6 , 7 ) steeped in a culture and workplace characterized by technological change and globalization ( 8 ). They have been defined as broad categories of skills involving thinking (e.g., creativity and innovation, critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, learning to learn), working with others (e.g., communication, collaboration/teamwork), facility with tools (e.g., information literacy, communications technology literacy), and general life skills (e.g., citizenship, life and career management, personal and social responsibility, cultural awareness) ( 9 ). Students receiving college degrees should develop a foundation of these skills for preparation in the workplace. However, studies across different global regions have shown that students enter the workforce lacking these desired skills ( 10 , 11 ).

To address this problem, we propose using a project-based learning (PjBL) framework in STEM classrooms to develop 21st century skills simultaneously with science content knowledge to prepare students for careers in science and education. In this paper, we present our model for supporting university students’ 21st century skills development in the context of a biology class, through a unique PjBL experience. Under this model, university students integrate research, communication, teamwork, and problem-solving skills with content knowledge through mentoring younger learners to carry out a research project.

21ST CENTURY SKILLS

The value of 21st century skills has been a focus for researchers and educators seeking to prepare students for the workplace. Casner-Lotto and Barrington ( 11 ) surveyed employers about the skills employees needed to be successful in the workplace and found that employers distinguished between basic skills and applied skills. Basic skills encompassed disciplinary content knowledge, such as English grammar, science, mathematics, or second languages. Applied skills, which employers felt many new graduates lacked, included skills such as problem solving, creativity and innovation, and teamwork.

To guide educators in meeting this need, several educational organizations (e.g., International Society for Technology in Education, The Partnership for 21st Century Skills, and the MacArthur Foundation), government organizations (e.g., the European Union), and for-profit corporations have published lists of skills needed for the 21st century workplace, and the abundance of distinct yet largely overlapping lists has led researchers to synthesize 21st century skills into categories. For example, Binkley et al. ( 9 ) developed four categories of 21st century skills: “ways of thinking,” “ways of working,” “tools for working,” and “living in the world.” Ways of thinking include creativity and innovation, critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, learning to learn, and metacognition. Ways of working include communication and collaboration/teamwork, and tools for working include information literacy and communications technology literacy. Living in the world is a category encompassing local and global citizenship, life and career management, personal and social responsibility, and cultural awareness. Similarly, Kereluik et al. ( 8 ) synthesized several 21st century skills frameworks into three broad categories: “foundational knowledge” (what students need to know), “meta knowledge” (understanding how to use foundational knowledge), and “humanistic knowledge” (understanding of self and the social context).

Of the skills and competencies included in the varied frameworks of 21st century skills, employers consistently rank communication, collaboration, and critical thinking/problem solving as some of the most highly valued. In Casner-Lotto and Barrington’s ( 11 ) survey of 400 U.S. employers, the most highly ranked skills were (i) professionalism/work ethic, (ii) oral and written communication, (iii) teamwork/collaboration, and (iv) critical thinking/problem solving. In an effort to better align the skills taught in higher education institutions with the skills employers desired in college graduates, Baird and Parayitam ( 12 ) surveyed 50 employers that were active in Chamber of Commerce-sponsored job fairs in the northeastern region of the United States. These employers were asked to rate, on a five-point Likert-type scale, the importance of a list of 21st century skills the authors had compiled based on business and higher education literature. The skills that received the highest rating from these employers were interpersonal skills, critical thinking/problem solving, listening, oral communication, and professionalism. In contrast to other studies that relied on self report, Rios et al. ( 10 ) analyzed postings from careerbuilder.com and collegerecruiter.com to determine the skills most frequently requested by employers. The four most requested skills were oral communication (28%), written communication (23%), collaboration (22%), and problem solving (19%). Even among information technology professionals, soft skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, and communication were valued more than traditionally “hard” skills such as computer coding ( 13 ). To develop these skills before graduation, students need instruction and opportunities for collaboration and problem solving. PjBL creates environments where 21st century skills need to be developed and used for the project to be successful.

PROJECT-BASED LEARNING

PjBL was developed as early as the 16th century in Europe ( 14 ), was included in Dewey’s ( 15 ) progressive education theory, and was recognized as a well-established pedagogical strategy in the latter half of the 20th century ( 16 ). PjBL is used today as “an inquiry-based instructional method that engages learners in knowledge construction by having them accomplish meaningful projects and develop real-world products” (reference 17 , page 2). It is the creation of a concrete product or artifact that distinguishes PjBL from other inquiry-based pedagogical methods, such as problem-based learning ( 18 ). The focus on the creation of a tangible product means that students are focused on a shared goal and are provided some end product specifications from the instructor ( 19 ). Learning occurs as students work together to find the path toward the end product and solve problems that arise. The instructor acts as a coach, providing guidance, feedback, and suggestions as needed ( 19 ) while allowing students to lead the process. PjBL provides an environment where students not only acquire subject-matter knowledge but also gain an understanding of how that knowledge is used in authentic settings, promoting a broad understanding of the subject matter ( 20 ). PjBL has been shown to promote development of both domain-specific “hard” skills and 21st century skills such as problem solving, critical thinking, collaboration and teamwork, and lifelong learning ( 17 ). Guo et al. ( 17 ), in reviewing literature of PjBL in postsecondary/higher education, categorized prevalent cognitive, affective, and behavior outcomes ( Table 1 ).

TABLE 1

Project-based learning outcomes and associated skills development based on Guo et al. ( 17 )

LINK BETWEEN PJBL AND 21ST CENTURY SKILLS

PjBL has been shown to support the development of 21st century skills. Bell ( 21 ) notes that the outcomes of PjBL include learning responsibility, discipline, independence, negotiation, collaboration, and communication. She also notes the use of technology for success in the 21st century, arguing for technology as a means (not an end) to help develop these skills. Bell concludes by stating that PjBL aids in helping students develop into productive members of society, where they enter a workforce built on performance outcomes and other relevant skills. Gultekin ( 22 ) shows that 21st century skills allow students to establish a foundation for real-world experiences, developing students into problem solvers and higher-order thinkers. Doppelt ( 23 ) notes an increase in the development of engagement and self-esteem. Shaw ( 24 ) explored the potential of PjBL to support 21st century skill development in high school classrooms. She used surveys and interviews to assess student and faculty perceptions of the benefits of PjBL for fostering skills such as creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication. Through qualitative interviews, she found that faculty perceived collaboration, effective communication, creativity, and critical thinking as inherent attributes of the PjBL process. Quantitative survey data revealed that students perceived their skill level in these areas to be higher after taking courses consisting of at least 75% PjBL activities.

