summary conclusions the

Conclusions

What this handout is about.

This handout will explain the functions of conclusions, offer strategies for writing effective ones, help you evaluate conclusions you’ve drafted, and suggest approaches to avoid.

About conclusions

Introductions and conclusions can be difficult to write, but they’re worth investing time in. They can have a significant influence on a reader’s experience of your paper.

Just as your introduction acts as a bridge that transports your readers from their own lives into the “place” of your analysis, your conclusion can provide a bridge to help your readers make the transition back to their daily lives. Such a conclusion will help them see why all your analysis and information should matter to them after they put the paper down.

Your conclusion is your chance to have the last word on the subject. The conclusion allows you to have the final say on the issues you have raised in your paper, to synthesize your thoughts, to demonstrate the importance of your ideas, and to propel your reader to a new view of the subject. It is also your opportunity to make a good final impression and to end on a positive note.

Your conclusion can go beyond the confines of the assignment. The conclusion pushes beyond the boundaries of the prompt and allows you to consider broader issues, make new connections, and elaborate on the significance of your findings.

Your conclusion should make your readers glad they read your paper. Your conclusion gives your reader something to take away that will help them see things differently or appreciate your topic in personally relevant ways. It can suggest broader implications that will not only interest your reader, but also enrich your reader’s life in some way. It is your gift to the reader.

Strategies for writing an effective conclusion

One or more of the following strategies may help you write an effective conclusion:

• Play the “So What” Game. If you’re stuck and feel like your conclusion isn’t saying anything new or interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, “So what?” or “Why should anybody care?” Then ponder that question and answer it. Here’s how it might go: You: Basically, I’m just saying that education was important to Douglass. Friend: So what? You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen. Friend: Why should anybody care? You: That’s important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally. You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself “So What?” as you develop your ideas or your draft.
• Return to the theme or themes in the introduction. This strategy brings the reader full circle. For example, if you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay is helpful in creating a new understanding. You may also refer to the introductory paragraph by using key words or parallel concepts and images that you also used in the introduction.
• Synthesize, don’t summarize. Include a brief summary of the paper’s main points, but don’t simply repeat things that were in your paper. Instead, show your reader how the points you made and the support and examples you used fit together. Pull it all together.
• Include a provocative insight or quotation from the research or reading you did for your paper.
• Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader’s thought process and help them to apply your info and ideas to their own life or to see the broader implications.
• Point to broader implications. For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

Strategies to avoid

• Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as “in conclusion,” “in summary,” or “in closing.” Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.
• Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
• Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
• Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
• Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.
• Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

Four kinds of ineffective conclusions

• The “That’s My Story and I’m Sticking to It” Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can’t think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.
• The “Sherlock Holmes” Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don’t want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then “wow” them with your main idea, as in a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders’ power and also an important step toward freedom.
• The “America the Beautiful”/”I Am Woman”/”We Shall Overcome” Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.
• The “Grab Bag” Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn’t integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Douglass, Frederick. 1995. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself. New York: Dover.

Hamilton College. n.d. “Conclusions.” Writing Center. Accessed June 14, 2019. https://www.hamilton.edu//academics/centers/writing/writing-resources/conclusions .

Holewa, Randa. 2004. “Strategies for Writing a Conclusion.” LEO: Literacy Education Online. Last updated February 19, 2004. https://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/conclude.html.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Make a Gift

So much is at stake in writing a conclusion. This is, after all, your last chance to persuade your readers to your point of view, to impress yourself upon them as a writer and thinker. And the impression you create in your conclusion will shape the impression that stays with your readers after they've finished the essay.

The end of an essay should therefore convey a sense of completeness and closure as well as a sense of the lingering possibilities of the topic, its larger meaning, its implications: the final paragraph should close the discussion without closing it off.

To establish a sense of closure, you might do one or more of the following:

• Conclude by linking the last paragraph to the first, perhaps by reiterating a word or phrase you used at the beginning.
• Conclude with a sentence composed mainly of one-syllable words. Simple language can help create an effect of understated drama.
• Conclude with a sentence that's compound or parallel in structure; such sentences can establish a sense of balance or order that may feel just right at the end of a complex discussion.

To close the discussion without closing it off, you might do one or more of the following:

• Conclude with a quotation from or reference to a primary or secondary source, one that amplifies your main point or puts it in a different perspective. A quotation from, say, the novel or poem you're writing about can add texture and specificity to your discussion; a critic or scholar can help confirm or complicate your final point. For example, you might conclude an essay on the idea of home in James Joyce's short story collection,  Dubliners , with information about Joyce's own complex feelings towards Dublin, his home. Or you might end with a biographer's statement about Joyce's attitude toward Dublin, which could illuminate his characters' responses to the city. Just be cautious, especially about using secondary material: make sure that you get the last word.
• Conclude by setting your discussion into a different, perhaps larger, context. For example, you might end an essay on nineteenth-century muckraking journalism by linking it to a current news magazine program like  60 Minutes .
• Conclude by redefining one of the key terms of your argument. For example, an essay on Marx's treatment of the conflict between wage labor and capital might begin with Marx's claim that the "capitalist economy is . . . a gigantic enterprise of dehumanization "; the essay might end by suggesting that Marxist analysis is itself dehumanizing because it construes everything in economic -- rather than moral or ethical-- terms.
• Conclude by considering the implications of your argument (or analysis or discussion). What does your argument imply, or involve, or suggest? For example, an essay on the novel  Ambiguous Adventure , by the Senegalese writer Cheikh Hamidou Kane, might open with the idea that the protagonist's development suggests Kane's belief in the need to integrate Western materialism and Sufi spirituality in modern Senegal. The conclusion might make the new but related point that the novel on the whole suggests that such an integration is (or isn't) possible.

Finally, some advice on how not to end an essay:

• Don't simply summarize your essay. A brief summary of your argument may be useful, especially if your essay is long--more than ten pages or so. But shorter essays tend not to require a restatement of your main ideas.
• Avoid phrases like "in conclusion," "to conclude," "in summary," and "to sum up." These phrases can be useful--even welcome--in oral presentations. But readers can see, by the tell-tale compression of the pages, when an essay is about to end. You'll irritate your audience if you belabor the obvious.
• Resist the urge to apologize. If you've immersed yourself in your subject, you now know a good deal more about it than you can possibly include in a five- or ten- or 20-page essay. As a result, by the time you've finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you've produced. (And if you haven't immersed yourself in your subject, you may be feeling even more doubtful about your essay as you approach the conclusion.) Repress those doubts. Don't undercut your authority by saying things like, "this is just one approach to the subject; there may be other, better approaches. . ."

Copyright 1998, Pat Bellanca, for the Writing Center at Harvard University

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• 9. The Conclusion
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The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of the main topics covered or a re-statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points derived from the findings of your study and, if applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. For most college-level research papers, two or three well-developed paragraphs is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, more paragraphs may be required in describing the key findings and their significance.

Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with important opportunities to demonstrate to the reader your understanding of the research problem. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key findings in your analysis that advance new understanding about the research problem, that are unusual or unexpected, or that have important implications applied to practice.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger significance of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly re-emphasize  your answer to the "So What?" question by placing the study within the context of how your research advances past research about the topic.
• Identifying how a gap in the literature has been addressed . The conclusion can be where you describe how a previously identified gap in the literature [first identified in your literature review section] has been addressed by your research and why this contribution is significant.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers an opportunity to elaborate on the impact and significance of your findings. This is particularly important if your study approached examining the research problem from an unusual or innovative perspective.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing or contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Bunton, David. “The Structure of PhD Conclusion Chapters.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 4 (July 2005): 207–224; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Rules

The general function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument . It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Do this by clearly summarizing the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem you investigated in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found in the literature. However, make sure that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings. This reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your paper.

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:

• Present your conclusions in clear, concise language. Re-state the purpose of your study, then describe how your findings differ or support those of other studies and why [i.e., what were the unique, new, or crucial contributions your study made to the overall research about your topic?].
• Do not simply reiterate your findings or the discussion of your results. Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem and the overall objectives of your study.
• Indicate opportunities for future research if you haven't already done so in the discussion section of your paper. Highlighting the need for further research provides the reader with evidence that you have an in-depth awareness of the research problem but that further investigations should take place beyond the scope of your investigation.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is presented well:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data [this is opposite of the introduction, which begins with general discussion of the context and ends with a detailed description of the research problem]. 

The conclusion also provides a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic . Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may contain your reflections on the evidence presented. However, the nature of being introspective about the research you have conducted will depend on the topic and whether your professor wants you to express your observations in this way. If asked to think introspectively about the topics, do not delve into idle speculation. Being introspective means looking within yourself as an author to try and understand an issue more deeply, not to guess at possible outcomes or make up scenarios not supported by the evidence.

