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Thesis – Structure, Example and Writing Guide

Table of contents.

Definition:

Thesis is a scholarly document that presents a student’s original research and findings on a particular topic or question. It is usually written as a requirement for a graduate degree program and is intended to demonstrate the student’s mastery of the subject matter and their ability to conduct independent research.

History of Thesis

The concept of a thesis can be traced back to ancient Greece, where it was used as a way for students to demonstrate their knowledge of a particular subject. However, the modern form of the thesis as a scholarly document used to earn a degree is a relatively recent development.

The origin of the modern thesis can be traced back to medieval universities in Europe. During this time, students were required to present a “disputation” in which they would defend a particular thesis in front of their peers and faculty members. These disputations served as a way to demonstrate the student’s mastery of the subject matter and were often the final requirement for earning a degree.

In the 17th century, the concept of the thesis was formalized further with the creation of the modern research university. Students were now required to complete a research project and present their findings in a written document, which would serve as the basis for their degree.

The modern thesis as we know it today has evolved over time, with different disciplines and institutions adopting their own standards and formats. However, the basic elements of a thesis – original research, a clear research question, a thorough review of the literature, and a well-argued conclusion – remain the same.

Structure of Thesis

The structure of a thesis may vary slightly depending on the specific requirements of the institution, department, or field of study, but generally, it follows a specific format.

Here’s a breakdown of the structure of a thesis:

This is the first page of the thesis that includes the title of the thesis, the name of the author, the name of the institution, the department, the date, and any other relevant information required by the institution.

This is a brief summary of the thesis that provides an overview of the research question, methodology, findings, and conclusions.

This page provides a list of all the chapters and sections in the thesis and their page numbers.

Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the research question, the context of the research, and the purpose of the study. The introduction should also outline the methodology and the scope of the research.

Literature Review

This chapter provides a critical analysis of the relevant literature on the research topic. It should demonstrate the gap in the existing knowledge and justify the need for the research.

Methodology

This chapter provides a detailed description of the research methods used to gather and analyze data. It should explain the research design, the sampling method, data collection techniques, and data analysis procedures.

This chapter presents the findings of the research. It should include tables, graphs, and charts to illustrate the results.

This chapter interprets the results and relates them to the research question. It should explain the significance of the findings and their implications for the research topic.

This chapter summarizes the key findings and the main conclusions of the research. It should also provide recommendations for future research.

This section provides a list of all the sources cited in the thesis. The citation style may vary depending on the requirements of the institution or the field of study.

This section includes any additional material that supports the research, such as raw data, survey questionnaires, or other relevant documents.

How to write Thesis

Here are some steps to help you write a thesis:

• Choose a Topic: The first step in writing a thesis is to choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. You should also consider the scope of the topic and the availability of resources for research.
• Develop a Research Question: Once you have chosen a topic, you need to develop a research question that you will answer in your thesis. The research question should be specific, clear, and feasible.
• Conduct a Literature Review: Before you start your research, you need to conduct a literature review to identify the existing knowledge and gaps in the field. This will help you refine your research question and develop a research methodology.
• Develop a Research Methodology: Once you have refined your research question, you need to develop a research methodology that includes the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis procedures.
• Collect and Analyze Data: After developing your research methodology, you need to collect and analyze data. This may involve conducting surveys, interviews, experiments, or analyzing existing data.
• Write the Thesis: Once you have analyzed the data, you need to write the thesis. The thesis should follow a specific structure that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, and references.
• Edit and Proofread: After completing the thesis, you need to edit and proofread it carefully. You should also have someone else review it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free of errors.
• Submit the Thesis: Finally, you need to submit the thesis to your academic advisor or committee for review and evaluation.

Example of Thesis

Example of Thesis template for Students:

Title of Thesis

Table of Contents:

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

Chapter 4: Results

Chapter 5: Discussion

Chapter 6: Conclusion

References:

Appendices:

Note: That’s just a basic template, but it should give you an idea of the structure and content that a typical thesis might include. Be sure to consult with your department or supervisor for any specific formatting requirements they may have. Good luck with your thesis!

Application of Thesis

Thesis is an important academic document that serves several purposes. Here are some of the applications of thesis:

• Academic Requirement: A thesis is a requirement for many academic programs, especially at the graduate level. It is an essential component of the evaluation process and demonstrates the student’s ability to conduct original research and contribute to the knowledge in their field.
• Career Advancement: A thesis can also help in career advancement. Employers often value candidates who have completed a thesis as it demonstrates their research skills, critical thinking abilities, and their dedication to their field of study.
• Publication : A thesis can serve as a basis for future publications in academic journals, books, or conference proceedings. It provides the researcher with an opportunity to present their research to a wider audience and contribute to the body of knowledge in their field.
• Personal Development: Writing a thesis is a challenging task that requires time, dedication, and perseverance. It provides the student with an opportunity to develop critical thinking, research, and writing skills that are essential for their personal and professional development.
• Impact on Society: The findings of a thesis can have an impact on society by addressing important issues, providing insights into complex problems, and contributing to the development of policies and practices.

Purpose of Thesis

The purpose of a thesis is to present original research findings in a clear and organized manner. It is a formal document that demonstrates a student’s ability to conduct independent research and contribute to the knowledge in their field of study. The primary purposes of a thesis are:

• To Contribute to Knowledge: The main purpose of a thesis is to contribute to the knowledge in a particular field of study. By conducting original research and presenting their findings, the student adds new insights and perspectives to the existing body of knowledge.
• To Demonstrate Research Skills: A thesis is an opportunity for the student to demonstrate their research skills. This includes the ability to formulate a research question, design a research methodology, collect and analyze data, and draw conclusions based on their findings.
• To Develop Critical Thinking: Writing a thesis requires critical thinking and analysis. The student must evaluate existing literature and identify gaps in the field, as well as develop and defend their own ideas.
• To Provide Evidence of Competence : A thesis provides evidence of the student’s competence in their field of study. It demonstrates their ability to apply theoretical concepts to real-world problems, and their ability to communicate their ideas effectively.
• To Facilitate Career Advancement : Completing a thesis can help the student advance their career by demonstrating their research skills and dedication to their field of study. It can also provide a basis for future publications, presentations, or research projects.

When to Write Thesis

The timing for writing a thesis depends on the specific requirements of the academic program or institution. In most cases, the opportunity to write a thesis is typically offered at the graduate level, but there may be exceptions.

Generally, students should plan to write their thesis during the final year of their graduate program. This allows sufficient time for conducting research, analyzing data, and writing the thesis. It is important to start planning the thesis early and to identify a research topic and research advisor as soon as possible.

In some cases, students may be able to write a thesis as part of an undergraduate program or as an independent research project outside of an academic program. In such cases, it is important to consult with faculty advisors or mentors to ensure that the research is appropriately designed and executed.

It is important to note that the process of writing a thesis can be time-consuming and requires a significant amount of effort and dedication. It is important to plan accordingly and to allocate sufficient time for conducting research, analyzing data, and writing the thesis.