The value of PjBL to support 21st century skill development has also been shown at the university level. Musa et al. ( 25 ) used PjBL in a university-level communications class in Malaysia and surveyed students’ perceptions of the contribution of a PjBL project to their skills in teamwork, project management, communication, interpersonal relations, and problem solving. Over 70% of students agreed or strongly agreed that the PjBL experience had helped them improve their skills in each of these areas. Woodward et al. ( 26 ) integrated PjBL into two undergraduate classes for information systems majors, with the goal of developing skills in critical thinking, interpersonal communication, and teamwork, along with technical programming skills. Teams of students were assigned projects that represented realistic problems that might be found in the workplace but with the required deliverables (e.g., a working database meeting the stated specifications) clearly defined for the students by the instructors. The teams were also required to submit written documents and present their complete projects. Students then responded to surveys, at the midpoint and end of the semester, reflecting their perceptions of how the project had affected their learning of technical content and soft skills. Results showed that students reported personal growth in their soft skills during the portion of the semester when they were engaged in team-based project work. Vogler et al. ( 27 ) used student journals to gauge perceptions of 21st century skills development during a semester-long interdisciplinary PjBL experience in a university course. They found that while there were disciplinary differences in how different skills were used, all participants discussed collaboration/teamwork as a skill they were called on to use throughout the project.

The Inclusive Biologists Engaging in Active Research with Students (iBEARS) program was established to help include 21st century skill development into undergraduate life science curriculum utilizing PjBL while also creating mentoring and research opportunities for the up-and-coming diverse science workforce. Over the course of the semester, undergraduates work in groups of three to four students, which are assembled to be as racially and gender diverse as possible. The undergraduates’ project is to teach a class of 4th to 8th graders the scientific process through mentoring, via video conferencing, a simple research project conducted by the 4th to 8th graders. For example, one seventh-grade class measured the effects of sound on pill bugs ( Fig. 1 ). During the project, undergraduates give weekly progress reports on each video session, create a plan of action for next week’s class, generate backup procedures, communicate (both in writing and orally) with their peers, students, teachers, and supervising instructor, divide and implement weekly tasks, and solve problems relating to technology, teaching, and experimentation ( Table 2 ). As the project proceeds, the undergraduates begin to develop and refine their mentoring and teaching skills ( Fig. 2 ).

An example of one middle-level class’s collaborative research poster.

Schematic of weekly interactions that undergraduates (called mentors) experience as part of the iBEARS program.

TABLE 2

Mapping of activities to 21st century skills

SKILL DEVELOPMENT

To effectively develop students’ 21st century skills, the iBEARS program draws from literature on effective instruction to develop each skill. This mentor training follows recent recommendations for sustained as opposed to single session training ( 28 ). Here, we discuss effective skill development and then how we have adapted this process for the iBEARS program.

Communication

Pairing undergraduate students with small groups of younger students has been shown to help undergraduates develop science communication skills such as understanding the audience, crafting a clear message, and explaining science concepts ( 29 ). In the iBEARS project, we accomplish this by dividing the undergraduate mentors into groups of three and assigning them a middle-level science class to mentor through a course-based research project over the semester. The final product reinforces this communication as the mentors guide their mentees through the process of making a research poster.

Problem solving

A primary strength of PjBL is that it allows students to “work their way to the solution in their own idiosyncratic way” (reference 16 , page 292) and therefore prompts the development of problem-solving skills ( 29 ). Zhong and Xu ( 30 ) assert that developing problem solving skills requires the automation of recurrent skills and the strengthening of nonrecurrent skills (i.e., generalizing). Through automating recurrent skills, which can be achieved through repetition, mental space is freed up to address nonroutine tasks. Nonrecurrent skills development can be supported by providing students with a variety of problems to navigate, which increases their adaptability, enabling them to navigate new and novel situations ( 30 ). In iBEARS, to develop nonrecurrent skills (such as generalizing and simplifying the research process so that the mentees are able to understand it), mentors watch multiple mentor groups lead their mentees through the same research procedure utilizing different organisms and research questions. Recurrent iBEARS skills (such as providing actionable feedback) are practiced weekly with the instructor’s guidance.

Collaboration

An effective way to practice problem solving and communication skills is through group collaboration ( 31 ). Deiglmayr and Spada ( 32 ) suggest that the key to effective collaborative skill development is to support it directly through the following four steps: (i) deciding what skills to support, (ii) conceptualizing group activities to be done during the project, (iii) specifying the rules for providing adaptive support, and (iv) evaluating collaboration support. In choosing which collaborative skills to support, it is important to understand which skills are most beneficial for those who are being trained ( 32 ). To develop the collaborative skill support for iBEARS, we draw on well-known deficiencies in graduates with science degrees to develop skills in communication, collective problem solving, giving and receiving feedback, and coordinating a collaborative research project ( 33 ). Here, we provide an example of how we apply these four support steps to coordinating a collaborative research project.

(i) Deciding what skills to support. The success of the iBEARS project is predicated on coordinating efforts between middle-level students, middle-level science teachers, and undergraduate science students. If the mentors do not properly coordinate care for the organisms that are being studied and data collection intervals and methods, then it is highly probable that the organism will die or data will be skewed and therefore uninterpretable. Due to these factors, research project coordination is an essential collaborative skill for the undergraduate mentors to develop.

(ii) Conceptualizing group activities. In structuring the iBEARS project, undergraduate mentors are given one class period a week during which they review feedback from their peers, reflect on their last virtual meeting with their mentees, discuss the next steps of the research projects, and decide what needs to be communicated and sent to the middle school teacher to prepare her for the next virtual meeting. The groups receive feedback from the course instructor and can also draw on the knowledge of other mentor groups who are also preparing for their next virtual sessions.

(iii) Specifying the rules for providing adaptive support. Giving and receiving feedback is an important component of the iBEARS project. One of the mentor's key duties is to observe other groups’ virtual mentoring sessions and provide feedback on what went well and what could be improved. Mentors are coached on the importance of actionable feedback, and examples of exemplary feedback are discussed in class so as to provide mentors with additional guidance on how to provide effective feedback. One thing mentors are explicitly advised to think about while giving this feedback is how the collaborations could be improved (either mentor to mentor, mentor to mentee, or mentor to middle-level teacher) and how that improvement will affect the project.

(iv) Evaluating collaboration support. Eliciting feedback from the mentors on their experience in the iBEARS program is a process that occurs informally every week and formally at the end of every semester. The instructor solicits frequent individual and group feedback on how the collaboration is progressing, inquiring about both perceived strengths and perceived weaknesses that need to be addressed. At the end of the semester, mentors participate in group interviews where they reflect on the strengths and weaknesses of their collaborations so as to provide actionable program feedback to improve the next semester’s iBEARS project implementation.