II.  Developing a Compelling Conclusion

Although an effective conclusion needs to be clear and succinct, it does not need to be written passively or lack a compelling narrative. Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper may include any of the following:

• If your essay deals with a critical, contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem proactively.
• Recommend a specific course or courses of action that, if adopted, could address a specific problem in practice or in the development of new knowledge leading to positive change.
• Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion already noted in your paper in order to lend authority and support to the conclusion(s) you have reached [a good source would be from your literature review].
• Explain the consequences of your research in a way that elicits action or demonstrates urgency in seeking change.
• Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to emphasize the most important finding of your paper.
• If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point by drawing from your own life experiences.
• Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you presented in your introduction, but add further insight derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of results from your study to recast it in new or important ways.
• Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a succinct, declarative statement that you want the reader to remember about your study.

III. Problems to Avoid

Failure to be concise Your conclusion section should be concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too lengthy often have unnecessary information in them. The conclusion is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations, insights, and other forms of analysis that you make. Strategies for writing concisely can be found here .

Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues In the introduction, your task was to move from the general [the field of study] to the specific [the research problem]. However, in the conclusion, your task is to move from a specific discussion [your research problem] back to a general discussion framed around the implications and significance of your findings [i.e., how your research contributes new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature]. In short, the conclusion is where you should place your research within a larger context [visualize your paper as an hourglass--start with a broad introduction and review of the literature, move to the specific analysis and discussion, conclude with a broad summary of the study's implications and significance].

Failure to reveal problems and negative results Negative aspects of the research process should never be ignored. These are problems, deficiencies, or challenges encountered during your study. They should be summarized as a way of qualifying your overall conclusions. If you encountered negative or unintended results [i.e., findings that are validated outside the research context in which they were generated], you must report them in the results section and discuss their implications in the discussion section of your paper. In the conclusion, use negative results as an opportunity to explain their possible significance and/or how they may form the basis for future research.

Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned In order to be able to discuss how your research fits within your field of study [and possibly the world at large], you need to summarize briefly and succinctly how it contributes to new knowledge or a new understanding about the research problem. This element of your conclusion may be only a few sentences long.

Failure to match the objectives of your research Often research objectives in the social and behavioral sciences change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and refine the original objectives in your introduction. As these changes emerge they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research [not what you thought you might accomplish when you began].

Resist the urge to apologize If you've immersed yourself in studying the research problem, you presumably should know a good deal about it [perhaps even more than your professor!]. Nevertheless, by the time you have finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you have produced. Repress those doubts! Don't undermine your authority as a researcher by saying something like, "This is just one approach to examining this problem; there may be other, much better approaches that...." The overall tone of your conclusion should convey confidence to the reader about the study's validity and realiability.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Concluding Paragraphs. College Writing Center at Meramec. St. Louis Community College; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Leibensperger, Summer. Draft Your Conclusion. Academic Center, the University of Houston-Victoria, 2003; Make Your Last Words Count. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin Madison; Miquel, Fuster-Marquez and Carmen Gregori-Signes. “Chapter Six: ‘Last but Not Least:’ Writing the Conclusion of Your Paper.” In Writing an Applied Linguistics Thesis or Dissertation: A Guide to Presenting Empirical Research . John Bitchener, editor. (Basingstoke,UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 93-105; Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Writing Conclusions. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Don't Belabor the Obvious!

Avoid phrases like "in conclusion...," "in summary...," or "in closing...." These phrases can be useful, even welcome, in oral presentations. But readers can see by the tell-tale section heading and number of pages remaining that they are reaching the end of your paper. You'll irritate your readers if you belabor the obvious.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Another Writing Tip

New Insight, Not New Information!

Don't surprise the reader with new information in your conclusion that was never referenced anywhere else in the paper. This why the conclusion rarely has citations to sources. If you have new information to present, add it to the discussion or other appropriate section of the paper. Note that, although no new information is introduced, the conclusion, along with the discussion section, is where you offer your most "original" contributions in the paper; the conclusion is where you describe the value of your research, demonstrate that you understand the material that you’ve presented, and position your findings within the larger context of scholarship on the topic, including describing how your research contributes new insights to that scholarship.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

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How to Write a Conclusion for Research Papers (with Examples)

The conclusion of a research paper is a crucial section that plays a significant role in the overall impact and effectiveness of your research paper. However, this is also the section that typically receives less attention compared to the introduction and the body of the paper. The conclusion serves to provide a concise summary of the key findings, their significance, their implications, and a sense of closure to the study. Discussing how can the findings be applied in real-world scenarios or inform policy, practice, or decision-making is especially valuable to practitioners and policymakers. The research paper conclusion also provides researchers with clear insights and valuable information for their own work, which they can then build on and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

The research paper conclusion should explain the significance of your findings within the broader context of your field. It restates how your results contribute to the existing body of knowledge and whether they confirm or challenge existing theories or hypotheses. Also, by identifying unanswered questions or areas requiring further investigation, your awareness of the broader research landscape can be demonstrated.

Remember to tailor the research paper conclusion to the specific needs and interests of your intended audience, which may include researchers, practitioners, policymakers, or a combination of these.

Table of Contents

What is a conclusion in a research paper, summarizing conclusion, editorial conclusion, externalizing conclusion, importance of a good research paper conclusion, how to write a conclusion for your research paper, research paper conclusion examples.

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Frequently Asked Questions

A conclusion in a research paper is the final section where you summarize and wrap up your research, presenting the key findings and insights derived from your study. The research paper conclusion is not the place to introduce new information or data that was not discussed in the main body of the paper. When working on how to conclude a research paper, remember to stick to summarizing and interpreting existing content. The research paper conclusion serves the following purposes: 1

• Warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend specific course(s) of action.
• Restate key ideas to drive home the ultimate point of your research paper.
• Provide a “take-home” message that you want the readers to remember about your study.

Types of conclusions for research papers

In research papers, the conclusion provides closure to the reader. The type of research paper conclusion you choose depends on the nature of your study, your goals, and your target audience. I provide you with three common types of conclusions:

A summarizing conclusion is the most common type of conclusion in research papers. It involves summarizing the main points, reiterating the research question, and restating the significance of the findings. This common type of research paper conclusion is used across different disciplines.

An editorial conclusion is less common but can be used in research papers that are focused on proposing or advocating for a particular viewpoint or policy. It involves presenting a strong editorial or opinion based on the research findings and offering recommendations or calls to action.

An externalizing conclusion is a type of conclusion that extends the research beyond the scope of the paper by suggesting potential future research directions or discussing the broader implications of the findings. This type of conclusion is often used in more theoretical or exploratory research papers.

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The conclusion in a research paper serves several important purposes:

• Offers Implications and Recommendations : Your research paper conclusion is an excellent place to discuss the broader implications of your research and suggest potential areas for further study. It’s also an opportunity to offer practical recommendations based on your findings.
• Provides Closure : A good research paper conclusion provides a sense of closure to your paper. It should leave the reader with a feeling that they have reached the end of a well-structured and thought-provoking research project.
• Leaves a Lasting Impression : Writing a well-crafted research paper conclusion leaves a lasting impression on your readers. It’s your final opportunity to leave them with a new idea, a call to action, or a memorable quote.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper is essential to leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here’s a step-by-step process to help you create and know what to put in the conclusion of a research paper: 2

• Research Statement : Begin your research paper conclusion by restating your research statement. This reminds the reader of the main point you’ve been trying to prove throughout your paper. Keep it concise and clear.
• Key Points : Summarize the main arguments and key points you’ve made in your paper. Avoid introducing new information in the research paper conclusion. Instead, provide a concise overview of what you’ve discussed in the body of your paper.
• Address the Research Questions : If your research paper is based on specific research questions or hypotheses, briefly address whether you’ve answered them or achieved your research goals. Discuss the significance of your findings in this context.
• Significance : Highlight the importance of your research and its relevance in the broader context. Explain why your findings matter and how they contribute to the existing knowledge in your field.
• Implications : Explore the practical or theoretical implications of your research. How might your findings impact future research, policy, or real-world applications? Consider the “so what?” question.
• Future Research : Offer suggestions for future research in your area. What questions or aspects remain unanswered or warrant further investigation? This shows that your work opens the door for future exploration.
• Closing Thought : Conclude your research paper conclusion with a thought-provoking or memorable statement. This can leave a lasting impression on your readers and wrap up your paper effectively. Avoid introducing new information or arguments here.
• Proofread and Revise : Carefully proofread your conclusion for grammar, spelling, and clarity. Ensure that your ideas flow smoothly and that your conclusion is coherent and well-structured.

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Remember that a well-crafted research paper conclusion is a reflection of the strength of your research and your ability to communicate its significance effectively. It should leave a lasting impression on your readers and tie together all the threads of your paper. Now you know how to start the conclusion of a research paper and what elements to include to make it impactful, let’s look at a research paper conclusion sample.

How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal?