Characteristics of Thesis

The characteristics of a thesis vary depending on the specific academic program or institution. However, some general characteristics of a thesis include:

• Originality : A thesis should present original research findings or insights. It should demonstrate the student’s ability to conduct independent research and contribute to the knowledge in their field of study.
• Clarity : A thesis should be clear and concise. It should present the research question, methodology, findings, and conclusions in a logical and organized manner. It should also be well-written, with proper grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
• Research-Based: A thesis should be based on rigorous research, which involves collecting and analyzing data from various sources. The research should be well-designed, with appropriate research methods and techniques.
• Evidence-Based : A thesis should be based on evidence, which means that all claims made in the thesis should be supported by data or literature. The evidence should be properly cited using appropriate citation styles.
• Critical Thinking: A thesis should demonstrate the student’s ability to critically analyze and evaluate information. It should present the student’s own ideas and arguments, and engage with existing literature in the field.
• Academic Style : A thesis should adhere to the conventions of academic writing. It should be well-structured, with clear headings and subheadings, and should use appropriate academic language.

Advantages of Thesis

There are several advantages to writing a thesis, including:

• Development of Research Skills: Writing a thesis requires extensive research and analytical skills. It helps to develop the student’s research skills, including the ability to formulate research questions, design and execute research methodologies, collect and analyze data, and draw conclusions based on their findings.
• Contribution to Knowledge: Writing a thesis provides an opportunity for the student to contribute to the knowledge in their field of study. By conducting original research, they can add new insights and perspectives to the existing body of knowledge.
• Preparation for Future Research: Completing a thesis prepares the student for future research projects. It provides them with the necessary skills to design and execute research methodologies, analyze data, and draw conclusions based on their findings.
• Career Advancement: Writing a thesis can help to advance the student’s career. It demonstrates their research skills and dedication to their field of study, and provides a basis for future publications, presentations, or research projects.
• Personal Growth: Completing a thesis can be a challenging and rewarding experience. It requires dedication, hard work, and perseverance. It can help the student to develop self-confidence, independence, and a sense of accomplishment.

Limitations of Thesis

There are also some limitations to writing a thesis, including:

• Time and Resources: Writing a thesis requires a significant amount of time and resources. It can be a time-consuming and expensive process, as it may involve conducting original research, analyzing data, and producing a lengthy document.
• Narrow Focus: A thesis is typically focused on a specific research question or topic, which may limit the student’s exposure to other areas within their field of study.
• Limited Audience: A thesis is usually only read by a small number of people, such as the student’s thesis advisor and committee members. This limits the potential impact of the research findings.
• Lack of Real-World Application : Some thesis topics may be highly theoretical or academic in nature, which may limit their practical application in the real world.
• Pressure and Stress : Writing a thesis can be a stressful and pressure-filled experience, as it may involve meeting strict deadlines, conducting original research, and producing a high-quality document.
• Potential for Isolation: Writing a thesis can be a solitary experience, as the student may spend a significant amount of time working independently on their research and writing.

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Chapter 6 Drafting

6.2 testing a thesis, learning objectives.

• Understand why you should test your thesis.
• Use questions to test a thesis.

Now that you have formed your working thesis, you are ready to test it. The purpose of the test is to satisfy yourself that your thesis will work well. To test your satisfaction, answer the following questions. Read the tips if you need some help answering the questions.

Question #1: Is your proposed thesis interesting ?

Tip: When you read the thesis statement, do you find yourself wondering about different aspects of the topic? In other words, do you want to know the answer to the thesis question? Do you think others will also want to know?

Question #2: Is your proposed thesis arguable ?

Tip: If you are writing an argumentative essay and developing a thesis for a topic that is controversial, make sure you can also formulate in your head what the thesis for “the other side” would sound like.

Question #3: Is your proposed thesis specific enough?

Tip: Make certain that your thesis addresses a specific point about a specific person, place, idea, or situation. Do not proceed with vague wording, such as “all over the world,” “many people,” or “will cause problems.” Avoid relying too much on qualitative, superlative, or hyperbolic language, such as excellent, awesome, interesting, sad, or silly. Such words do not carry any concrete meaning.

Question #4: Is your proposed thesis manageable ?

Tip: If you would have to research for two solid months to cover the breadth of the thesis, it is not suitable for a five-page paper. On the other hand, if a reader can understand the whole point simply by reading the thesis, the thesis is not suitable.

Question #5: Is your proposed thesis researchable ?

Tip: Make sure you are confident that you will be able to find the information you need. Proceeding when you think you will have trouble finding enough information can cost you a lot of time if you come to a point where you think you have to start over.

Question #6: Is your proposed thesis significant to you and others?

Tip: If you choose a thesis that you care deeply about, others are likely to also find it significant. After you determine that your thesis is something about which you care deeply, you should double-check that your desired audience will also care.

After you have chosen a topic and a thesis and have begun work on the essay, you will be invested in your idea, so it won’t be as easy to answer these questions objectively. But doing so early on is worth the effort since the process will likely result in a more successful essay in the long run.

Key Takeaways

• You should test your thesis for your satisfaction that your thesis will work well.
• To test a thesis, you need to ask questions to determine whether it is sufficiently interesting, arguable, specific, manageable, researchable, and significant.
• The thesis-testing process requires effort but will likely result in your satisfaction and a more successful essay.

Each of the following six thesis-testing questions is followed by two sample theses. In each case, choose the thesis for which the answer to the question is “yes.” Explain why the option that wasn’t chosen does not receive a “yes” answer.

• Textbooks are unpleasant to read.
• Students who have a steady love interest in college tend to receive higher grades.
• America’s foreign policy in the Balkans from 1991 to the present has had a stabilizing influence in the region.
• The world would be a better place if we would just give peace a chance.
• American toddlers who live with small pet dogs are more comfortable playing by themselves without the attention of a playmate or parent.
• Girls who marry young have lifelong self-esteem problems.
• Native Americans in North America want to maintain old customs.
• Music can actually provide a helpful studying background for some students.
• Milk chocolate doesn’t taste as good as it did when I was a kid.
• Costa Rica’s declining cacao crop over the last twenty years has been caused by several factors: climate change, natural disasters, and a changing workforce.
• Reality television and social networking sites have contributed to changes in how eighteen- to twenty-nine-year-olds view their own privacy.
• Television provides an inexpensive and meaningful form of entertainment.
• Writers Handbook. Authored by : Anonymous. Provided by : Anonymous. Located at : http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/writers-handbook/ . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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How Do I Write the Methods Chapter?

Methods, Participants, and Describing Data Analysis

• First Online: 19 October 2023

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The methods chapter is where you describe what you did to collect and analyse your data. This book chapter will outline what the methods chapter should cover, potential differences in the styles between experiments, surveys, literature reviews, and audits. The different sections the methods chapter typically has including design, sample, measures, ethics and data analysis paragraphs, will be outlined, and there are also some general tips for writing your methods chapter in a scientific manner.

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World Medical Association (2022) WMA Declaration of Helsinki–Ethics Principals for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects/ . Accessed 23 Jan 2023

Further Reading

For more general information on research methodologies:

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Kumar R (2019) Research methodology–a step by step guide for beginners. Sage, Thousand Oaks, Ca

For qualitative methods in particular:

Durdella N (2018) Qualitative dissertation methodology–a guide for research design and methods. Sage, Thousand Oaks, Ca

For power calculations:

Jones SR, Carley S, Harrison M (2003) An introduction to power and sample size estimation. Emerg Med J 20:453–458

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For help with statistics:

Petrie A, Sabin C (2019) Medical statistics at a glance, 4th edn. Wiley Blackwell, Oxford

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Reeves, S., Buczkowski, B. (2023). How Do I Write the Methods Chapter?. In: Mastering Your Dissertation. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41911-9_7

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How To Write The Discussion Chapter

A Simple Explainer With Examples + Free Template

By: Jenna Crossley (PhD) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | August 2021

If you’re reading this, chances are you’ve reached the discussion chapter of your thesis or dissertation and are looking for a bit of guidance. Well, you’ve come to the right place ! In this post, we’ll unpack and demystify the typical discussion chapter in straightforward, easy to understand language, with loads of examples .