INSIGHTS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Inclusion within the science classroom is pivotal for the implementation of equity and success of students in STEM. The underlying structure of iBEARS, PjBL, allows instructors to adopt inclusive classroom practices, such as an asset-based approach to learning that creates a space for all to learn and succeed ( 34 , – 36 ). Research has shown that utilizing inclusion within undergraduate research can increase retention rates of underrepresented students in STEM ( 37 , – 40 ), solidify and support students’ career goals ( 41 ), and potentially compensate for inequalities these students may encounter ( 40 , 42 ). There is a large body of literature that shows that underrepresented undergraduate students who actively partake in undergraduate research opportunities—including hands-on learning experiences—show an increase in measured academic success (i.e., GPA) and a positive degree graduation rate ( 39 , 43 , 44 ). Future research will explore the effect of participating in iBEARS to understand its effect on retention in STEM, academic success, and formation and/or completion of career goals of the middle-level science teachers ( Fig. 3 ).

Current logic model for assessing the impact of the iBEARS program on the undergraduate mentors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Madelon McCall for her help in developing the iBEARS program as well as Dwayne Simmons and the Baylor Biology Department for their continued support of the iBEARS program. We also thank the Midway Independent School District, China Spring Independent School District, and Waco Independent School District administrations for their participation. The iBEARS network is supported by the National Science Foundation’s INCLUDES program award number 2040595.

We declare no conflicts of interest.

• Open access
• Published: 25 November 2019

Developing student 21 st Century skills in selected exemplary inclusive STEM high schools

• Stephanie M. Stehle   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4017-186X 1 &
• Erin E. Peters-Burton 1  

International Journal of STEM Education volume  6 , Article number:  39 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

There is a need to arm students with noncognitive, or 21 st Century, skills to prepare them for a more STEM-based job market. As STEM schools are created in a response to this call to action, research is needed to better understand how exemplary STEM schools successfully accomplish this goal. This conversion mixed method study analyzed student work samples and teacher lesson plans from seven exemplary inclusive STEM high schools to better understand at what level teachers at these schools are engaging and developing student 21 st Century skills.

We found of the 67 lesson plans collected at the inclusive STEM high schools, 50 included instruction on 21 st Century skills. Most of these lesson plans designed instruction for 21 st Century skills at an introductory level. Few lesson plans encouraged multiple 21 st Century skills and addressed higher levels of those skills. Although there was not a significant difference between levels of 21 st Century skills by grade level, there was an overall trend of higher levels of 21 st Century skills demonstrated in lesson plans designed for grades 11 and 12. We also found that lesson plans that lasted three or more days had higher levels of 21 st Century skills.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that inclusive STEM high schools provide environments that support the development of 21 st Century skills. Yet, more can be done in the area of teacher professional development to improve instruction of high levels of 21 st Century skills.

Introduction

School-aged students in the USA are underperforming, particularly in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects. National Assessment of Educational Progress (U.S. Department of Education, 2015a ) scores show that in science, only 34% of 8th graders are performing at or above proficiency and 12th grade students at or above proficient US students drop to 22%. Similarly, mathematics scores show 33% of 8th graders and 22% of 12th graders were at or above proficiency (U.S. Department of Education, 2015a ). Additionally, the US mathematics scores for the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) for 2015 were lower than the scores for 2009 and 2012 (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; OECD, 2018 ). US students not only underachieve in mathematics and science, but are also not engaging successfully in engineering and technology. At the secondary level, there are relatively few students in the USA that take engineering (2%) and computer science (5.7%) (National Science Board, 2016 ). The NAEP technology and engineering literacy (TEL) assessment found that for technology and engineering literacy, only 43% of 8th graders were at or above the proficiency level (U.S. Department of Education, 2015b ). This consistent trend of underperformance has focused many national, state, and local efforts to improve student experiences in integrated STEM subjects (cf. President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, 2010 ; Texas Education Association ( n.d. ) for school-aged students and beyond.

The efforts for improvement in STEM teaching in K-12 environments have yielded a slight increase in the enrollment of STEM majors recently (National Science Board, 2016 ). However, roughly half of students who declare a STEM major when entering college either switch majors or drop out of college (National Science Board, 2016 ). One approach to helping students persist in undergraduate education is a stronger foundation in content knowledge, academic skills, and noncognitive skills (Farrington et al., 2012 ). Academic skills, including analysis and problem solving skills, allow students to engage with content knowledge at higher levels of cognition. Noncognitive skills, including study skills, time management, and self-management, assist students in optimizing their ability to gain content knowledge and use their academic skills to solve problems. Students who possess these skills have high-quality academic behaviors, characterized by a pursuit of academic goals despite any setbacks (Farrington et al., 2012 ).

Because academic skills, noncognitive skills, and content knowledge have fluid definitions and may not be directly observable, for the purposes of this study we used 21 st Century skills consisting of knowledge construction, real-world problem solving, skilled communication, collaboration, use of information and communication technology for learning, and self-regulation (Partnership for 21 st Century Learning, 2016 ). Graduates who possess 21 st Century skills are sought out by employers (National Research Council, 2013 ). In the environment of rapid advancements in technology and globalization, employees need to be flexible and perpetual learners in order to keep up with new developments (Bybee, 2013 ; Johnson, Peters-Burton, & Moore, 2016 ). There is a need to ensure that students who graduate the K-12 system are adept in 21 st Century skills so that they can be successful in this new workforce landscape (Bybee, 2013 ).

Not only do 21 st Century skills help students be successful in all areas of formal school, these skills are also necessary for a person to adapt and thrive in an ever changing world (Partnership for 21 st Century Learning, 2016 ). One movement embracing the need for the development of student 21 st Century skills is the proliferation of inclusive STEM high schools (ISHSs), schools that serve all students regardless of prior academic achievement (LaForce et al., 2016 ; Lynch et al., 2018 ). ISHSs promote student research experiences by using inquiry-based curricular models to scaffold independent learning and encourage personal responsibility (Tofel-Grehl & Callahan, 2014 ). The goal for ISHSs to facilitate this type of student-centered learning is to build students’ 21 st Century skills such as adaptability, communication, problem solving, critical thinking, collaboration, and self-management (Bybee, 2013 ; Johnson et al., 2016 ; LaForce et al., 2016 ). Although there has been some evidence that not all ISHSs are advantageous in offering STEM opportunities (Eisenhart et al., 2015 ), there is an accumulation of evidence that ISHSs can increase college and career readiness for students from groups who are typically underrepresented in STEM careers (Erdogan & Stuessy, 2015 ; Means, Wang, Viki, Peters, & Lynch, 2016 ). As the number of inclusive STEM schools continue to increase across the USA, there is a need to understand the ways these schools successfully engage students in 21 st Century skills. The purpose of this paper is to systematically analyze teacher-constructed lessons and student work from seven exemplar ISHSs in order to better understand how teachers are engaging and developing student 21 st Century skills.