A research paper conclusion is not just a summary of your study, but a synthesis of the key findings that ties the research together and places it in a broader context. A research paper conclusion should be concise, typically around one paragraph in length. However, some complex topics may require a longer conclusion to ensure the reader is left with a clear understanding of the study’s significance. Paperpal, an AI writing assistant trusted by over 800,000 academics globally, can help you write a well-structured conclusion for your research paper. 

• Sign Up or Log In: Create a new Paperpal account or login with your details.  
• Navigate to Features : Once logged in, head over to the features’ side navigation pane. Click on Templates and you’ll find a suite of generative AI features to help you write better, faster.  
• Generate an outline: Under Templates, select ‘Outlines’. Choose ‘Research article’ as your document type.  
• Select your section: Since you’re focusing on the conclusion, select this section when prompted.  
• Choose your field of study: Identifying your field of study allows Paperpal to provide more targeted suggestions, ensuring the relevance of your conclusion to your specific area of research. 
• Provide a brief description of your study: Enter details about your research topic and findings. This information helps Paperpal generate a tailored outline that aligns with your paper’s content. 
• Generate the conclusion outline: After entering all necessary details, click on ‘generate’. Paperpal will then create a structured outline for your conclusion, to help you start writing and build upon the outline.  
• Write your conclusion: Use the generated outline to build your conclusion. The outline serves as a guide, ensuring you cover all critical aspects of a strong conclusion, from summarizing key findings to highlighting the research’s implications. 
• Refine and enhance: Paperpal’s ‘Make Academic’ feature can be particularly useful in the final stages. Select any paragraph of your conclusion and use this feature to elevate the academic tone, ensuring your writing is aligned to the academic journal standards. 

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The research paper conclusion is a crucial part of your paper as it provides the final opportunity to leave a strong impression on your readers. In the research paper conclusion, summarize the main points of your research paper by restating your research statement, highlighting the most important findings, addressing the research questions or objectives, explaining the broader context of the study, discussing the significance of your findings, providing recommendations if applicable, and emphasizing the takeaway message. The main purpose of the conclusion is to remind the reader of the main point or argument of your paper and to provide a clear and concise summary of the key findings and their implications. All these elements should feature on your list of what to put in the conclusion of a research paper to create a strong final statement for your work.

A strong conclusion is a critical component of a research paper, as it provides an opportunity to wrap up your arguments, reiterate your main points, and leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here are the key elements of a strong research paper conclusion: 1. Conciseness : A research paper conclusion should be concise and to the point. It should not introduce new information or ideas that were not discussed in the body of the paper. 2. Summarization : The research paper conclusion should be comprehensive enough to give the reader a clear understanding of the research’s main contributions. 3 . Relevance : Ensure that the information included in the research paper conclusion is directly relevant to the research paper’s main topic and objectives; avoid unnecessary details. 4 . Connection to the Introduction : A well-structured research paper conclusion often revisits the key points made in the introduction and shows how the research has addressed the initial questions or objectives. 5. Emphasis : Highlight the significance and implications of your research. Why is your study important? What are the broader implications or applications of your findings? 6 . Call to Action : Include a call to action or a recommendation for future research or action based on your findings.

The length of a research paper conclusion can vary depending on several factors, including the overall length of the paper, the complexity of the research, and the specific journal requirements. While there is no strict rule for the length of a conclusion, but it’s generally advisable to keep it relatively short. A typical research paper conclusion might be around 5-10% of the paper’s total length. For example, if your paper is 10 pages long, the conclusion might be roughly half a page to one page in length.

In general, you do not need to include citations in the research paper conclusion. Citations are typically reserved for the body of the paper to support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims. However, there may be some exceptions to this rule: 1. If you are drawing a direct quote or paraphrasing a specific source in your research paper conclusion, you should include a citation to give proper credit to the original author. 2. If your conclusion refers to or discusses specific research, data, or sources that are crucial to the overall argument, citations can be included to reinforce your conclusion’s validity.

The conclusion of a research paper serves several important purposes: 1. Summarize the Key Points 2. Reinforce the Main Argument 3. Provide Closure 4. Offer Insights or Implications 5. Engage the Reader. 6. Reflect on Limitations

Remember that the primary purpose of the research paper conclusion is to leave a lasting impression on the reader, reinforcing the key points and providing closure to your research. It’s often the last part of the paper that the reader will see, so it should be strong and well-crafted.

• Makar, G., Foltz, C., Lendner, M., & Vaccaro, A. R. (2018). How to write effective discussion and conclusion sections. Clinical spine surgery, 31(8), 345-346.
• Bunton, D. (2005). The structure of PhD conclusion chapters.  Journal of English for academic purposes ,  4 (3), 207-224.

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How to write an excellent thesis conclusion [with examples]

Restate the thesis

Review or reiterate key points of your work, explain why your work is relevant, a take-away for the reader, more resources on writing thesis conclusions, frequently asked questions about writing an excellent thesis conclusion, related articles.

At this point in your writing, you have most likely finished your introduction and the body of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper . While this is a reason to celebrate, you should not underestimate the importance of your conclusion. The conclusion is the last thing that your reader will see, so it should be memorable.

A good conclusion will review the key points of the thesis and explain to the reader why the information is relevant, applicable, or related to the world as a whole. Make sure to dedicate enough of your writing time to the conclusion and do not put it off until the very last minute.

This article provides an effective technique for writing a conclusion adapted from Erika Eby’s The College Student's Guide to Writing a Good Research Paper: 101 Easy Tips & Tricks to Make Your Work Stand Out .

While the thesis introduction starts out with broad statements about the topic, and then narrows it down to the thesis statement , a thesis conclusion does the same in the opposite order.

• Restate the thesis.
• Review or reiterate key points of your work.
• Explain why your work is relevant.
• Include a core take-away message for the reader.

Tip: Don’t just copy and paste your thesis into your conclusion. Restate it in different words.

The best way to start a conclusion is simply by restating the thesis statement. That does not mean just copying and pasting it from the introduction, but putting it into different words.

You will need to change the structure and wording of it to avoid sounding repetitive. Also, be firm in your conclusion just as you were in the introduction. Try to avoid sounding apologetic by using phrases like "This paper has tried to show..."

The conclusion should address all the same parts as the thesis while making it clear that the reader has reached the end. You are telling the reader that your research is finished and what your findings are.

I have argued throughout this work that the point of critical mass for biopolitical immunity occurred during the Romantic period because of that era's unique combination of post-revolutionary politics and innovations in smallpox prevention. In particular, I demonstrated that the French Revolution and the discovery of vaccination in the 1790s triggered a reconsideration of the relationship between bodies and the state.

Tip: Try to reiterate points from your introduction in your thesis conclusion.

The next step is to review the main points of the thesis as a whole. Look back at the body of of your project and make a note of the key ideas. You can reword these ideas the same way you reworded your thesis statement and then incorporate that into the conclusion.

You can also repeat striking quotations or statistics, but do not use more than two. As the conclusion represents your own closing thoughts on the topic , it should mainly consist of your own words.

In addition, conclusions can contain recommendations to the reader or relevant questions that further the thesis. You should ask yourself:

• What you would ideally like to see your readers do in reaction to your paper?
• Do you want them to take a certain action or investigate further?
• Is there a bigger issue that your paper wants to draw attention to?

Also, try to reference your introduction in your conclusion. You have already taken a first step by restating your thesis. Now, check whether there are other key words, phrases or ideas that are mentioned in your introduction that fit into your conclusion. Connecting the introduction to the conclusion in this way will help readers feel satisfied.

I explored how Mary Wollstonecraft, in both her fiction and political writings, envisions an ideal medico-political state, and how other writers like William Wordsworth and Mary Shelley increasingly imagined the body politic literally, as an incorporated political collective made up of bodies whose immunity to political and medical ills was essential to a healthy state.

Tip: Make sure to explain why your thesis is relevant to your field of research.

Although you can encourage readers to question their opinions and reflect on your topic, do not leave loose ends. You should provide a sense of resolution and make sure your conclusion wraps up your argument. Make sure you explain why your thesis is relevant to your field of research and how your research intervenes within, or substantially revises, existing scholarly debates.

This project challenged conventional ideas about the relationship among Romanticism, medicine, and politics by reading the unfolding of Romantic literature and biopolitical immunity as mutual, co-productive processes. In doing so, this thesis revises the ways in which biopolitics has been theorized by insisting on the inherent connections between Romantic literature and the forms of biopower that characterize early modernity.

Tip: If you began your thesis with an anecdote or historical example, you may want to return to that in your conclusion.

End your conclusion with something memorable, such as:

• a call to action
• a recommendation
• a gesture towards future research
• a brief explanation of how the problem or idea you covered remains relevant

Ultimately, you want readers to feel more informed, or ready to act, as they read your conclusion.

Yet, the Romantic period is only the beginning of modern thought on immunity and biopolitics. Victorian writers, doctors, and politicians upheld the Romantic idea that a "healthy state" was a literal condition that could be achieved by combining politics and medicine, but augmented that idea through legislation and widespread public health measures. While many nineteenth-century efforts to improve citizens' health were successful, the fight against disease ultimately changed course in the twentieth century as global immunological threats such as SARS occupied public consciousness. Indeed, as subsequent public health events make apparent, biopolitical immunity persists as a viable concept for thinking about the relationship between medicine and politics in modernity.