Overview: The Discussion Chapter

• What  the discussion chapter is
• What to include in your discussion
• How to write up your discussion
• A few tips and tricks to help you along the way
• Free discussion template

What (exactly) is the discussion chapter?

The discussion chapter is where you interpret and explain your results within your thesis or dissertation. This contrasts with the results chapter, where you merely present and describe the analysis findings (whether qualitative or quantitative ). In the discussion chapter, you elaborate on and evaluate your research findings, and discuss the significance and implications of your results .

In this chapter, you’ll situate your research findings in terms of your research questions or hypotheses and tie them back to previous studies and literature (which you would have covered in your literature review chapter). You’ll also have a look at how relevant and/or significant your findings are to your field of research, and you’ll argue for the conclusions that you draw from your analysis. Simply put, the discussion chapter is there for you to interact with and explain your research findings in a thorough and coherent manner.

What should I include in the discussion chapter?

First things first: in some studies, the results and discussion chapter are combined into one chapter .  This depends on the type of study you conducted (i.e., the nature of the study and methodology adopted), as well as the standards set by the university.  So, check in with your university regarding their norms and expectations before getting started. In this post, we’ll treat the two chapters as separate, as this is most common.

Basically, your discussion chapter should analyse , explore the meaning and identify the importance of the data you presented in your results chapter. In the discussion chapter, you’ll give your results some form of meaning by evaluating and interpreting them. This will help answer your research questions, achieve your research aims and support your overall conclusion (s). Therefore, you discussion chapter should focus on findings that are directly connected to your research aims and questions. Don’t waste precious time and word count on findings that are not central to the purpose of your research project.

As this chapter is a reflection of your results chapter, it’s vital that you don’t report any new findings . In other words, you can’t present claims here if you didn’t present the relevant data in the results chapter first.  So, make sure that for every discussion point you raise in this chapter, you’ve covered the respective data analysis in the results chapter. If you haven’t, you’ll need to go back and adjust your results chapter accordingly.

If you’re struggling to get started, try writing down a bullet point list everything you found in your results chapter. From this, you can make a list of everything you need to cover in your discussion chapter. Also, make sure you revisit your research questions or hypotheses and incorporate the relevant discussion to address these.  This will also help you to see how you can structure your chapter logically.

Need a helping hand?

How to write the discussion chapter

Now that you’ve got a clear idea of what the discussion chapter is and what it needs to include, let’s look at how you can go about structuring this critically important chapter. Broadly speaking, there are six core components that need to be included, and these can be treated as steps in the chapter writing process.

Step 1: Restate your research problem and research questions

The first step in writing up your discussion chapter is to remind your reader of your research problem , as well as your research aim(s) and research questions . If you have hypotheses, you can also briefly mention these. This “reminder” is very important because, after reading dozens of pages, the reader may have forgotten the original point of your research or been swayed in another direction. It’s also likely that some readers skip straight to your discussion chapter from the introduction chapter , so make sure that your research aims and research questions are clear.

Step 2: Summarise your key findings

Next, you’ll want to summarise your key findings from your results chapter. This may look different for qualitative and quantitative research , where qualitative research may report on themes and relationships, whereas quantitative research may touch on correlations and causal relationships. Regardless of the methodology, in this section you need to highlight the overall key findings in relation to your research questions.

Typically, this section only requires one or two paragraphs , depending on how many research questions you have. Aim to be concise here, as you will unpack these findings in more detail later in the chapter. For now, a few lines that directly address your research questions are all that you need.

Some examples of the kind of language you’d use here include:

• The data suggest that…
• The data support/oppose the theory that…
• The analysis identifies…

These are purely examples. What you present here will be completely dependent on your original research questions, so make sure that you are led by them .

Step 3: Interpret your results

Once you’ve restated your research problem and research question(s) and briefly presented your key findings, you can unpack your findings by interpreting your results. Remember: only include what you reported in your results section – don’t introduce new information.

From a structural perspective, it can be a wise approach to follow a similar structure in this chapter as you did in your results chapter. This would help improve readability and make it easier for your reader to follow your arguments. For example, if you structured you results discussion by qualitative themes, it may make sense to do the same here.

Alternatively, you may structure this chapter by research questions, or based on an overarching theoretical framework that your study revolved around. Every study is different, so you’ll need to assess what structure works best for you.

When interpreting your results, you’ll want to assess how your findings compare to those of the existing research (from your literature review chapter). Even if your findings contrast with the existing research, you need to include these in your discussion. In fact, those contrasts are often the most interesting findings . In this case, you’d want to think about why you didn’t find what you were expecting in your data and what the significance of this contrast is.

Here are a few questions to help guide your discussion:

• How do your results relate with those of previous studies ?
• If you get results that differ from those of previous studies, why may this be the case?
• What do your results contribute to your field of research?
• What other explanations could there be for your findings?

When interpreting your findings, be careful not to draw conclusions that aren’t substantiated . Every claim you make needs to be backed up with evidence or findings from the data (and that data needs to be presented in the previous chapter – results). This can look different for different studies; qualitative data may require quotes as evidence, whereas quantitative data would use statistical methods and tests. Whatever the case, every claim you make needs to be strongly backed up.

Step 4: Acknowledge the limitations of your study

The fourth step in writing up your discussion chapter is to acknowledge the limitations of the study. These limitations can cover any part of your study , from the scope or theoretical basis to the analysis method(s) or sample. For example, you may find that you collected data from a very small sample with unique characteristics, which would mean that you are unable to generalise your results to the broader population.

For some students, discussing the limitations of their work can feel a little bit self-defeating . This is a misconception, as a core indicator of high-quality research is its ability to accurately identify its weaknesses. In other words, accurately stating the limitations of your work is a strength, not a weakness . All that said, be careful not to undermine your own research. Tell the reader what limitations exist and what improvements could be made, but also remind them of the value of your study despite its limitations.

Step 5: Make recommendations for implementation and future research

Now that you’ve unpacked your findings and acknowledge the limitations thereof, the next thing you’ll need to do is reflect on your study in terms of two factors:

• The practical application of your findings
• Suggestions for future research

The first thing to discuss is how your findings can be used in the real world – in other words, what contribution can they make to the field or industry? Where are these contributions applicable, how and why? For example, if your research is on communication in health settings, in what ways can your findings be applied to the context of a hospital or medical clinic? Make sure that you spell this out for your reader in practical terms, but also be realistic and make sure that any applications are feasible.

The next discussion point is the opportunity for future research . In other words, how can other studies build on what you’ve found and also improve the findings by overcoming some of the limitations in your study (which you discussed a little earlier). In doing this, you’ll want to investigate whether your results fit in with findings of previous research, and if not, why this may be the case. For example, are there any factors that you didn’t consider in your study? What future research can be done to remedy this? When you write up your suggestions, make sure that you don’t just say that more research is needed on the topic, also comment on how the research can build on your study.