Specifically, this study looked at the extent to which teachers at these exemplar ISHSs ask students to practice the 21 st Century skills and at the level of student performance of the following categories: (a) knowledge construction, (b) real-world problem solving, (c) skilled communication, (d) collaboration, (e) use of information and communication technology (ICT) for learning, and (f) self-regulation (SRI International, n.d. -a; SRI International, n.d. -b). An examination of the lesson plans and student work products at exemplar ISHSs provides insight into effective development of student 21 st Century skills in a variety of contexts.

Conceptual framework

In an attempt to clearly define the skills, content knowledge and literacies that students would need to be successful in their future endeavors, the Partnership for 21 st Century Learning (P21; 2016) created a framework that includes (a) life and career skills; (b) learning and innovation skills; (c) information, media, and technology skills; and (d) key subjects (Partnership for 21 st Century Learning, 2016 ). The first three parts of the framework, (a) life and career skills, (b) learning and innovation skills, and (c) information, media, and technology skills, describe proficiencies or literacies students should develop and can be integrated and developed in any academic lesson. The fourth piece, key subjects, suggests 21 st Century interdisciplinary themes or content to engage students in authentic study (Partnership for 21 st Century Learning, 2016 ).

Due to the need to build 21 st Century skills, this study focused on the teaching and learning of (a) learning and innovation skills; (b) information, media, and technology skills; and (c) life and career skills at exemplar ISHSs. In order to operationalize and measure the three categories, we searched for instruments that measured the learning of 21 st Century skills. Microsoft, in collaboration with SRI Education, developed two rubrics that are designed to assess the extent to which 21 st Century skills are present in lessons and the extent to which students demonstrate the skills from these lessons (SRI International, n.d. -a; SRI International, n.d. -b). The 21 st Century Learning Design Learning Activity Rubric examined the proficiency of teacher lesson plans for the development of 21 st Century skills while the 21 st Century Learning Design Student Work Rubric examined the level of competency for each 21 st Century skill. Although the rubrics did not align exactly with the P21 Framework, we felt that there was enough alignment with the categories that the rubrics would be useful in measuring the extent to which lessons in ISHSs taught 21 st Century skills and the extent to which students demonstrated these skills. The rubrics had the same categories for lesson assessment and student work assessment: (a) knowledge construction, (b) real-world problem solving, (c) skilled communication, (d) collaboration, (e) use of ICT for learning, and (f) self-regulation in teacher lesson plans and student work samples (SRI International, n.d. -a; SRI International, n.d. -b). Table 1 shows how the categories assessed in the two rubrics align with the categories in the P21 Framework. Further, as we reviewed the literature on these categories, a model of their relationship emerged. Our literature review discusses the individual categories followed by the conceptual model of how these categories work together in 21 st Century skill development.

• Knowledge construction

Knowledge construction occurs when students create new knowledge themselves rather than reproducing or consuming information (Prettyman, Ward, Jauk, & Awad, 2012 ; Shear, Novais, Means, Gallagher, & Langworthy, 2010 ). When students participate in knowledge construction rather than reproduction, they build a deeper understanding of the content. Learning environments that are designed for knowledge construction promote self-regulated and self-directed learners as well as building grit (Carpenter & Pease, 2013 ).

Although knowledge construction helps students to build deep understandings and skills to be self-directed and resilient learners, many students are unfamiliar with this approach to learning and frequently need scaffolding to take on joint responsibility of learning (Carpenter & Pease, 2013 ; Peters, 2010 ). When transitioning to a more student-centered learning environment that supports knowledge construction, the teacher becomes more of a facilitator rather than a lecturer (McCabe & O’Connor, 2014 ). A student-centered learning environment encourages students to shift from a paradigm of expecting one convergent answer and toward deeper meaning-making when learning (Peters, 2010 ). Knowledge construction anchors the development of 21 st Century skills because students need to be able to have background knowledge in order to perform the skills in an authentic context.

• Real-world problem solving

Sometimes called project-based learning (Warin, Talbi, Kolski, & Hoogstoel, 2016 ), real-world problem solving is characterized by students working to solve problems that have no current solution and where the students can implement their own approach (Shear et al., 2010 ). When solving a real-world problem, students work to identify the problem, propose a solution for a specific client, test the solution, and share their ideas (Prettyman et al., 2012 ; Warin et al., 2016 ). The design aspect of the process encourages students to be creative and learn from failures (Carroll, 2015 ). When using real-world problem solving, students develop knowledge in a meaningful way (White & Frederiksen, 1998 ), must regulate their cognition and behavior in a way to reach their goals (Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, & Campione, 1983 ; Flavell, 1987 ), and gain experience defending their choices through evidence and effective communication skills (Voss & Post, 1988 ).

Teachers can develop real-world problem solving skills in their students by modeling inquiry after research actual scientist are involved in, using databases with real-life data, and evaluating evidence from current events (Chinn & Malhortra, 2002 ). Designing real-world problem scenarios for the classroom provide a framework by which students can engage in 21 st Century learning and can help to encourage a more positive attitude towards STEM careers (Williams & Mangan, 2016 ). Together, knowledge construction and real-world problem solving create the foundation from which students can engage in self-regulation, collaboration, and communication.

• Self-regulation

Self-regulation is a key 21 st Century skill for independent learners. Students who are self-regulated plan their approach to problem solving, monitor their progress, and reflect on their work given feedback (Shear et al., 2010 ; Zimmerman, 2000 ). During the self-regulation process, a student motivates himself or herself to control impulses in order to efficiently solve problems (Carpenter & Pease, 2013 ; English & Kitsantas, 2013 ). Fortunately, these skills are teachable; however, students need time to accomplish regulatory tasks and guidance for the key processes of reflection and revision (Zimmerman, 2000 ). Therefore, long-term projects give a more appropriate time frame than short-term projects to hone these regulatory skills.

Students have different levels of self-regulation (English & Kitsantas, 2013 ) and teachers may need to integrate strategies and ways of monitoring students into lessons (Bell & Pape, 2014 ; English & Kitsantas, 2013 ). Incorporating self-regulated learning strategies helps students to stay engaged and deal with any adversity that may come up in the process (Boekaerts, 2016 ; Peters & Kitsantas, 2010 ). A tangible way teachers can support student self-regulation is by using Zimmerman’s ( 1998 ) four-stage model of self-regulated learning support: modeling, emulation, self-control, and self-regulation (Peters, 2010 ). First, teachers explicitly model the target learning strategy that the student should acquire, pointing out key processes (modeling). Second, teachers can provide students with verbal or written support for the key processes of the learning strategy while the student attempts to emulate the modeling from the teacher (emulation). Once students can roughly emulate the learning strategy, the teacher can fade support and have the student try to do the learning strategy on their own (self-control). After students attempt it on their own, the teacher provides feedback to the student to help them improve their attempted learning strategy (self-regulation). When a student can successfully perform the learning strategy on their own, they have become self-regulated in that aspect of their learning. Students who have mastered self-regulated learning have the ability to be proactive in knowledge building and in problem solving, which are characteristics that STEM industry employers value.