Need more advice? Read our 5 additional tips on how to write a good thesis conclusion.

The conclusion is the last thing that your reader will see, so it should be memorable. To write a great thesis conclusion you should:

The basic content of a conclusion is to review the main points from the paper. This part represents your own closing thoughts on the topic. It should mainly consist of the outcome of the research in your own words.

The length of the conclusion will depend on the length of the whole thesis. Usually, a conclusion should be around 5-7% of the overall word count.

End your conclusion with something memorable, such as a question, warning, or call to action. Depending on the topic, you can also end with a recommendation.

In Open Access: Theses and Dissertations you can find thousands of completed works. Take a look at any of the theses or dissertations for real-life examples of conclusions that were already approved.

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Writing conclusions.

Though expectations vary from one discipline to the next, the conclusion of your paper is generally a place to explore the implications of your topic or argument. In other words, the end of your paper is a place to look outward or ahead in order to explain why you made the points you did.

Writing the Conclusion

In the past, you may have been told that your conclusion should summarize what you have already said by restating your thesis and main points. It is often helpful to restate your argument in the conclusion, particularly in a longer paper, but most professors and instructors want students to go beyond simply repeating what they have already said. Restating your thesis is just a short first part of your conclusion. Make sure that you are not simply repeating yourself; your restated thesis should use new and interesting language.

After you have restated your thesis, you should not just summarize the key points of your argument. Your conclusion should offer the reader something new to think about—or, at the very least, it should offer the reader a new way of thinking about what you have said in your paper.

You can employ one of several strategies for taking your conclusion that important step further:

• Answer the question, "So what?"
• Connect to a larger theme from the course
• Complicate your claim with an outside source
• Pose a new research question as a result of your paper's findings
• Address the limitations of your argument

The strategy you employ in writing a conclusion for your paper may depend upon a number of factors:

• The conventions of the discipline in which you are writing
• The tone of your paper (whether your paper is analytical, argumentative, explanatory, etc.)
• Whether your paper is meant to be formal or informal

Choose a strategy that best maintains the flow and tone of your paper while allowing you to adequately tie together all aspects of your paper.

The Final "So what?" Strategy

Part of generating a thesis statement sometimes requires answering the "so what?" question—that is, explaining the significance of your basic assertion. When you use the "so what?" strategy to write your conclusion, you are considering what some of the implications of your argument might be beyond the points already made in your paper. This strategy allows you to leave readers with an understanding of why your argument is important in a broader context or how it can apply to a larger concept.

For example, consider a paper about alcohol abuse in universities. If the paper argues that alcohol abuse among students depends more on psychological factors than simply the availability of alcohol on campus, a "so what?" conclusion might tie together threads from the body of the paper to suggest that universities are not approaching alcohol education from the most effective perspective when they focus exclusively on limiting students' access to alcohol.

To use this strategy, ask yourself, "How does my argument affect how I approach the text or issue?"

The "Connecting to a Course Theme" Strategy

When you use the "connecting to a course theme" strategy to write your conclusion, you are establishing a connection between your paper's thesis and a larger theme or idea from the course for which you are writing your paper.

For example, consider a paper about mothers and daughters in Eudora Welty's Delta Wedding for a class called "The Inescapable South." This paper argues that a strong dependence on the mother is analogous to a strong dependence on the South. A "connecting to a course theme" conclusion for this paper might propose that Welty's daughter characters demonstrate what type of people can and cannot escape the South.

To use this strategy, ask yourself, "What is an overall theme of this course? How does my paper's thesis connect?"

The "Complicating Your Claim" Strategy

When you use the "complicating your claim" strategy to write your conclusion, you are using one or more additional resources to develop a more nuanced final thesis. Such additional resources could include a new outside source or textual evidence that seemingly contradicts your argument.

For example, consider a paper about Ireland's neutrality during World War II. This paper argues that Ireland refused to enter the war because it wanted to assert its sovereignty, not because it had no opinion about the conflict. A "complicating your claim" conclusion for this paper might provide historical evidence that Ireland did aid the Allies, suggesting that the Irish were more influenced by international diplomacy than their formal neutrality might suggest.

To use this strategy, ask yourself, "Is there any evidence against my thesis?" or "What does an outside source have to say about my thesis?"

The "Posing a New Question" Strategy

When you use the "posing a new question" strategy to write your conclusion, you are inviting the reader to consider a new idea or question that has appeared as a result of your argument.

For example, consider a paper about three versions of the folktale "Rapunzel." This paper argues that German, Italian, and Filipino versions of "Rapunzel" all vary in terms of characterization, plot development, and moral, and as a result have different themes. A "posing a new question" conclusion for this paper might ask the historical and cultural reasons for how three separate cultures developed such similar stories with such different themes.

To use this strategy, ask yourself, "What new question has developed out of my argument?"

The "Addressing Limitations" Strategy

When you use the "addressing limitations" strategy to write your conclusion, you are discussing the possible weaknesses of your argument and, thus, the fallibility of your overall conclusion. This strategy is often useful in concluding papers on scientific studies and experiments.

For example, consider a paper about an apparent correlation between religious belief and support for terrorism. An "addressing limitations" conclusion for this paper might suggest that the apparent correlation relies on the paper's definition of "terrorism" and, since the definition is not objective, the apparent correlation might have been wrongly identified.

To use this strategy, ask yourself, "In what aspects is my argument lacking? Are there circumstances in which my conclusions might be wrong?"

Polishing Your Conclusion—and Your Paper

After you've completed your conclusion, look over what you have written and consider making some small changes to promote clarity and originality:

• Unless your discipline requires them, remove obvious transitions like "in conclusion," "in summary," and "in result" from your conclusion; they get in the way of the actual substance of your conclusion.
• Consider taking a strong phrase from your conclusion and using it as the title or subtitle of your paper.

Also, be sure to proofread your conclusion carefully for errors and typos. You should double-check your entire paper for accuracy and correct spelling as well.

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Conclusions

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Conclusions wrap up what you have been discussing in your paper. After moving from general to specific information in the introduction and body paragraphs, your conclusion should begin pulling back into more general information that restates the main points of your argument. Conclusions may also call for action or overview future possible research. The following outline may help you conclude your paper:

In a general way,

• Restate your topic and why it is important,
• Restate your thesis/claim,
• Address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should align with your position,
• Call for action or overview future research possibilities.

Remember that once you accomplish these tasks, unless otherwise directed by your instructor, you are finished. Done. Complete. Don't try to bring in new points or end with a whiz bang(!) conclusion or try to solve world hunger in the final sentence of your conclusion. Simplicity is best for a clear, convincing message.

The preacher's maxim is one of the most effective formulas to follow for argument papers:

Tell what you're going to tell them (introduction).

Tell them (body).

Tell them what you told them (conclusion).

Conclusion vs. Summary

What's the difference.

Conclusion and summary are two different elements of a written piece, but they serve similar purposes. A conclusion is the final part of an essay or article where the writer wraps up their main points and provides a final thought or opinion. It is a more detailed and comprehensive section that often includes a synthesis of the main arguments presented throughout the text. On the other hand, a summary is a condensed version of the entire piece, highlighting the main ideas and key points without providing any new information or personal opinions. It is a brief overview that allows readers to quickly grasp the main content of the text. While a conclusion offers a more in-depth analysis and reflection, a summary provides a concise overview of the entire piece.

Further Detail

Introduction.

When it comes to writing, two terms that often confuse people are "conclusion" and "summary." While both serve the purpose of wrapping up a piece of writing, they have distinct attributes and play different roles. In this article, we will explore the differences and similarities between conclusions and summaries, shedding light on their unique characteristics and how they contribute to the overall structure and impact of a written work.

Definition and Purpose

A conclusion is the final part of a written work, be it an essay, research paper, or any other form of academic or non-academic writing. It aims to provide closure to the reader by summarizing the main points, restating the thesis or main argument, and offering a final thought or reflection. In essence, a conclusion is the author's last opportunity to leave a lasting impression on the reader and reinforce the key ideas presented throughout the text.

On the other hand, a summary is a condensed version of a larger piece of writing. It focuses on the main ideas, key arguments, and supporting evidence presented in the original work. The purpose of a summary is to provide a concise overview of the text, allowing readers to grasp the main points without having to read the entire piece. Summaries are commonly used in academic settings, such as when reviewing research articles or summarizing chapters of a textbook.

Content and Structure

When it comes to content, a conclusion typically includes a brief summary of the main points discussed in the body of the text. It may also restate the thesis statement or main argument in a slightly different way, emphasizing its significance and relevance. Additionally, a conclusion often offers a final thought or reflection, leaving the reader with something to ponder or consider after finishing the piece.