Step 6: Provide a concluding summary

Finally, you’ve reached your final stretch. In this section, you’ll want to provide a brief recap of the key findings – in other words, the findings that directly address your research questions . Basically, your conclusion should tell the reader what your study has found, and what they need to take away from reading your report.

When writing up your concluding summary, bear in mind that some readers may skip straight to this section from the beginning of the chapter.  So, make sure that this section flows well from and has a strong connection to the opening section of the chapter.

Tips and tricks for an A-grade discussion chapter

Now that you know what the discussion chapter is , what to include and exclude , and how to structure it , here are some tips and suggestions to help you craft a quality discussion chapter.

• When you write up your discussion chapter, make sure that you keep it consistent with your introduction chapter , as some readers will skip from the introduction chapter directly to the discussion chapter. Your discussion should use the same tense as your introduction, and it should also make use of the same key terms.
• Don’t make assumptions about your readers. As a writer, you have hands-on experience with the data and so it can be easy to present it in an over-simplified manner. Make sure that you spell out your findings and interpretations for the intelligent layman.
• Have a look at other theses and dissertations from your institution, especially the discussion sections. This will help you to understand the standards and conventions of your university, and you’ll also get a good idea of how others have structured their discussion chapters. You can also check out our chapter template .
• Avoid using absolute terms such as “These results prove that…”, rather make use of terms such as “suggest” or “indicate”, where you could say, “These results suggest that…” or “These results indicate…”. It is highly unlikely that a dissertation or thesis will scientifically prove something (due to a variety of resource constraints), so be humble in your language.
• Use well-structured and consistently formatted headings to ensure that your reader can easily navigate between sections, and so that your chapter flows logically and coherently.

If you have any questions or thoughts regarding this post, feel free to leave a comment below. Also, if you’re looking for one-on-one help with your discussion chapter (or thesis in general), consider booking a free consultation with one of our highly experienced Grad Coaches to discuss how we can help you.

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36 Comments

Thank you this is helpful!

This is very helpful to me… Thanks a lot for sharing this with us 😊

This has been very helpful indeed. Thank you.

This is actually really helpful, I just stumbled upon it. Very happy that I found it, thank you.

Me too! I was kinda lost on how to approach my discussion chapter. How helpful! Thanks a lot!

This is really good and explicit. Thanks

Thank you, this blog has been such a help.

Thank you. This is very helpful.

Dear sir/madame

Thanks a lot for this helpful blog. Really, it supported me in writing my discussion chapter while I was totally unaware about its structure and method of writing.

With regards

Syed Firoz Ahmad PhD, Research Scholar

I agree so much. This blog was god sent. It assisted me so much while I was totally clueless about the context and the know-how. Now I am fully aware of what I am to do and how I am to do it.

Thanks! This is helpful!

thanks alot for this informative website

Dear Sir/Madam,

Truly, your article was much benefited when i structured my discussion chapter.

Thank you very much!!!

This is helpful for me in writing my research discussion component. I have to copy this text on Microsoft word cause of my weakness that I cannot be able to read the text on screen a long time. So many thanks for this articles.

This was helpful

Thanks Jenna, well explained.

Thank you! This is super helpful.

Thanks very much. I have appreciated the six steps on writing the Discussion chapter which are (i) Restating the research problem and questions (ii) Summarising the key findings (iii) Interpreting the results linked to relating to previous results in positive and negative ways; explaining whay different or same and contribution to field of research and expalnation of findings (iv) Acknowledgeing limitations (v) Recommendations for implementation and future resaerch and finally (vi) Providing a conscluding summary

My two questions are: 1. On step 1 and 2 can it be the overall or you restate and sumamrise on each findings based on the reaerch question? 2. On 4 and 5 do you do the acknowlledgement , recommendations on each research finding or overall. This is not clear from your expalanattion.

Please respond.

This post is very useful. I’m wondering whether practical implications must be introduced in the Discussion section or in the Conclusion section?

Sigh, I never knew a 20 min video could have literally save my life like this. I found this at the right time!!!! Everything I need to know in one video thanks a mil ! OMGG and that 6 step!!!!!! was the cherry on top the cake!!!!!!!!!

Thanks alot.., I have gained much

This piece is very helpful on how to go about my discussion section. I can always recommend GradCoach research guides for colleagues.

Many thanks for this resource. It has been very helpful to me. I was finding it hard to even write the first sentence. Much appreciated.

Thanks so much. Very helpful to know what is included in the discussion section

this was a very helpful and useful information

This is very helpful. Very very helpful. Thanks for sharing this online!

it is very helpfull article, and i will recommend it to my fellow students. Thank you.

Superlative! More grease to your elbows.

Powerful, thank you for sharing.

Wow! Just wow! God bless the day I stumbled upon you guys’ YouTube videos! It’s been truly life changing and anxiety about my report that is due in less than a month has subsided significantly!

Simplified explanation. Well done.

The presentation is enlightening. Thank you very much.

Thanks for the support and guidance

This has been a great help to me and thank you do much

I second that “it is highly unlikely that a dissertation or thesis will scientifically prove something”; although, could you enlighten us on that comment and elaborate more please?

Sure, no problem.

Scientific proof is generally considered a very strong assertion that something is definitively and universally true. In most scientific disciplines, especially within the realms of natural and social sciences, absolute proof is very rare. Instead, researchers aim to provide evidence that supports or rejects hypotheses. This evidence increases or decreases the likelihood that a particular theory is correct, but it rarely proves something in the absolute sense.

Dissertations and theses, as substantial as they are, typically focus on exploring a specific question or problem within a larger field of study. They contribute to a broader conversation and body of knowledge. The aim is often to provide detailed insight, extend understanding, and suggest directions for further research rather than to offer definitive proof. These academic works are part of a cumulative process of knowledge building where each piece of research connects with others to gradually enhance our understanding of complex phenomena.

Furthermore, the rigorous nature of scientific inquiry involves continuous testing, validation, and potential refutation of ideas. What might be considered a “proof” at one point can later be challenged by new evidence or alternative interpretations. Therefore, the language of “proof” is cautiously used in academic circles to maintain scientific integrity and humility.

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Writing thesis sections - Part 2

Shaping the research question and hypothesis.

This resource introduces approaches to writing the core parts of your thesis. It includes activities to help you apply tips and reflect on your own learning, and should take you 15-20 minutes to read and complete. Check out the further resources at the bottom of each section and references on the last page for more information on this topic.

The core part of your thesis starts with your research question or hypothesis and proceeds through your explanation of methods and results, or data analysis, and ends with a discussion of your findings.

The research question and hypothesis mark your own disciplinary territory and drive your research.

Whether you have both a research question and a hypothesis, and whether they are broken down into several sub-areas, will depend on your discipline and topic; but however they appear, it is important that they are clearly formulated.

Research question

A research question should:

• Focus on a clear, specific and significant problem or puzzle
• Be shaped in a way that allows it to be answered with different research results
• Be revisited frequently in the research process.

You can use the FINER criteria when developing a research question:

• F easible – is the research practical and achievable given time and resources?
• I nteresting – is the research intriguing, compelling and able to contribute to the field?
• N ovel – is the research original?
• E thical – are there any concerns about the impact of the research on participants or wider community?
• R elevant – is the research important or meaningful for those in the field?