• Collaboration

Collaboration occurs when students take on roles and interact with one another in groups while working to produce a product (Shear et al., 2010 ). Collaborative interactions include taking on leadership roles, making decisions, building trust, communicating, reflecting, and managing conflicts (Carpenter & Pease, 2013 ). Students who collaborate solve problems at higher levels than students who work individually because students respond to feedback and questions to create solutions that better fit the problem (Care, Scoular, & Griffin, 2016 ). Collaboration is an important skill to enhance knowledge building and problem solving. Conversations among peers can support student self-regulated learning through modeling of verbalized thinking.

• Skilled communication

“Even the most brilliant scientific discovery, if not communicated widely and accurately, is of little value” (McNutt, 2013 , p. 13). For the purpose of this paper, skilled communication is defined as types of communication used to present or explain information, not discourse communication. Skilled communicators present their ideas and demonstrate how they use relevant evidence (Shear et al., 2010 ). An important part of being able to communicate successfully is the ability to connect a product to the needs of a specific audience or client (Warin et al., 2016 ). In doing so, the students need to take into account both the media they are using and the ideas they are communicating so that it is appropriate for the audience (Claro et al., 2012 ; van Laar, van Deursen, van Dijk, & de Haan, 2017 ). Like collaboration, skilled communication is a necessary process to successfully employ knowledge construction and real-world problem solving.

Use of information and communication technology for learning

When students use information and communication technology (ICT) for learning, they are designing, creating, representing, evaluating, or improving a product, not merely demonstrating their knowledge (Koh, Chai, Benjamin, & Hong, 2015 ). In doing so, they need to choose how and when to use the ICT as well as know how to recognize credible online resources (Shear et al., 2010 ). The effective use of ICT requires self-regulation in order to use these tools independently and to keep up with technological advances. Given the continuous advancements in technology, it is essential that students know how to manage and communicate information in order to solve problems (Ainley, Fraillon, Schulz, & Gebhardt, 2016 ).

Conceptual Model of 21 st Century Skills

The six 21 st Century skills presented above are critical for students to develop to prepare for both college (National Science Board, 2016 ) and the future employment (Bybee, 2013 ; Johnson et al., 2016 ). Twenty-first century skills do not exists in isolation. By building one skill, others are reinforced. For example, knowledge construction and real-world problem solving can be enhanced by self-regulation. Likewise, collaboration requires skilled communication to build knowledge and solve problems. These skills coalesce to build the necessary toolkit for students who can learn on their own. Figure 1 shows a working hypothesis of how these six skills, (a) knowledge construction, (b) real-world problem solving, (c) skilled communication, (d) collaboration, (e) use of ICT for learning, and (f) self-regulation, interact to foster lifelong learning for student.

Working hypothesis of how 21 st Century skills work together to build a 21 st Century student

Knowledge construction and real-world problem solving are the keystones of the model and typically represent the two main goals of student-centered lessons. Knowledge construction is the conceptual formation while real-world problem solving represents the process skills that students are expected to develop. Knowledge construction and real-world problem solving feed each other in a circular fashion. Knowledge construction is built through the inquiry process of real-world problem solving. At the same time, real-world problem solving requires new knowledge to be constructed in order to solve the problem at hand. The connection between knowledge construction and real work problem solving is mediated by collaboration and communication.

While communication and collaboration allow a student to work with others to build their conceptual knowledge and work toward a solution to their real-world problem, self-regulation is an internal process that occurs simultaneously. The student’s self-regulation guides the student’s individual connections, reflections, and revisions between knowledge construction and real-world problem solving.

Information and communication technology provides tools for the students to facilitate communication and collaboration as well as other 21 st Century skills. ICT helps to simplify and assist the communication and collaboration for groups of students. ICT can help streamline the process of analysis and record keeping as well as facilitating the sharing ideas with others. It allows students to more easily document their progress and express their ideas for later reflection. Although ICT is not directly connected with other elements in the model, the use of ICT allows for the learning process to be more efficient.

The six 21 st Century skills addressed in this study, (a) knowledge construction, (b) real-world problem solving, (c) skilled communication, (d) collaboration, (e) use of ICT for learning, and (f) self-regulation, are important facets of STEM education. This study documented the extent to which each of the 21 st Century skills were present in both lesson plans and in student work at seven exemplar ISHSs. Given that the schools in the study were highly regarded, understanding the structure and student outcomes of lessons could provide a model for teachers and teacher educators. With that in mind, the study was driven by the following research questions:

To what extent do teacher lesson plans at exemplar ISHSs exhibit 21 st Century learning practices as measured by the 21 st Century Learning Design Learning Activity and Student Work Rubrics?

Do teacher lesson plans and student work samples from exemplar ISHSs show differences in rubric scores by grade level?

During the analysis of these questions, a third research question emerged regarding the duration of lessons. The question and rationale can be found in the data analysis section.

This study is part of a larger multiple instrumental case study of eight exemplar ISHSs. The larger study (Opportunity Structures for Preparation and Inspiration in STEM; OSPrI) examined the common features of successful ISHSs (Lynch et al., 2018 ; Lynch, Peters-Burton, & Ford, 2014 ). OSPrI identified 14 critical components (CC; Table 2 ) that successful ISHSs possess (Behrend et al., 2016 ; Lynch et al., 2015 ; Lynch, Means, Behrend, & Peters-Burton, 2011 ; Peters-Burton, Lynch, Behrend, & Means, 2014 ). Three of the 14 critical components involve the application of 21 st Century skills in the classroom. This study addresses these three critical components: (a) CC1: STEM focused curriculum for all, (b) CC2: reform instructional strategies and project-based learning, and (c) CC3: integrated, innovative technology use.

Cross-case analysis of the eight schools found similarities in how the schools addressed two specific critical components: CC1: college-prep, STEM focused curriculum for all and CC2: reform instructional strategies and project-based learning. From these two critical components, curriculum and instruction, four themes emerged: (a) classroom-related STEM opportunities, (b) cross-cutting school level STEM learning opportunities, (c) school-wide design for STEM opportunities, and (d) responsive design (Peters-Burton, House, Han, & Lynch, 2018 ). The theme of classroom-related STEM opportunities was characterized by the expectation that teachers act as designers of the curriculum and look beyond the typical textbook for resources. While designing the curriculum, teachers took a mastery learning approach and provided students multiple opportunities to master the material. Through the use of collaborative group projects, summative projects, culminating projects, and interdisciplinary studies, the schools demonstrated a cross-cutting school level approach to the STEM learning. School-wide STEM opportunities included a rigorous curriculum, incorporating engineering classes and/or engineering design thinking, emphasizing connections between the curriculum and real-world examples, as well as building strong collaboration between teachers. Finally, these ISHSs had systems such as data-driven decision making and supports for incoming ninth graders built into their schools as a responsive design. In summary, these schools worked to improve students’ 21 st Century skill such as collaboration, problem solving, information and media literacy, and self-directed learning (Lynch et al., 2018 ).