On the other hand, a summary focuses solely on the main ideas and key points of the original work. It does not include personal reflections or new information. Instead, a summary aims to provide an objective overview of the text, allowing readers to quickly grasp the main concepts without delving into the details.

In terms of structure, a conclusion is typically longer than a summary. It may span several paragraphs, depending on the length and complexity of the original work. A conclusion often begins with a transition phrase or signal word, such as "In conclusion" or "To sum up," to indicate that the writer is wrapping up the discussion. It then proceeds to summarize the main points and restate the thesis before offering a final thought or closing statement.

On the other hand, a summary is much shorter and more concise. It aims to capture the essence of the original work in a few sentences or paragraphs. A summary does not require a formal introduction or conclusion but should still provide a clear and coherent overview of the text.

Usage and Application

Conclusions are commonly used in various forms of writing, including essays, research papers, reports, and even speeches. They serve as a way to tie together the main ideas and arguments presented throughout the text, leaving the reader with a sense of closure and understanding. A well-crafted conclusion can leave a lasting impact on the reader, reinforcing the main message and providing a sense of satisfaction.

Summaries, on the other hand, are particularly useful when dealing with lengthy or complex texts. They allow readers to quickly grasp the main points and decide whether they want to delve deeper into the full work. Summaries are commonly used in academic settings, such as when writing literature reviews, abstracts, or executive summaries. They also find application in journalism, where journalists often provide a summary of an event or news story in the opening paragraphs.

Conclusion vs. Summary: Key Differences

While conclusions and summaries share the common goal of wrapping up a piece of writing, they differ in several key aspects:

• A conclusion is the final part of a written work, while a summary is a condensed version of the original text.
• A conclusion includes a brief summary of the main points, restates the thesis, and offers a final thought, while a summary focuses solely on the main ideas and key points.
• A conclusion is typically longer and may span several paragraphs, while a summary is shorter and more concise.
• Conclusions are commonly used in various forms of writing, while summaries are particularly useful for condensing lengthy or complex texts.

In conclusion, while conclusions and summaries serve different purposes and have distinct attributes, they both play crucial roles in the overall structure and impact of a written work. A conclusion provides closure to the reader, summarizing the main points and leaving a lasting impression, while a summary offers a condensed overview of the text, allowing readers to quickly grasp the main ideas. Understanding the differences between these two elements is essential for effective writing and communication, enabling writers to craft compelling conclusions and concise summaries that enhance the reader's understanding and engagement.

Comparisons may contain inaccurate information about people, places, or facts. Please report any issues.

• Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Summary and Conclusion

In the absence of conclusion, the research paper might seem incomplete. It is often contrasted with a summary, but there are subtle differences between the two. A summary is nothing but a short and clear account of the text, covering the main points, facts or elements only.

Content: Summary Vs Conclusion

Comparison chart, definition of summary.

A summary is the compact account of the main text, i.e. an article, essay, drama, or some other form of literature. It gives an overview of the key points of the piece of writing. Moreover, one can also summarize anything which he/she has seen and heard, like speech, movie or lecture, etc.

It is typically about 5% to 15% of the original work, i.e. it may extend up to one to three paragraphs, which is around 100 to 300 words. It simply depends on the length of the text which is summarized. Its aim is to describe a piece of writing while including considerably less content than its original.

Ideal Summary

• An ideal summary is one that objectively highlights the entire form of literature.
• It should cover the focal point of every paragraph and the evidence supporting it.
• It should exclude all the irrelevant examples, details and information.
• It can make use of the keywords used in the original work, but should not use the same sentences and phrases, except if quotation marks are used.
• It must express the sense of the original work while using your own words and sentences.

Definition of Conclsuion

Conclusion refers to the epilogue which is given at the end of something, to deduce the findings. It forms part of the thought process, which combines all the points discussed, so as to reach a comprehensive idea or statement.

It is the final step in the process of reasoning, in which judgement, decision or opinion is formed after complete investigation and consideration. To conclude something, different types of perspectives are considered. It is only 10% of the research paper, which has two segments – summary and final thought .

Ideal Conclusion

• The conclusion is said to be ideal when it gives an interesting insight and should end on a positive note.
• Highlights the main argument presented in the piece of writing.
• Sums up the answer to the question, often stated in the introduction.
• Refer back the questions, states the key points and findings, and wind up the discussion with the final observation.
• Reinforces the primary theme of the study.
• Makes a strong and long-lasting impression on the reader.
• It should never introduce new points.

Key Differences Between Summary and Conclusion

The points stated below discuss the differences between summary and conclusion:

• A summary is an abridgement of the work of literature, which covers the key points succinctly. On the contrary, conclusion refers to the final part of the discourse which sums up the argument and gives a statement of opinion or judgement.
• A summary is written to provide the reader with a precise and objective narrative of the central ideas and aspects of the original text. Conversely, conclusion paragraph wraps up the text and presents the reader that you have accomplished, what you have set forth in the beginning.
• While a summary restates the facts and elements, which are discussed in the original text, conclusion tends to synthesize all the points and wrap up the discussion. It helps the reader understand the importance of the research.
• Ideally, the length of the summary is 5% to 15%, whereas the conclusion constitutes only 10% of the original work.
• A summary often demonstrates the central ideas of the text clearly and concisely. In contrast, the conclusion introduces a new outlook, proposes a course of actions, provides a solution to the problem, makes suggestions for further study, and makes deductions on the basis of the argument.
• A summary only includes the ideas of the original text. One should not insert their opinion, criticism, comments or interpretations. As against, the conclusion can include the researcher’s or writer’s views, ideas and criticisms at the end.

In a nutshell, a summary condenses the material as well as it informs the reader about the vital points. Contrastingly, a conclusion gives the reader the sense of completeness of the argument or topic, with a reason or final thought. It focuses on the final outcome of the argumentation or research.

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2024 Social Media Safety Index

Executive summary, key conclusions and recommendations, and methodology.

“When social media platforms use algorithms that amplify hate, fail to enforce their own policies against hate, and profit off the targeting of communities, people suffer — and democracy is undermined.” — The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights [1]

In addition to the annual Platform Scorecard ratings and recommendations, this year’s Social Media Safety Index (SMSI) report provides an overview of the current state of LGBTQ social media safety, privacy, and expression, including sections on: the economy of hate and disinformation, predominant anti-LGBTQ tropes, policy best practices, suppression of LGBTQ content, the connections between online hate and offline harm, regulation and oversight, AI, data protection and privacy, and more.

In the 2024 SMSI Platform Scorecard, while some platforms have shown improvements in their scores and others have fallen, overall the scores remain abysmal, with all platforms other than TikTok receiving F grades (TikTok reached a D+).

An Important Note About The Scorecard Ratings: While the six platforms all have policies prohibiting hate and harassment on the basis of sexual orientation, gender identity and/or expression, and other protected characteristics, the SMSI Scorecard does not include indicators to rate them on enforcement of those policies. GLAAD and other monitoring organizations repeatedly encounter failures in enforcement of community guidelines across major platforms. However, given the difficulty involved in assessing enforcement methodologically — which is further complicated by a relative lack of transparency from the companies — these failures are not quantified in the scores below.

Specific LGBTQ safety, privacy, and expression issues identified in the Platform Scorecard, and in the SMSI report in general, include: inadequate content moderation and problems with policy development and enforcement (including issues with both failure to mitigate anti-LGBTQ content and over-moderation/suppression of LGBTQ users); harmful algorithms and lack of algorithmic transparency; inadequate transparency and user controls around data privacy; and an overall lack of transparency and accountability across the industry, among many other issues — all of which disproportionately impact LGBTQ users and other marginalized communities who are uniquely vulnerable to hate, harassment, and discrimination.

These areas of concern are exacerbated for those who are members of multiple communities, including people of color, women, immigrants, people with disabilities, religious minorities, and more. Social media platforms should be safe for everyone, in all of who we are.

Like the 2023 Social Media Safety Index (SMSI), this year’s report illuminates the epidemic of anti-LGBTQ hate, harassment, and disinformation across the major social media platforms: TikTok, X, YouTube, and Meta’s Instagram, Facebook, and newly added Threads. The report especially makes note of the high-follower hate accounts and right-wing figures who continue to manufacture and circulate most of this activity. [2] The devastating impact of hate, disinformation, and conspiracy theory content continues to be one of the most consequential issues of our time, with hate-driven and politically-motivated false narratives running rampant online and offline and causing real-world harm to our collective public health , safety , and democracy . As a major January 2024 Online Extremism report from the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) notes: “Research suggests the occurrence of hate crimes is associated with hate speech on the internet [and] suggests individuals radicalized on the internet can perpetrate violence as lone offenders.”