Example research questions:

• What impact will climate change have on production systems in the Tasmanian dairy industry?
• What are the unique challenges and opportunities for higher education institutions that allow first-year undergraduate students to use Generative AI tools in written assessments?

A hypothesis is a well-reasoned proposition in response to a research question that you will test to confirm or disprove in your research. Not all research has a hypothesis. A hypothesis should:

• Be in the form of a statement
• Be disprovable
• Be clear and specific in scope.

Example hypothesis:

• Undergraduate students who participate in a stress-reduction seminar will report an increase in their well-being after six weeks This is a statement that argues for a relationship between two clear and specific variables that can be tested and thus disproven.

Types of research questions

In order to help you frame a research question, keep in mind that there are four basic types of research (adapted from Fahnestock & Secor, 2004).

Four general research types and their corresponding  questions:

Note: almost all graduate research will involve elements of each of these types. However, it is useful to focus primarily on one of these questions.

Contextualise the research question or hypothesis

The research question or hypothesis is part of your thesis core as it guides your own research, but it is usually stated in a lead-in section, such as the thesis introduction.

Complete the activity below to learn how a research question or hypothesis can be contextualised.

*If content below does not display, please refresh your browser

Note that some disciplines require hypotheses rather than research questions and vice versa. However, the question implied in this example seems to be ‘What role does fast food play in the childhood obesity problem in the province?’

FINER: A research framework

What is and how to write a good hypothesis in research?

Use the side menu to go the next section: Choosing and justifying your methods , where we look at ways to present your research design.

Choosing and justifying your methods

Demonstrating that your methods are sound and appropriate for your question will help your reader see that the results and conclusions you reach are valid and reliable.

You can present your overarching research approach or methods in a central methods chapter in your thesis. If you use different methods for different parts of the thesis, these methods can be integrated into the parts.

Choosing your methods

To help you in this process:

• Are you an observer, experimenter or involved agent?
• How would this affect your data collection and/or analysis
• Align your methods to your research aim For example, if your question asks about a quantifiable variable, consider a quantitative method for measuring it.
• Compare your methods to alternative methods Demonstrate that your choice best suits your investigation.
• Show awareness of potential confounding factors What are the biases or pitfalls? Show how you’re accounting for or guarding against them.
• Show awareness of your own assumptions For example, show how a chosen method assumes a relationship between variables, and why that is reasonable.
• How will it allow you to answer your research question or test your hypothesis?
• What criteria and thresholds have you established for data collection and analysis?
• What type of answer will you be able to generate if these criteria and thresholds are satisfied?

Asking these questions will help you design your methods to be part of a consistent line of reasoning that will take you from raw data to conclusions.

Presenting your methods

This activity provides two examples of presenting research methods in a thesis. The first one shows how the methods are being aligned and justified with the research aim. The second shows how clear measurements, criteria and thresholds are being established.

Drag and drop the main writing moves in each example, such as ‘defining the method’ and ‘establishing the threshold’ into their corresponding places.

Sage Project Planner – Research Design (UoM login required)

Use the side menu to go the next section: Analysing data and reporting results , where we examine how to maximise the impact of your data.

Analysing data and reporting results

In this stage, you educate your reader on what you’ve found and take them through how you’ve turned data into knowledge, which involves making reasoned connections between variables or different parts of the data. Reporting your results and analysis requires summarising key points or patterns in the data and how they’ve emerged.

Choose representative information

• Use only representative data and analyses to demonstrate the validity of your results.
• What qualifies as representative data and why?
• What does it represent?
• How do I know if the representation is complete and correct?

Organise the information

• Capture categories or themes in the data that relate to your research question or hypothesis.
• Add informative headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate your results.

Illustrate your results

• Design any tables and figures to be understandable on their own and complementary to your writing, with clear, informative titles. These should illustrate the key evidence to support your results and make them easier for readers to process.
• whether they are necessary, and
• which type of illustration best suits the information. For example, if some qualitative information is best explained in a paragraph with a subheading, you may not need a table or figure at all. On the other hand, to compare the trends of two variables over time, a line graph will be useful.

State the new knowledge

• Begin every data chapter with a statement of purpose.
• End it with a statement of how the purpose has been addressed, highlighting the new knowledge generated by the chapter.

Example statement of purpose - chapter introduction

The aim of this study was to understand the role of group singing in inpatient and community mental health settings in regard to the contextual and conditional factors apparent within these settings which contribute to mental health recovery. (Bibb, 2016, p. 139)

Example statement of new knowledge - chapter conclusion

Findings were presented as a grounded theory of group singing which was described as the way consumers can experience triggering encounters with music in their singing group and use the group conditions as coping resources to regain musical, emotional and social health. (Bibb, 2016, p. 211)

Start early and revise regularly

• Evolve your analytical categories or themes
• Reflect on the new knowledge these chapters produce
• Recognise, rectify or acknowledge limitations in your data or results.
• Assess the validity and reliability of this knowledge: is it warranted by the nature of the data? Does it align with the aim and methods? Is the analytical process rigorous enough?

Activity: Examples of presenting results

The two examples below demonstrate high-level presentation of results and evidence, with strategic use of tables or headings. These are connected to a cohesive narrative that directly addresses the aim of the data chapter.

Drag and drop the elements of each example into their corresponding places. Some key language has been bolded to help you.

Statistical Consulting Centre resources

Use the side menu to go the next section: Synthesising and discussing findings , where we explore approaches to putting your results together.

Synthesising and discussing findings

The discussion section shows your arrival at new understandings, insights, solutions or theories emerging from your data analysis, which requires high levels of synthesis and conceptualisation.

To write an effective discussion:

• Connect all your findings and key evidence and put these in the bigger context of your inquiry
• Answer the research question or hypothesis
• Position your research in the field and state your original contribution
• Acknowledge limitations of your findings to show your self-awareness and critical thinking as a researcher.

Examples of discussing original contributions

Read the following discussion examples showing statements of original contributions. Notice the type of language that carries these statements, some of which we’ve bolded to highlight the writers’ authority and relationship to their field.

Thesis titled ‘Foreign direct investment in Australia: Determinants and consequences’ (Faeth, 2005, p. 308)

Comparing these results with previous econometric studies analysing the consequences of FDI [foreign direct investment] in Australia shows that FDI has a wider range of consequences than previously assumed . It has been shown in this study that employment growth, wage growth, labour productivity growth and industry concentration were affected by Australian FDI.

Thesis titled ‘Doctors down under: European medical migrants in Victoria (Australia), 1930-60’ (Mody, 2018, p. 231)

This thesis begins to redress the silence that characterises the historiography on twentieth-century medical migration to Australia. In doing so, I have demonstrated that medical migrants today represent part of an unbroken and sometimes hard-won legacy of refuge, second chances and fresh starts inherited from the medical migrants who arrived before them.

Approaches to the discussion

To arrive at a synthesis of your thesis and be able to state your original contribution, consider what processes to use for handling data.

Watch this video to learn about two approaches: tracking and mapping your findings and using a creative-rational approach .

Activity: Write a tiny discussion

Step 1: Free-write in response to the following prompt. Try 5-10 minutes of no-pause, no-edit writing:

• “What do you know now about your research problem that you didn’t know before starting your research?”

Step 2: Follow this up with the rational tasks of sorting and linking conclusions, as explained in the video.