Research design

This study was designed as a conversion mixed methods approach (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003 ) in that qualitative data were transformed into quantitative data using established rubrics. Document analysis was used as a tool to identify occasions of evidence within lessons plans and student work products related to the identified 21 st Century skills (Krippendorff, 2012 ). In this conversion approach, the 21 st Century skill demonstrated qualitatively in the documents was scored using the rubrics, ergo integrating qualitative and quantitative methods in the analysis.

Participating schools

The eight exemplar ISHSs for this study came from the same quintain as used by the OSPrI project (Lynch et al., 2018 ). Because this origin project was a cross-case analysis and the IRB did not allow for school to school comparison, the data collected from individual schools was aggregated as one data source. Protocol for inclusion in the OSPrI study was that the school had no academic admission requirements, self-identified as a STEM school, was in operation for grades 9 through 12, and intentionally recruited students typically underrepresented in STEM. For more information on the demographics of the schools and the selection process, see Lynch et al., 2018 . Of the eight schools that were in the original OSPrI project, seven provided teacher lesson plans and/or student work samples during the school visit. All schools have given permission to use their actual names. The sample size from each school was inconsistent, therefore, we treated the data set as one combined group that included all seven schools.

Data sources

Student work samples and teacher lesson plans were collected during OSPrI site visits to the seven schools, which were each visited once between 2012 and 2014. Researchers requested paper copies of typical lesson plans and student work that resulted in an average performance from the lesson plan that was observed at all eight ISHSs during the site visits. Because this was a convenience sample, not all teachers submitted lesson plans, and only a few teachers submitted the student work products related to those lessons. Unfortunately, few parents consented to release student work products. As a result, 67 teacher lesson plans and 29 student work samples were collected from seven of the eight schools. We decided to keep the student work products in the descriptive portion of the analysis, but not the inferential analysis in the study because this is a unique opportunity to gain even a small insight into student work from STEM schools that were considered exemplary and served students who are typically underrepresented in STEM. Table 3 describes the content matter and grade level(s) associated collected teacher lesson plan and corresponding student work product.

Each teacher lesson plan was analyzed using the 21 st Century Learning Design (21CLD) Learning Activity Rubric and each student work product was analyzed using the 21 st Century Learning Design Student Work Rubric (SRI International, n.d.-a; SRI International, n.d.-b). These instruments were found to be valid and reliable for use in high school classrooms, and Shear et al., 2010 reports the details of the development and validation of the rubrics. Although the student work products were related to the teacher lesson plans, they were analyzed independently according to the protocol of the 21CLD rubrics. The 21CLD Activity Rubric and the 21CLD Student Work Rubric were designed by Microsoft Partner’s in Learning with a collaboration between ITL Research and SRI International (SRI International, n.d.-a; SRI International, n.d.-b). These two 21CLD rubrics were the result of a multi-year project synthesizing research-based practices that promote 21 st Century skills (Shear et al., 2010 ). The rubrics, each 44-pages in length, are available online for public use ( https://education.microsoft.com/GetTrained/ITL-Research ). The 21CLD rubrics assess teacher lesson plans or student work products on six metrics aligned with 21 st Century skills: (a) knowledge construction, (b) real-world problem solving, (c) skilled communication, (d) collaboration, (e) use of ICT for learning, and (f) self-regulation (SRI International, n.d.-a; SRI International, n.d.-b). Collaboration, knowledge construction, and use of ICT score ratings range from one to five while real-world problem solving, self-regulation, and skilled communication score ratings range from one to four.

Data analysis

The teacher lessons and student work samples were assessed on (a) knowledge construction, (b) real-world problem solving, (c) skilled communication, (d) collaboration, (e) use of ICT for learning, and (f) self-regulation using the 21CLD Learning Activity and the 21CLD Student Work Rubrics respectively. Examples of excerpts from teacher lesson plans and student work products for each category can be found in Table 4 . Two raters were used to establish interrater reliability. Both raters have a background as secondary science teachers and were trained on the use of the rubric. One rater has a terminal degree in education and the other rater is a doctoral student in education. The two raters met and discussed the rubric scores until the interrater reliability was 100%. Once consensus scores were established, tests for assumptions, descriptive, and inferential statistics were run.

During the analysis of research questions one and two, unique trends of short-term and long-term lesson plans were noted. From this, a third research question emerged from the analysis:

Are there differences in the 21 CLD Learning Activity scores of short-term lessons and long-term lessons?

The 21CLD Learning Activity and the 21CLD Student Work Rubrics required a lesson to be long-term order to assess self-regulation. The rubric defined long-term as “if students work on it for a substantive period of time” (SRI International, n.d.-a, p. 32). From our reading of the lesson plans, lessons that were scheduled for three or more days met the criterion of a substantive period of time, while lesson that were scheduled for 1 or 2 days did not meet this criterion. For the purposes of this study, we decided to refine the definition of long-term to be a lesson lasting three or more class periods and a short-term lesson lasting less than three class periods. The analyses for all research questions separated lessons into long-term and short-term in order to clarify the category of self-regulation.

The data were checked for normality, skewness, and outliers; only the teacher lesson plans met all assumptions for an ANOVA (comparison of grade levels) and t test (long-term versus short-term). Due to the small number of student work samples collected (see Table 6 ), the data related to student work did not meet the assumptions needed to run a t test therefore was not included in this analysis.

Overall rubric scores

To answer the first research question, a descriptive analysis was run for each of the six categories on the rubric and the total score (found in Tables 5 and 6 ). The average score for all teacher lesson plans was less than 2 for all six categories (out of a total of 4 or 5). Likewise, overall student work sample averages scored below 2 except on the category of Knowledge Construction. Table 6 also shows the median score for long-term student work sample categories to better describe central tendencies of the data. Figure 2 shows the distribution of total rubric scores for all teacher lesson plans. Seventeen of the 67 lessons scored a 6, the lowest possible score. Only 16 of the 67 lessons scored higher than 13 points, half of the total possible points. Out of those 16 scoring over 50%, only three lessons scored 20 points or more out of the possible 27.

Distribution of total 21CLD rubric scores for all lessons

Figure 3 illustrates the quantity of 21 st Century skills found in each lesson. Nearly 75% of the teacher lesson plans included at least one 21 st Century skill in the lesson and 67% addressed two or more 21 st Century skills. Although most of the lessons at the ISHSs introduced multiple 21 st Century skills, the overall scores for the quality were low.