Targeting historically marginalized groups, including LGBTQ people, with fear-mongering, lies, and bigotry is both an intentional strategy of bad actors for attempting to consolidate political power, as well as being a lucrative enterprise (for the right-wing figures and groups that drive such campaigns and tropes, and for the multi-billion dollar tech companies that host them). It’s clear that regulatory oversight of the entire industry is necessary to address, as the Global Disinformation Index puts it: “the perverse incentives that drive the corruption of our information environment.” [3]

In addition to egregious levels of inadequately moderated anti-LGBTQ material across platforms (for example see GLAAD’s recent report, Unsafe: Meta Fails to Moderate Extreme Anti-trans Hate Across Facebook, Instagram, and Threads ), we also see the corollary problem of over-moderation of legitimate LGBTQ expression — including wrongful takedowns of LGBTQ accounts and creators, [4] mis-labeling of LGBTQ content as “adult,” unwarranted demonetization of LGBTQ material under such policies, shadowbanning, [5] and similar suppression of LGBTQ content. [6] Meta’s recent policy change limiting algorithmic eligibility of so-called “political content” (partly defined by Meta as: “social topics that affect a group of people and/or society large”) is especially concerning. [7]

There’s nothing unusual or surprising about the fact that companies prioritize their corporate profits and bottom line over public safety and the best interests of society (which is why we have regulatory agencies to oversee major industries). Unfortunately social media companies are currently woefully under-regulated. And platform safety concerns have risen, particularly over the past year, as so many of the world’s largest social media companies have slashed content moderation teams. In an NBC News feature about the wave of layoffs an anonymous X staffer reflected that, “hateful conduct and potentially violent conduct has really increased.” [8] Such downsizing is also negatively impacting the fight against disinformation on social media platforms, as outlined at length in the 2023 Center for Democracy and Technology report Seismic Shifts . [9] The impacts of these business decisions on our information environment will no doubt continue to worsen as major social media companies have shifted towards policies allowing highly-consequential, known false information and hate-motivated extremism to proliferate on their platforms. [10]

Key Conclusions of the 2024 SMSI include:

• Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric and disinformation on social media translates to real-world offline harms .
• Platforms are largely failing to successfully mitigate dangerous anti-LGBTQ hate and disinformation and frequently do not adequately enforce their own policies regarding such content.
• Platforms also disproportionately suppress LGBTQ content, including via removal, demonetization, and forms of shadowbanning.
• There is a lack of effective, meaningful transparency reporting from social media companies with regard to content moderation, algorithms, data protection and data privacy practices.

Core Recommendations:

• Strengthen and enforce existing policies that protect LGBTQ people and others from hate, harassment, and misinformation/disinformation, and also from suppression of legitimate LGBTQ expression.
• Improve moderation including training moderators on the needs of LGBTQ users, and moderate across all languages, cultural contexts, and regions. This also means not being overly reliant on AI. [11]
• Be transparent with regard to content moderation, community guidelines, terms of service policy implementation, algorithm designs, and enforcement reports. Such transparency should be facilitated via working with independent researchers. [12]
• Stop violating privacy/respect data privacy. To protect LGBTQ users from surveillance and discrimination, platforms should reduce the amount of data they collect, infer, and retain. They should cease the practice of targeted surveillance advertising, including the use of algorithmic content recommendation. [13] And should implement end-to-end encryption by default on all private messaging to protect LGBTQ people from persecution, stalking, and violence. [14]
• Promote civil discourse and proactively message expectations for user behavior, including respecting platform hate and harassment policies. [15]

The chief emphasis of this report is on the state of LGBTQ safety with regard to the platforms; while it should be acknowledged that there are many positive initiatives and activities these companies continue to implement to protect their LGBTQ users, they simply must do so much more. It is also vitally important to remember the crucial role social media platforms play for LGBTQ people. As noted in our section on regulatory oversight, proposed legislative social media safety solutions should be mindful of not causing unintended harm to LGBTQ users, especially LGBTQ youth. As a US-based organization GLAAD’s focus is primarily domestic; however there are enormous global implications of this work, and we call upon platforms to take responsibility for the worldwide impacts and safety of their products.

Methodology

In preparing this year’s report, GLAAD reviewed thought leadership, research, journalism, and findings across the field of social media safety and platform accountability, consulting with the GLAAD SMSI advisory committee and other organizations and leaders in technology and social justice. The 2024 SMSI Articles and Reports Appendix features links to important relevant topics and developments in the field of LGBTQ social media safety (from the implications of Meta’s recent Instagram/Threads “ political content” policy implementation, to anti-trans hate trope trends like “ transvestigation ,” to the super-charging of disinformation-for-profit via financially-incentivized anonymous accounts on X ). Please also refer to the 2023 , 2022 , and 2021 SMSI reports and the 2024 Bibliography of Anti-LGBTQ Online To Offline Real World Harms , which remain substantial and valuable resources on these topics.

The centerpiece of this year’s report is the Platform Scorecard. Spearheaded by GLAAD’s independent researcher Andrea Hackl, working in partnership with Ranking Digital Rights (RDR), the 2024 Social Media Safety Index Platform Scorecard looks at 12 LGBTQ-specific indicators and evaluates each of the six major platforms drawing on RDR’s standard methodology to generate numeric ratings for each product with regard to LGBTQ safety. Researchers interested in digging deeper into the 12 LGBTQ-specific indicators may explore this 2024 Research Guidance document.

While this report is focused on the six major social media platforms, we know that other companies and platforms — from Snapchat to Spotify, Amazon to Zoom — can benefit from these recommendations as well. We strongly urge all platforms and companies to make the safety of their LGBTQ customers and users an urgent priority.

On the Firewall Between Financial Sponsorship and GLAAD’s Advocacy Work Several of the companies that own products and platforms listed in this report are current financial sponsors of GLAAD, a 501(c)3 non-profit. A firewall exists between GLAAD’s advocacy work and GLAAD’s sponsorships and fundraising. As part of our media advocacy and work as a media watchdog, GLAAD has and will continue to publicly call attention to issues that are barriers to LGBTQ safety, as well as barriers to fair and accurate LGBTQ content and coverage — including issues originating from companies that are current financial sponsors.

[1] Cause for Concern 2024: The State of Hate [2] Online Amplifiers of Anti-LGBTQ+ Extremism [3] Disinformation as Adversarial Narrative Conflict [4] Social Media Platforms Target, Restrict and Silence LGBTQ+ Content, Experts Say [5] Shadowbanning is real: How social media decides who to silence [6] Oversight Board presses Meta to revise ‘convoluted and poorly defined’ nudity policy [7] Instagram’s shift away from political content raises questions about what counts as ‘political’ [8] Tech layoffs hit ‘trust and safety’ teams, raising fears of backsliding efforts to curb online abuse [9] Seismic Shifts: How Economic, Technological, and Political Trends are Challenging Independent Counter-Election-Disinformation In the United States [10] Following Musk’s lead, YouTube and Facebook are giving up on policing conspiracies [11] The EU tells Twitter to hire more human content moderators amid concerns of rise of illegal content [12] Transparency is the best first step towards better digital governance [13] 81% of Americans support banning companies from collecting people’s personal data for ad targeting. [14] OPEN LETTER: Make DMs Safe [15] For a Civil Internet – How the tone of online conversations can build trust

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Example : As Morrison (1982) asserted, her characters could only imagine themselves as individuals when emotionally, physically, and spiritually bonded to their best friends. Therefore, self-realization required the intense bonds between women.

Explanation : Here, the author is drawing a conclusion based on what she has found to be true in Morrison's text. This connection fits into the "Because x, then y" model. Because friendship is required of the girls as they grow, then they need friendship to achieve self-realization.

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When will the Trump trial reach a verdict? 'Anybody's guess' once jury deliberation begins

Donald Trump's hush money trial is nearing its end. The prosecution and defense have rested their cases and closing arguments are scheduled to start Tuesday, May 28.

The former president has appeared nearly daily in the Manhattan courthouse over the past five weeks as prosecutors built a case to argue he falsified business records in 34 different instances. Throughout 19 witnesses and dozens of pieces of evidence, they tried to prove Trump disguised reimbursements to former aide Michael Cohen , who they accuse of violating campaign finance laws when he paid porn star Stormy Daniels $130,000 in 2016 to stay quiet about a sexual encounter that allegedly happened a decade earlier.

Though Trump has been charged in four different criminal cases , this case is likely the only one to reach a trial ahead of the 2024 general election. Now that both sides have rested their cases, 12 jurors will decide if the presumptive Republican nominee will also be a convicted felon . Experts say we could have that decision by the end of next week.

Here is what we know about the timeline for the remainder of the trial:

What you missed in Trump trial: A fiery clash of Judge Merchan and witness, prosecution rests

Prep for the polls: See who is running for president and compare where they stand on key issues in our Voter Guide

Defense and prosecutors to recap case ahead of jury deliberation

Jurors were excused Tuesday, but both the prosecution and the defense must return in the afternoon to argue over the instructions Judge Juan Merchan will provide to the jury ahead of their deliberations.