Step 3: Write a brief introduction to your discussion. Start with what you’ve achieved in the previous chapters and quickly proceed to how you will put these findings together.

Use the side menu to go the next section: Using disciplinary conventions , where we look at a checklist for reflecting on the thesis core.

Using disciplinary conventions

Although academic writing conventions are common to most disciplines, the way they are applied may differ. For example, some social sciences may require a full disclosure of a researcher’s paradigmatic alignment and its implications for their research, while other disciplines may put more emphasis on detailing the research procedure. Look at examples from your discipline and check with your supervisors if you have questions.

Reflect on the thesis core

Study an example thesis to observe how the author framed the research question or hypothesis, justified the research methods, analysed data, reported results and synthesised and discussed findings. Then, look at your own writing or plan for these parts.

Answer the following questions for both the example thesis and your own to help you reflect on how you are using disciplinary conventions in shaping your own thesis narrative.

1. Is the research question feasible, interesting, novel, ethical and relevant (the FINER criteria)?

2. Is the hypothesis disprovable, clear and specific? Can you identify the key variables in the hypothesis?

3. Is the question or hypothesis properly contextualised and justified?

4. What research methods does the thesis use? Are they conventional or novel in the discipline? How are they justified?

5. What measurements and/or thresholds have been established for the data collection and/or analysis? What are these measurements and thresholds based on?

6. Has a clear trail of methods been laid out to allow a reader to follow and/or replicate the research?

7. What new knowledge does each of the data/results chapters add?

8. What new insight, theory or solution does the discussion section of the thesis present? What’s the key argument and evidence for this claim to knowledge? Is this argument valid?

9. Is there a clear line of reasoning that leads from the research question/hypothesis to the methods, data analysis/results and discussion? How is the research question being answered?

10. How could you improve this thesis in the above aspects?

Together with your research question or hypothesis, your research methods, results, discussion, analysis and synthesis show the reader your own work, which shapes your original contribution. These parts should constitute the bulk of your writing effort throughout your candidature. Use your disciplinary expertise to promote your own innovation, whether in ideas or expression.

For more information and support in your writing, Explore: Academic Skills Graduate Research services

Bibb, J. (2016). Musical recovery: The role of group singing in regaining healthy relationships with music to promote mental health recovery [PhD thesis, University of Melbourne]. http://hdl.handle.net/11343/124271

Bitar, H. (2004). Public aesthetic preferences and efficient water use in urban parks [PhD thesis, University of Melbourne]. http://hdl.handle.net/11343/38880

Brown, T. (2022). Exploring the indirect effects of climate change on fire activity in Australian wet Eucalypt forests [PhD thesis, University of Melbourne]. http://hdl.handle.net/11343/311844

Evans, D., Gruba, P., & Zobel, J. (2014). How to write a better thesis . Springer.

Faeth, I. (2005). Foreign direct investment in Australia: Determinants and consequences [PhD thesis, University of Melbourne]. http://hdl.handle.net/11343/39043

Fahnestock, J., & Secor, M. (2004). A rhetoric of argument (3rd edition). McGraw-Hill.

Lindsay, D. (2020). Scientific writing = thinking in words . CSIRO.

Mody, F. (2018). Doctors down under: European medical migrants in Victoria (Australia), 1930-60 [PhD thesis, University of Melbourne]. http://hdl.handle.net/11343/221550

Thesis Statements

What this handout is about.

This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in your writing, and how you can craft or refine one for your draft.

Introduction

Writing in college often takes the form of persuasion—convincing others that you have an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persuasion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your roommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument, follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your topic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argument you’ll make in the rest of your paper.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement:

• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at the end of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.

If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively. (Check out our handout on understanding assignments for more information.)

How do I create a thesis?

A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you do this thinking, you will probably have a “working thesis” that presents a basic or main idea and an argument that you think you can support with evidence. Both the argument and your thesis are likely to need adjustment along the way.

Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic and arrive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see our handout on brainstorming .

How do I know if my thesis is strong?

If there’s time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the following :

• Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question. If the prompt isn’t phrased as a question, try to rephrase it. For example, “Discuss the effect of X on Y” can be rephrased as “What is the effect of X on Y?”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong argument. If your thesis contains words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why is something “good”; what specifically makes something “successful”?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is likely to  be “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
• Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It’s okay to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the reader a better take on your position right from the beginning.

Suppose you are taking a course on contemporary communication, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: “Discuss the impact of social media on public awareness.” Looking back at your notes, you might start with this working thesis:

Social media impacts public awareness in both positive and negative ways.

You can use the questions above to help you revise this general statement into a stronger thesis.

• Do I answer the question? You can analyze this if you rephrase “discuss the impact” as “what is the impact?” This way, you can see that you’ve answered the question only very generally with the vague “positive and negative ways.”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not likely. Only people who maintain that social media has a solely positive or solely negative impact could disagree.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? No. What are the positive effects? What are the negative effects?
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? No. Why are they positive? How are they positive? What are their causes? Why are they negative? How are they negative? What are their causes?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? No. Why should anyone care about the positive and/or negative impact of social media?

After thinking about your answers to these questions, you decide to focus on the one impact you feel strongly about and have strong evidence for:

Because not every voice on social media is reliable, people have become much more critical consumers of information, and thus, more informed voters.

This version is a much stronger thesis! It answers the question, takes a specific position that others can challenge, and it gives a sense of why it matters.

Let’s try another. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn. “This will be easy,” you think. “I loved Huckleberry Finn!” You grab a pad of paper and write:

Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.

You begin to analyze your thesis:

• Do I answer the question? No. The prompt asks you to analyze some aspect of the novel. Your working thesis is a statement of general appreciation for the entire novel.

Think about aspects of the novel that are important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write:

In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore.

• Do I answer the question? Yes!
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not really. This contrast is well-known and accepted.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? It’s getting there–you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation. However, it’s still not clear what your analysis will reveal.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? Not yet. Compare scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck’s actions and reactions and anything else that seems interesting.
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? What’s the point of this contrast? What does it signify?”

After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write:

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Lunsford, Andrea A. 2015. The St. Martin’s Handbook , 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. 2018. The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writing , 8th ed. New York: Pearson.

Ruszkiewicz, John J., Christy Friend, Daniel Seward, and Maxine Hairston. 2010. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers , 9th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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How to Write an Impressive Thesis Results Section

After collecting and analyzing your research data, it’s time to write the results section. This article explains how to write and organize the thesis results section, the differences in reporting qualitative and quantitative data, the differences in the thesis results section across different fields, and the best practices for tables and figures.

What is the thesis results section?

The thesis results section factually and concisely describes what was observed and measured during the study but does not interpret the findings. It presents the findings in a logical order.

What should the thesis results section include?

• Include all relevant results as text, tables, or figures
• Report the results of subject recruitment and data collection
• For qualitative research, present the data from all statistical analyses, whether or not the results are significant
• For quantitative research, present the data by coding or categorizing themes and topics
• Present all secondary findings (e.g., subgroup analyses)
• Include all results, even if they do not fit in with your assumptions or support your hypothesis

What should the thesis results section not include?