Distribution of number of 21 st Century skills addressed in a lesson

21 st Century learning by grade

To answer the second research question, an ANOVA was conducted to compare lesson scores by grade level. There were no statistically significant differences between grade level scores for the total rubric score. Data were separated into short-term and long-term lessons by rubric category. There were no significant differences in short-term lessons by grade level (Fig. 4 ). However, there were significant differences across grades for long-term lessons. Total rubric score for grade 12 lessons were significantly higher than grade 9 ( p = 0.023) and grade 11 ( p = 0.032). Difference in total rubric scores for grade 12 lessons were approaching significance with grade 10 ( p = 0.063). As seen in Fig. 5 , category scores for long-term learning activities have small differences in 9th, 10th, and 11th grades but peaks noticeably in 12th grade. The exception to this trend is use of ICT which peaks in 11th grade.

The average rubric metric scores for short-term lessons, sorted by grade level for the lesson

The average rubric metric scores for long-term lessons, sorted by grade level for the lesson

Long-term versus short-term assignments

To answer the second research question, a t test with Bonferroni correction was performed to compare long-term and short-term lessons for each of the categories. A statistically significant difference was found between short-term ( N = 35) and long-term ( N = 32) lessons on total score, knowledge construction, use of ICT, self-regulation, and skilled communication (Table 7 ). The effect sizes for these categories as calculated by Hedges g (Lakens, 2013 ) were all above 0.8 indicated large effect size (Table 7 ). In all of those categories, long-term lessons scored higher than short-term lessons (Table 5 ). The category of real-world problem solving was approaching statistical significance with the t-score not showing significance [ t = − 2.67, p = .001] but a statistically significant confidence interval [− 1.23, 0.003] and a medium effect size (Table 7 ).

• 21 st Century skills

Overall, the teacher lesson plans collected at the ISHSs showed evidence of addressing 21 st Century skills. Nearly 75% of the lessons included at least one 21 st Century skill with 67% addressing two or more. Although the majority of lessons addressed multiple 21 st Century skills, the rubric scores for these lessons were low because they addressed these skills at a minimal level. For example, a minimal level of collaboration would be instructions to form a group. A high level of collaboration would include defining roles, explicit instructions on how to share responsibility, and evidence of interdependence. Only five lessons showed evidence of multiple 21 st Century skills implemented at the highest level, as measured by the 21CLD Learning Activity Rubric.

While assessing the lesson plans, we noted that more explicit instructions in the teacher lesson plans would have resulted in higher rubric scores. Placing students in groups, structuring peer feedback, and having students design a final project for a particular audience are three small changes not seen frequently in the lesson plans that are articulated in the Lesson Plan rubrics to encourage multiple 21 st Century skills. When students work in groups, they improve their collaboration and communication skills while constructing knowledge and solving problems (Care et al., 2016 ; Shear et al., 2010 ). When teachers incorporate peer feedback into their lesson, students engage in collaboration. Peer feedback also gives students the opportunity to revise their work based on feedback, increasing self-regulation (Shear et al., 2010 ; Zimmerman, 2000 ). When students design their final project for a specific target audience, rather than simply displaying their knowledge for the teacher, they work on their skilled communication processes (Claro et al., 2012 ; van Laar et al., 2017 ; Warin et al., 2016 ). In summary, placing students in groups, structuring peer feedback, and having students design a final project for a particular audience provides opportunities for students to practice 21 st Century skills.

When lessons addressed more than one 21 st Century skill, they usually demonstrated the use of collaboration or communication in real-world problem solving and knowledge construction (Care et al., 2016 ; Carpenter & Pease, 2013 ). Thirty-three lesson plans in which real-world problem solving or knowledge construction was evident, 31 showed evidence of collaboration or communication. Similarly, 13 of the 18 student work samples showed evidence of collaboration or communication when real-world problem solving or knowledge construction was practiced. The results from the indirect measures of the rubric build support for a conceptual model connecting the components of 21 st Century skills (Fig. 1 ). There was some evidence demonstrating the support that collaboration and communication have for knowledge construction and real-world problem solving.

The findings of this study point to the likelihood of self-regulation being connected to other 21 st Century skills. Each time self-regulation was present in a teacher lesson plan, there was evidence of at least one other 21 st Century skill in that lesson. Seventeen of the 23 lesson plans addressing self-regulation included at least three other 21 st Century skills, showing evidence that self-regulation is a skill that is related to knowledge construction and real-world problem solving. Our findings reflect the findings of other researchers, in that self-regulation guides the students’ individual connections, reflections, and revisions between knowledge construction and real-world problem solving (Brown et al., 1983 ; Carpenter & Pease, 2013 ; Flavell, 1987 ; Shear et al., 2010 ).

Evidence from the lessons showed that there was no consistent connection to the use of ICT and the presence of the other 21 st Century skills. ICT was seen in both low-scoring lessons as the sole 21 st Century skill, as well as in high-scoring lessons in tandem with multiple other 21 st Century skills. As in our model, technology is a tool to help facilitate but is not necessary in the development of the other 21 st Century skills (Koh et al., 2015 ; Shear et al., 2010 ). After examining the data, our model remained unchanged for all 21 st Century skills and their relationship to each other.

Grade level differences

Overall, there were no statistically significant differences in the total 21CLD scores across grade levels. This is consistent with the missions of the ISHSs in this study to shift responsibility for learning to the students by weaving 21 st Century skills throughout high school grade levels (Lynch et al., 2017 ). When looking at trends in long-term projects, there was a jump in total 21CLD score for 12th grade. Again, this aligns with the participating schools’ goals of creating an environment where students have a more independent learning experience during their senior year internships, college classes, and specialized programs CC1 (Lynch et al., 2018 ). This is consistent with the goal of many of the schools to have the students work independently during their senior year either by taking college classes, completing an internship, or taking a career specific set of classes.

Short-term vs. long-term lessons

The data showed that long-term lesson planning had significantly higher scores on the rubric as compared to the short-termed lessons. This difference is consistent with the literature regarding the need for students to have time to develop and practice skills (Lynch et al., 2017 ; NGSS Lead States, 2013 ). The extended time allows students to monitor and reflect on their progress while working toward self-regulation of the skill (Carpenter & Pease, 2013 ; English & Kitsantas, 2013 ). To truly become self-regulated, students need repeated supported attempts to be able to do it on their own (Zimmerman, 2000 ).

Although not significant, collaboration was the only rubric metric where the short-term lessons averaged a higher collaboration score than the long-term lessons. Evidence from the lessons show students worked in pairs or groups, but infrequently shared responsibility, made decisions together, or worked interdependently. This leads to the possibility that incorporating the higher levels of collaborations is difficult, even in long-term projects. In addition, evaluating the higher levels of collaboration is difficult to make based solely on documents. Observations would be required to evaluate how the students within the group were interacting with one another.