Those instructions could be crucial to the outcome of the case. Merchan will tell the jury what the applicable law in the case is. He will then task them with not just deciding what happened factually in the case – for example, whether former President Donald Trump authorized Michael Cohen to pay porn star Stormy Daniels hush money – but also determining whether Trump's actions violated the law.

Merchan told jurors they would hear closing arguments Tuesday, May 28, and seemed to put plans in place for them to stay late in order to get through both sides. If jurors are able to come in the following next day, typically an off day for this court, they could start deliberating then.

The 12 jurors must come to a unanimous decision to convict or acquit Trump.

How long can the jury take to deliberate?

There is no limit for how long a jury can take to deliberate, says Diana Florence, a former Manhattan prosecutor.

"But, obviously, that doesn't mean that ... the world will be ending and they'll still be deliberating," Florence said.

If the group cannot come to a unanimous decision, it is considered a "hung jury" and the judge must declare a mistrial. "You know it when you see it when it comes to a hung jury," she said.

But any deliberation taking at least three days would be considered a long time, according to Kevin J. O’Brien , a New York-based trial lawyer.

If the jury takes a long time reviewing and discussing the evidence, it could indicate good news for the prosecution, he said.

"Defense verdicts tend to be in quickly, because people have their views, and one or more jurors are not going to budge. ... They don't go through the labor of weighing all the evidence," O’Brien said. "But if they're out three or four days, that tends to suggest they're really looking at the evidence. And of course, the evidence favors the prosecution."

When will there be a verdict in the Trump trial?

If jury begins deliberation by May 30, which the schedule indicates they could, Florence said we could have a verdict by the end of next week.

"Could it take longer? Sure," she said. "That's where it becomes anybody's guess and it's reading tea leaves."

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E-Cigarette Use Among Youth

What to know.

E-cigarettes are the most commonly used tobacco product among U.S. youth. No tobacco products, including e-cigarettes, are safe, especially for children, teens, and young adults. Learn more about e-cigarette use among youth.

• In the United States, youth use e-cigarettes, or vapes, more than any other tobacco product. 1
• No tobacco products, including e-cigarettes, are safe, especially for children, teens, and young adults. 2
• Most e-cigarettes contain nicotine, which is highly addictive. Nicotine can harm the parts of an adolescent's brain that control attention, learning, mood, and impulse control. 2
• E-cigarette marketing, the availability of flavored products, social influences, and the effects of nicotine can influence youth to start or continue vaping. 3 4
• Most middle and high school students who vape want to quit. 5
• Many people have an important role in protecting youth from vaping including parents and caregivers, educators and school administrators, health care providers, and community partners.
• States and local communities can implement evidence-based policies, programs, and services to reduce youth vaping.

E-cigarette use among U.S. youth

In 2023, e-cigarettes were the most commonly used tobacco product among middle and high school students in the United States. In 2023: 6

• 550,000 (4.6%) middle school students.
• 1.56 million (10.0%) high school students.
• Among students who had ever used e-cigarettes, 46.7% reported current e-cigarette use.
• 1 in 4 (25.2%) used an e-cigarette every day.
• 1 in 3 (34.7%) used an e-cigarette on at least 20 of the last 30 days.
• 9 in 10 (89.4%) used flavored e-cigarettes.
• Most often used disposable e-cigarettes (60.7%) followed by e-cigarettes with prefilled or refillable pods or cartridges (16.1%).
• Most commonly reported using the following brands: Elf Bar, Esco Bars, Vuse, JUUL, and Mr. Fog.

Most middle and high school students who vape want to quit and have tried to quit. 5 In 2020:

• 63.9% of students who currently used e-cigarettes reported wanting to quit.
• 67.4% of students who currently used e-cigarettes reported trying to quit in the last year.

Most tobacco use, including vaping, starts and is established during adolescence. There are many factors associated with youth tobacco product use . These include:

• Tobacco advertising that targets youth.
• Product accessibility.
• Availability of flavored products.
• Social influences.
• Adolescent brain sensitivity to nicotine.

Some groups of middle and high school students use e-cigarettes at a higher percentage than others. For example, in 2023: 6

• More females than males reported current e-cigarette use.
• Non-Hispanic multiracial students: 20.8%.
• Non-Hispanic White students: 18.4%.
• Hispanic or Latino students: 18.2%.
• Non-Hispanic American Indian and Alaska Native students: 15.4%.
• Non-Hispanic Black or African American students: 12.9%.

Many young people who vape also use other tobacco products, including cigarettes and cigars. 7 This is called dual use. In 2020: 8

• About one in three high school students (36.8%) who vaped also used other tobacco products.
• One in two middle school students (49.0%) who vaped also used other tobacco products.

E-cigarettes can also be used to deliver other substances, including cannabis. In 2016, nearly one in three (30.6%) of U.S. middle and high school students who had ever used an e-cigarette reported using marijuana in the device. 9

• Park-Lee E, Ren C, Cooper M, Cornelius M, Jamal A, Cullen KA. Tobacco product use among middle and high school students—United States, 2022 . MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71:1429–1435.
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. E-cigarette Use Among Youth and Young Adults: A Report of the Surgeon General . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2016. Accessed Feb 14, 2024.
• Apelberg BJ, Corey CG, Hoffman AC, et al. Symptoms of tobacco dependence among middle and high school tobacco users: results from the 2012 National Youth Tobacco Survey . Am J Prev Med. 2014;47(Suppl 1):S4–14.
• Gentzke AS, Wang TW, Cornelius M, et al. Tobacco product use and associated factors among middle and high school students—National Youth Tobacco Survey, United States, 2021 . MMWR Surveill Summ. 2022;71(No. SS-5):1–29.
• Zhang L, Gentzke A, Trivers KF, VanFrank B. Tobacco cessation behaviors among U.S. middle and high school students, 2020 . J Adolesc Health. 2022;70(1):147–154.
• Birdsey J, Cornelius M, Jamal A, et al. Tobacco product use among U.S. middle and high school students—National Youth Tobacco Survey, 2023 . MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023;72:1173–1182.
• Wang TW, Gentzke AS, Creamer MR, et al. Tobacco product use and associated factors among middle and high school students—United States, 2019 . MMWR Surveill Summ. 2019;68(No. SS-12):1–22.
• Wang TW, Gentzke AS, Neff LJ, et al. Characteristics of e-cigarette use behaviors among US youth, 2020 . JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(6):e2111336.
• Trivers KF, Phillips E, Gentzke AS, Tynan MA, Neff LJ. Prevalence of cannabis use in electronic cigarettes among U.S. youth . JAMA Pediatr. 2018;172(11):1097–1099.

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TotalCloud Insights: Uncovering the Hidden Dangers in Google Cloud Dataproc

Table of Contents

Why this vulnerability is important to understand, what is the google cloud dataproc service, understanding the vulnerability.

• The GCP Dataproc Attack Flow
• Evaluating HDFS NameNode Accessibility: GCPs Vulnerability vs. AWS and Azure Security

Best Practices for Securing GCP Dataproc Clusters

• The Apache Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) can be vulnerable to data compromise when a Compute Engine cluster is in a public-facing virtual private cloud (VPC) or shares the VPC with other Compute Engine instances.
• Google Cloud Platform (GCP) provides a default VPC called ‘default.’ This VPC allows inbound connections only on ports 22 and 3389 while permitting all inbound connections within the internal subnet. This configuration can pose a significant security risk when both Dataproc clusters and Compute Engine instances share the default subnet VPC. It can lead to potential data corruption or theft, both serious concerns.
• The Google Security Team labeled the attack flow as an ‘Abuse Risk.’
• Qualys TotalCloud now notifies customers of misconfigured Dataproc clusters that are vulnerable to exploitation, offering remediation steps and code for prompt resolution.

Security vulnerabilities pose significant challenges in the rapidly evolving landscape of cloud computing. The recent discovery of an unauthenticated access vulnerability in Google Cloud Dataproc underscores the need for robust cloud security measures.

This risk to Google Cloud Dataproc clusters can lead to data theft, manipulation, or loss. The underlying Open-Source Software (OSS) managed solution lacks adequate security controls, enabling unauthorized access by attackers with knowledge of the Dataproc IP address.

Google’s Dataproc documentation highlights the security risk associated with open firewall rules on public networks and recommends caution in setting them up. However, it also emphasizes the need for vigilance against potential attackers who might gain initial access to a Compute Engine instance, as this could allow them unauthenticated access to GCP Dataproc. This scenario underscores the importance of robust security measures at all access points to safeguard against unauthorized access.

To shed light on this issue and help organizations enhance their security posture, in this post the Qualys TotalCloud team aims to analyze the attack flow comprehensively and offer recommendations for minimizing the associated risks.

Google Cloud Dataproc is a managed cloud service specially designed for seamless deployment and efficient management of Apache Spark and Apache Hadoop clusters. This service caters to large-scale data processing and analytics workloads, utilizing Hadoop for distributed storage and batch processing and Spark for in-memory data processing and analytics.