• If the study involves the thematic analysis of an interview, don’t include complete transcripts of all interviews. Instead, add these as appendices
• Don’t present raw data. These may be included in appendices
• Don’t include background information (this should be in the introduction section )
• Don’t speculate on the meaning of results that do not support your hypothesis. This will be addressed later in the discussion and conclusion sections.
• Don’t repeat results that have been presented in tables and figures. Only highlight the pertinent points or elaborate on specific aspects

How should the thesis results section be organized?

The opening paragraph of the thesis results section should briefly restate the thesis question. Then, present the results objectively as text, figures, or tables.

Quantitative research presents the results from experiments and  statistical tests , usually in the form of tables and figures (graphs, diagrams, and images), with any pertinent findings emphasized in the text. The results are structured around the thesis question. Demographic data are usually presented first in this section.

For each statistical test used, the following information must be mentioned:

• The type of analysis used (e.g., Mann–Whitney U test or multiple regression analysis)
• A concise summary of each result, including  descriptive statistics   (e.g., means, medians, and modes) and  inferential statistics   (e.g., correlation, regression, and  p  values) and whether the results are significant
• Any trends or differences identified through comparisons
• How the findings relate to your research and if they support or contradict your hypothesis

Qualitative research   presents results around key themes or topics identified from your data analysis and explains how these themes evolved. The data are usually presented as text because it is hard to present the findings as figures.

For each theme presented, describe:

• General trends or patterns observed
• Significant or representative responses
• Relevant quotations from your study subjects

Relevant characteristics about your study subjects

Differences among the results section in different fields of research

Nevertheless, results should be presented logically across all disciplines and reflect the thesis question and any hypotheses that were tested.

The presentation of results varies considerably across disciplines. For example, a thesis documenting how a particular population interprets a specific event and a thesis investigating customer service may both have collected data using interviews and analyzed it using similar methods. Still, the presentation of the results will vastly differ because they are answering different thesis questions. A science thesis may have used experiments to generate data, and these would be presented differently again, probably involving statistics. Nevertheless, results should be presented logically across all disciplines and reflect the thesis question and any  hypotheses that were tested.

Differences between reporting thesis results in the Sciences and the Humanities and Social Sciences (HSS) domains

In the Sciences domain (qualitative and experimental research), the results and discussion sections are considered separate entities, and the results from experiments and statistical tests are presented. In the HSS domain (qualitative research), the results and discussion sections may be combined.

There are two approaches to presenting results in the HSS field:

• If you want to highlight important findings, first present a synopsis of the results and then explain the key findings.
• If you have multiple results of equal significance, present one result and explain it. Then present another result and explain that, and so on. Conclude with an overall synopsis.

Best practices for using tables and figures

The use of figures and tables is highly encouraged because they provide a standalone overview of the research findings that are much easier to understand than wading through dry text mentioning one result after another. The text in the results section should not repeat the information presented in figures and tables. Instead, it should focus on the pertinent findings or elaborate on specific points.

Some popular software programs that can be used for the analysis and presentation of statistical data include  Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS ) ,  R software ,  MATLAB , Microsoft Excel,  Statistical Analysis Software (SAS) ,  GraphPad Prism , and  Minitab .

The easiest way to construct tables is to use the  Table function in Microsoft Word . Microsoft Excel can also be used; however, Word is the easier option.

General guidelines for figures and tables

• Figures and tables must be interpretable independent from the text
• Number tables and figures consecutively (in separate lists) in the order in which they are mentioned in the text
• All tables and figures must be cited in the text
• Provide clear, descriptive titles for all figures and tables
• Include a legend to concisely describe what is presented in the figure or table

Figure guidelines

• Label figures so that the reader can easily understand what is being shown
• Use a consistent font type and font size for all labels in figure panels
• All abbreviations used in the figure artwork should be defined in the figure legend

Table guidelines

• All table columns should have a heading abbreviation used in tables should be defined in the table footnotes
• All numbers and text presented in tables must correlate with the data presented in the manuscript body

Quantitative results example : Figure 3 presents the characteristics of unemployed subjects and their rate of criminal convictions. A statistically significant association was observed between unemployed people <20 years old, the male sex, and no household income.

Qualitative results example: Table 5 shows the themes identified during the face-to-face interviews about the application that we developed to anonymously report corruption in the workplace. There was positive feedback on the app layout and ease of use. Concerns that emerged from the interviews included breaches of confidentiality and the inability to report incidents because of unstable cellphone network coverage.

Table 5. Themes and selected quotes from the evaluation of our app designed to anonymously report workplace corruption.

Tips for writing the thesis results section

• Do not state that a difference was present between the two groups unless this can be supported by a significant  p-value .
• Present the findings only . Do not comment or speculate on their interpretation.
• Every result included  must have a corresponding method in the methods section. Conversely, all methods  must have associated results presented in the results section.
• Do not explain commonly used methods. Instead, cite a reference.
• Be consistent with the units of measurement used in your thesis study. If you start with kg, then use the same unit all throughout your thesis. Also, be consistent with the capitalization of units of measurement. For example, use either “ml” or “mL” for milliliters, but not both.
• Never manipulate measurement outcomes, even if the result is unexpected. Remain objective.

Results vs. discussion vs. conclusion

Results are presented in three sections of your thesis: the results, discussion, and conclusion.

• In the results section, the data are presented simply and objectively. No speculation or interpretation is given.
• In the discussion section, the meaning of the results is interpreted and put into context (e.g., compared with other findings in the literature ), and its importance is assigned.
• In the conclusion section, the results and the main conclusions are summarized.

A thesis is the most crucial document that you will write during your academic studies. For professional thesis editing and thesis proofreading services , visit Enago Thesis Editing for more information.

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Review Checklist

Have you  completed all data collection procedures and analyzed all results ?

Have you  included all results relevant to your thesis question, even if they do not support your hypothesis?

Have you reported the results  objectively , with no interpretation or speculation?

For quantitative research, have you included both  descriptive and  inferential statistical results and stated whether they support or contradict your hypothesis?

Have you used  tables and figures to present all results?

In your thesis body, have you presented only the pertinent results and elaborated on specific aspects that were presented in the tables and figures?

Are all tables and figures  correctly labeled and cited in numerical order in the text?

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• Int J Appl Basic Med Res
• v.12(3); Jul-Sep 2022

Thesis Writing: The T, H, E, S, I, S Approach – Review of the Book

Vijendra devisingh chauhan.

1 Pro Vice Chancellor, Swami Rama Himalayan University, Himalayan Institute of Medical Sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

2 Professor and Head, Department of Orthopedics, Himalayan Institute of Medical Sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

Dr. Rajiv Mahajan, Dr. Tejinder Singh, editors. 2022. 1st ed. Jaypee Brothers, Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.354. Rs. 795/-. ISBN: 978-93-5465-131-1.

After a long time, I am seeing a book on thesis writing which would be of a great use for the medical fraternity and especially, the postgraduates (PGs).

I recapitulate my residency days when I did my thesis project. I had no clue from where to begin; I was fortunate to have a good mentor who mentored me but every PG resident is not so lucky. This book will definitely supplement the efforts being made by PG thesis supervisors in guiding the PGs.

After going through the book, it inspired me to write a review. The title of the book is so catchy “THESIS WRITING ‒ the T, H, E, S, I, S. Approach.” It compelled me to peep into the book and explore the acronym ‒ T: Tickling, H: Hologram, E: Expansion, S: Scenarios, I: Improvisation, and S: Summary. I found that every chapter is crafted using this philosophy. The second reason which stimulated me to go through this book is that it has been authored by well-known medical educationists who could appreciate the real need of the PGs of this country.