Limitations

Because this study used data collected as part of a larger study, there were several limitations. The work collected is a snapshot of the work students were doing at the time of the observation and does not allow for a clear longitudinal look at student growth over time. As stated before, the small student work sample limited what we were able to do with the analysis.

By only analyzing paper copies of the student work, it was not possible to determine a true collaboration score for many of the projects. Higher levels of collaboration such as sharing responsibility, making decisions together, and working interdependently require observation or more detailed notes from the students or teachers. Some lessons may have scored higher in the metric of collaboration had the student interactions been observed or noted.

This study confirmed the presence of all identified 21 st Century skills in the lesson plans at the selected exemplar ISHSs serving underrepresented students in STEM: (a) knowledge construction, (b) real-world problem solving, (c) skilled communication, (d) collaboration, (e) use of information and communication technology (ICT) for learning, and (f) self-regulation. In light of the patterns that emerged from the rubrics, we posit that in the lesson plans communication and collaboration are the core 21st Century skills that facilitate knowledge construction and real-world problem solving, while student self-regulation creates efficiencies resulting in improved knowledge construction and real-world problem solving. We also saw in the lesson plans that ICT provides tools to support communication and reflection which leads to knowledge construction and real-world problem solving. To further develop knowledge about how 21 st Century skills addressed in lesson plans help to support student work, our model can be a hypothesized starting point to investigate interactions.

While teachers were successful at including 21 st Century skills into lessons, very few lessons practiced higher levels of those skills. This could be an indication that high levels of 21 st Century skills are difficult to teach explicitly at the high school level. Future studies may investigate why teachers are not frequently incorporating higher level 21 st Century skills into their lessons to answer questions as to whether teachers feel that (a) they need more training on incorporating 21 st Century skills, (b) students need more practice and scaffolding to build up to higher levels of 21 st Century skills, or (c) they need more time for long-term projects to work on the higher level skills.

The use of the 21CLD rubric is a tangible way for teachers to self-assess the level of 21 st Century skills in their lessons. Self-evaluation helps encourage reflection, promote professional growth, and recommendations for new aspects of lessons (Akram & Zepeda, 2015 ; Peterson & Comeaux, 1990 ). This can also help teachers make the instructions for the development of 21 st Century skills more explicit in their lesson. In conducting a self-evaluation, teachers may realize that they do not have a deep understanding of the characteristics of 21 st Century skills. If teachers are new to incorporating these skills into their lessons, the teachers may need time to learn the skills themselves before they can incorporate them into their lessons (Yoon et al., 2015 ). Further studies may examine how teachers use the 21CLD rubric to improve their lesson.

Students need time to grapple with and learn new skills (Lynch et al., 2017 ; NGSS Lead States, 2013 ). While we were able to see evidence of higher rubric scores for 21 st Century skills for 12th grade students in the lesson plans, due to the convenience sampling of lesson plans and student work samples, we were not able to look at how students’ 21 st Century skills were built over time. There is a desire to better understand how ISHSs successfully develop these skills. This includes how schools incorporate and build the 21 st Century skills (a) within multiple lessons in one course, (b) across multiple classes over the course of a school year, and (c) throughout the students’ entire high school sequence. Future research may look at a longitudinal study that follows one student’s work over an entire school year to see how the 21CLD scores change. In addition, future studies may also look at how the short-term projects build the skills needed for the students to incorporate higher levels of 21 st Century skills in long-term projects.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

21 st Century Learning Design

Critical component

Information and communication technology

Inclusive STEM high school

National Assessment of Educational Progress

Next-generation science standards

Opportunity Structures for Preparation and Inspiration in STEM

Partnership for 21 st Century Learning

Programme for International Student Assessment

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

Technology and engineering literacy

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Acknowledgments

Publication of this article was funded in part by the George Mason University Libraries Open Access Publishing Fund.

This work was conducted by the OSPrI research project, with Sharon Lynch, Tara Behrend, Erin Peters-Burton, and Barbara Means as principal investigators. Funding for OSPrI was provided by the National Science Foundation (DRL 1118851). Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of endorsement of the funding agency.

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Stehle, S.M., Peters-Burton, E.E. Developing student 21 st Century skills in selected exemplary inclusive STEM high schools. IJ STEM Ed 6 , 39 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-019-0192-1

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Theses and Dissertations

21st century learning skills in education and employability.

William Xavier Toro , Saint John's University, Jamaica New York

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3026-2389

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Education (Ed.D.)

Administrative and Instructional Leadership

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Anthony J. Annunziato

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Richard Bernato

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James Campbell

The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to research a diverse school in Westchester County, New York to analyze whether it is aligned to 21st century practices. This study used both qualitative and quantitative data from focus-group interviews, surveys and non-participant observations with administrators, teachers and department chairpersons to determine whether the school is aligned with 21st century practices to create an employable 21st century student. Furthermore, this study attempted to determine what gaps exist to make a student employable according to the needs of today and the future.

By analyzing the literature review, the researcher developed a conceptual framework. By examining studies by Tony Wagner, Linda Darling-Hammond, Thomas Friedman, Ken Robinson, Yong Zhao and other researchers, the data were then aligned to the conceptual framework, which answers the research questions.

This study revealed that the school being researched implemented and practiced many components of the researcher’s conceptual framework. The study of the data then revealed gaps in the researcher’s conceptual framework regarding funding and socio-emotional support.

The data revealed that the school was faithfully implementing the teaching of 21st century skills, utilizing some 21st century learning environments, developing a 21st century curriculum and had 21st century teachers implementing 21st century pedagogical practices. The data further revealed that the majority of the components were being implemented or utilized.

This study demonstrated that the school has implemented structures and is maintaining practices that support a student becoming employable in the 21st century.

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Toro, William Xavier, "21st CENTURY LEARNING SKILLS IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYABILITY" (2019). Theses and Dissertations . 74. https://scholar.stjohns.edu/theses_dissertations/74

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CRITICAL THINKING AS A 21st CENTURY SKILL: CONCEPTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION AND CHALLENGES IN THE EFL CLASSROOM

This qualitative research explores the conceptions, implementation and challenges of critical thinking in the FL classroom. 24 Libyan EFL university instructors participated in this study though completing an open-ended questionnaire sent via FB messenger. The content analysis applied to the participants’ answers revealed different conceptions and misconceptions of critical thinking. It also revealed that the majority of the participants implemented critical thinking in different aspects of their teaching. Some social, cultural and administrative barriers limited the effectiveness of this implementation. Nevertheless, the development of this kind of thinking for 21 st century EFL learners is a necessity, not an option.

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