I have no hesitation in saying that not only fresh PGs but even many of their guides may be ignorant of what constitutes writing/guiding a quality thesis. J. Frank Dobi once said “ The average PhD thesis is nothing but transference of bones from one graveyard to another .” Moreover, this is true even for PG medical thesis produced in this country every year. I quote Prof. Vivek A Saoji, Vice-Chancellor, KLE Academy of Higher Education of Research, Belgaum, Karnataka, who has appropriately mentioned in his foreword of this book, “ Proper guidance and training will go a long way in improving the quality of research the postgraduates do and in turn the quality of thesis .”

Usually, in a multiauthored book, style changes with every chapter. Credit goes to the editors, Dr. Rajiv Mahajan and Dr. Tejinder Singh for keeping the uniform language, writing style, and format for each chapter. Hence, one finds continuity and connectivity between the chapters. The editors have ensured that the reader remains hooked to the book till the end. The flowcharts and boxes have been provided for easy remembrance and recapitulation of the salient features of the chapters. I personally feel that these tables, boxes, and flowcharts must be printed and hanged in the seminar room of the departments. I would suggest authors to prepare a small booklet so that these flowcharts are available to the students in their pockets when they are embarking on their thesis.

The book begins with a chapter on “Role and importance of thesis in PG training.” It talks about the statutory and mandatory requirements of the training and how research and publication can open new vistas and opportunities for a PG student. The author has supplemented the list of funding agencies and the nature of support extended for research. The chapter ends with a beautiful inspiring story of Dr. Althesis, tips for conducting a research – a self-checklist to facilitate writing a PG thesis and tips for writing a high-quality thesis.

Chapter 2 deals with the basic concepts of research. It describes lucidly what makes good research and different types of research, i.e., quantitative, qualitative, basic and applied research, and prominent features of each. The author has nicely depicted commonly employed sampling strategies. Stress has been laid on collecting tools for data collection and establishing ethical considerations. Simple examples of quantitative and qualitative research make things simplified for readers.

Chapter 3 is on research design. I need to congratulate the editors for providing a separate chapter on research design. Yes, this is a big confusion for the teacher as well as for the students. A nice pictorial classification has been provided and each design has been explained in a Lucid language with examples so that the PGs can choose the right design for the thesis. I liked the flowcharts and boxes provided, particularly ‒ criteria to choose research design and ‒ choosing study design. The author has used an analogy to explain certain difficult terminology. It made things so simple, both for teachers as well as students.

Chapter 4 ‒ how to start a research describes the importance of the research problem, how to identify the broad problem, and develop a research question. It reflects on types of research questions and explains beautifully what constitutes a good research question using PICO-T and C-Re FINERS criteria. The author has done a creditable job of explaining the concept of hypothesis and various steps involved in writing a good hypothesis; and has rightly cautioned the readers about the errors in hypothesis testing.

Chapter 5 deals with aims and objectives. I am sure after reading this chapter, the students would be able to frame the aim and objectives for their research with great ease. Every chapter provides you with the scenario for easy and better understanding, followed by tips.

Chapter 6 deals with a review of the literature. This is the most difficult and tedious part of a thesis, but one of the most important parts. The author has demonstrated how to use various commonly used search engines, how to develop strategies for literature search, identify the keywords, and the use of Boolean operators. Emphasis is on how to critically analyze the searched material and write the literature review.

A full chapter has been devoted to writing a synopsis which every PG has to submit within the 1 st semester of the PG program. The chapter on materials and methods (M&M) has been prepared like a recipe in a cookbook. A lot of stress is on how to write M&M. The tips provided are worth remembering.

I have seen students and their mentors frequently rushing to the statistician for the calculation of the sample size. Chapter 9 has touched this subject beautifully. It starts with why we need an adequate sample size for any research. It then goes on to ingrain the recipe of sample size, calculation, effect size, standard deviation, type 1 error, power, direction of the effect, expected attrition, and statistical test and each is explained with examples.

Chapter 10 is on results and inferences; the authors have given very practical tips for the presentation of the results. There are general tips on preparing tables, graphs, pie charts, bar graphs, line graphs, and scatter plots. The authors have nicely described P value and its utility in deriving scientific inferences.

Managing the timeline is a very important aspect in the life of the resident. The resident is busy in clinics, patient care, operation theaters, and teaching and at the same time, he has to conduct a research. Managing time is an art. The editors have devoted a separate chapter on this subject. Concepts of the time management matrix, the Gantt chart, and the backward planning have been adequately explained in this chapter.

Ethics and plagiarism are a buzz word now. A separate chapter has been devoted to cover various ethical aspects involved in thesis writing and publications. The authors have discussed in detail about autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, justice, informed consent, the consent process and plagiarism, and how to avoid plagiarism. I am happy to note the topic of plagiarism has been touched and the penalties described by University Grant Commission have been included. Tools to be used for detection have been mentioned. In fact, without a plagiarism check, thesis should not be submitted. A small mention about the availability of various platforms for uploading thesis could have been added. A checklist to avoid plagiarism is appreciated.

A student of medicine is afraid of “biostatistics” and always confused which test needs to be used for his thesis. The authors have provided a nice table on how to choose the appropriate statistical tests. The authors have nicely defined various variables, data collection, data entry and cleaning, assessing the distribution of data, approach to data analysis, and application of post hoc tests. A separate chapter has been devoted to IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, IBM Corp. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp) for data validation and analysis and how to make good use of this tool.

Compilation of thesis is very important. Majority of the universities provide templates of the title page and the certificates to be annexed. The authors have lucidly and in a systematic manner described what needs to be done under each heading. They also discussed about research and ethics committee approval letters, pro forma of study, consent forms, master charts, photos, permission letter from other institution if applicable, conflict of interest form (for funded projects), disclosure of the source of funding (if applicable), Gantt chart, certificate of clinical trials registry-India registration (if applicable), and above all are very useful tips for writing the thesis draft and binding of thesis document.

Handling revision is a big issue. The movement the student hears this, he becomes disturbed. The authors have nicely discussed about the reasons for thesis revisions in a tabular form. I liked the tables ‒ how to communicate to the examiners after making revisions. The authors also provided useful tips for preventing rejection and revisions.

Chapters 18 and 19 talk about disseminating thesis research through quality poster and publication of the paper. These two chapters are very practical chapters and I am sure the students would definitely be benefited. I am sure if these practical tips are followed, we would see quality posters and publications from our PGs. A separate chapter devoted to a manuscript-based thesis introduces the readers to a different approach of thesis writing – like a manuscript.

The book ends with chapters on translation education research. It talks about how a student can place his research into “a knowledge to action cycle” and how can PG students strive to achieve translation of their research to standard practice.

All good medical institutions in the country are running 2–3 days’ workshop on research methodology. I think if we can design these workshops based on the basic principles illustrated in this book, it would ensure consistency in the research component in the PG curriculum and second, things would become easy for students to comprehend.

I would like to end with the quote of Mortimer J. Adler: “ In the case of good books, the point is not to see how many of them you can get through, but rather how many can get through to you.” Yes, “Thesis Writing: The T, H, E, S, I, S Approach” gets through to you and I am sure it would inspire you to revisit it again and again.