The GCP Dataproc threat exploits two critical weaknesses:

• The absence of security controls in Apache Hadoop’s web interfaces and
• The tendency to rely on default settings when creating resources.

These vulnerabilities combine to allow an attacker unimpeded access to the Apache Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) and the ability to then compromise sensitive data.

Two key web interfaces on the master node facilitate this exploitation: YARN ResourceManager on port 8088 and HDFS NameNode on port 9870. Alarmingly, neither interface requires authentication despite their crucial role in the cluster’s operation . The HDFS endpoint is particularly risky, being the primary storage system for the entire cluster. Both ports mentioned above serve all IP addresses, effectively granting internet access as the sole prerequisite to full access. Consequently, an insufficiently segmented cluster can have catastrophic consequences.

The GCP Dataproc Attack Flow 

While it may be challenging to prevent the occurrence of an internet-facing Compute Engine instance vulnerable to Remote Code Execution (RCE), organizations should prioritize risk mitigation.

This blog outlines a potential attack path, assuming an external attacker has fully compromised such an instance, allowing them to scan for open ports. If a Dataproc cluster shares the same VPC, the consequences can be dire, granting the attacker unrestricted access to unauthorized services.

The attacker gains access to both web interfaces by exploiting the compromised machine as a tunnel. They can utilize the YARN endpoint to create applications, submit jobs, and perform Cloud Storage operations. Alternatively, using the HDFS endpoint, the attacker can navigate the storage file system freely, potentially obtaining sensitive data.

It’s important to note that this attack flow is not limited to vulnerable Compute Engine instances. Any workload, such as Cloud Run or AppEngine, deployed on the same VPC network as the Hadoop master node can expose the HDFS data if compromised, facilitating the same level of exploitation.

Evaluating HDFS NameNode Accessibility: GCP’s Vulnerability vs. AWS and Azure Security

In the context of HDFS NameNode accessibility, a significant vulnerability emerges in GCP Dataproc, notably absent in AWS EMR and Azure HDInsight. This variance underscores differing security paradigms in these cloud platforms.

GCP Dataproc Vulnerability

On the one hand, the Google Cloud Platform offers a secure method to access the HDFS NameNode through the Dataproc Web Interfaces within the Google Cloud Console. This method is more secure because it likely involves internal mechanisms for redirecting your request to the cluster. Additionally, this process typically includes authentication checks against your Google Cloud credentials. These checks ensure that you are authorized to access the cluster, thus providing a layer of security and control.

On the other hand, if you access the NameNode user interface directly by typing http://[MasterNodeIP]:9870 into a browser (where MasterNodeIP is nothing, but the external IP of the master node VM instance is attached to the datatproc cluster), you are attempting to reach the service without the security context of the GCP Console. This direct approach is different because it bypasses the Google Cloud Console’s authentication and redirection mechanisms. If you can access the HDFS NameNode UI from any location using this method, it suggests that the service is configured to be publicly accessible. This accessibility could be due to network configurations that expose the service externally, which might be a security concern if unintended.

AWS EMR’s Secure Approach

In contrast, AWS EMR employs a more secure default setup. Direct public access to the HDFS NameNode is not readily available. EMR clusters operate within the confines of a VPC, and security groups default to restrict unauthorized external access. To access the NameNode, users typically utilize SSH tunneling, a secure method that ensures encryption and limits exposure to potential external threats. This design choice in AWS EMR inherently protects against the kind of vulnerability seen in GCP Dataproc.

Azure HDInsight’s Restrictive Configuration

Azure HDInsight also follows a stringent security model. Like AWS, Azure HDInsight doesn’t readily expose the HDFS NameNode to the public internet. Deployed within Azure Virtual Networks and governed by Network Security Groups, HDInsight clusters are configured to significantly reduce the risk of unauthorized access. Azure’s approach, which emphasizes controlled and secure access mechanisms such as VPNs, aims to mitigate vulnerabilities akin to those seen in GCP Dataproc, though the effectiveness of these measures depends largely on the specific configurations applied by users.

The Qualys TotalCloud team advocates for regular vulnerability assessments, network segmentation, and the implementation of comprehensive security policies. These practices are crucial in safeguarding cloud environments against emerging threats.

Vulnerability Management:

Implementing consistent vulnerability and patch management practices is crucial for minimizing the possibility of unauthorized access to cloud environments. Tools like Qualys TotalCoud with Flex Scan provide comprehensive visibility and facilitate the detection and remediation of vulnerabilities, ensuring that unpatched servers and applications are promptly addressed.

Network Segmentation:

Organizations must diligently review default settings and configure a dedicated VPC network before deploying new clusters. Firewall rules should be tailored to specific requirements, and independent clusters should be deployed in different subnets within the same VPC to limit lateral movement and minimize the impact of a security breach. Avoid deploying additional services on these dedicated networks, focusing solely on the necessary cluster components.

Avoiding Misconfigurations:

In the forthcoming release, following the recent identification of the vulnerability presented by misconfigured Dataproc clusters on the default VPC, Qualys TotalCloud will introduce a control to address this issue (CID 52139 – Ensure Dataproc Clusters are not using Default VPC). This enhancement will assist security teams by identifying vulnerable Dataproc Clusters that use the default VPC; customers will then need to mitigate the risk by migrating the clusters to an alternative VPC.

Encryption is essential for protecting your organization’s data, but your data will still be unprotected if it is not configured correctly. Most CSPs offer encryption at no additional cost; enabling it is usually as simple as selecting a checkbox in the configuration settings. Despite the simplicity, this essential control is not universally implemented. To ensure that Dataproc clusters are encrypted at rest using CMKs, refer to CID 52161 .

In summary, the vulnerabilities in Google Cloud Dataproc clusters highlight the urgent need for enhanced cloud security measures. Qualys TotalCloud’s upcoming release addresses these concerns, offering critical solutions for risk mitigation and data protection. Organizations must prioritize robust security practices, including network segmentation, regular vulnerability assessments, and the use of Customer-Managed Keys for encryption. This proactive approach is essential for safeguarding cloud environments against evolving threats and maintaining data integrity.

To learn more about how Qualys TotalCloud can enhance your cloud security, visit our website , or contact support for a detailed demonstration.

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Statement on the Financial Innovation and Technology for the 21st Century Act

Chair Gary Gensler

May 22, 2024

Introduction

For 90 years, the federal securities laws have played a crucial role in protecting the public. These critical protections were created in the wake of the Great Depression after many Americans suffered the consequences of inadequately regulated capital markets. We saw sky-high unemployment, bread lines, and shantytowns springing up due to mass foreclosures.

Back then, the rules didn’t exist. That’s why President Roosevelt and Congress created the SEC and the laws it administers.

At their core is the critical concept of registering securities that will be offered to the public and registering the intermediaries that facilitate the exchange of those securities. For securities, registration means that issuers provide robust disclosures and are liable if their material statements are untruthful. For intermediaries, registration brings with it rulebooks that prevent fraud and manipulation, safeguards against conflicts of interest, proper disclosures, segregation of customer assets, oversight by a self-regulatory organization, and routine inspection by the SEC.

Today, these rules do exist.

Many market participants in the crypto industry, however, have shown their unwillingness to comply with applicable laws and regulations for more than a decade, variously arguing that the laws do not apply to them or that a new set of rules should be created and retroactively applied to them to excuse their past conduct. Widespread noncompliance has resulted in widespread fraud, bankruptcies, failures, and misconduct. [1] As a result of criminal charges and convictions, some of the best-known leaders in the crypto industry are now in prison, awaiting sentencing, or subject to extradition back to the United States.

The SEC, during both Republican and Democratic Administrations, has allocated enforcement resources to holding crypto market participants accountable. Courts have time and again agreed with the SEC, ruling that the securities laws apply when crypto assets or crypto-related investment schemes are offered or sold as investment contracts. [2]

The Financial Innovation and Technology for the 21st Century Act

The Financial Innovation and Technology for the 21st Century Act (“FIT 21”) would create new regulatory gaps and undermine decades of precedent regarding the oversight of investment contracts, putting investors and capital markets at immeasurable risk.

First, the bill would remove investment contracts that are recorded on a blockchain from the statutory definition of securities and the time-tested protections of much of the federal securities laws.

Further, by removing this set of investment contracts from the statutory list of securities, the bill implies what courts have repeatedly ruled – but what crypto market participants have attempted to deny – that many crypto assets are being offered and sold as securities under existing law.

Second, the bill allows issuers of crypto investment contracts to self-certify that their products are a “decentralized” system and then be deemed a special class of “digital commodities” and thus not subject to SEC oversight. Whether something is a “digital commodity” would be subject to self-certification by “any person” that files a certification. The SEC would only have 60 days to review and challenge the certification that a product is a digital commodity. Those that the SEC successfully challenges would be re-classified as restricted digital assets and subject to the bill’s lighter-touch SEC oversight regime that excludes many core protections. There are more than 16,000 crypto assets that currently exist. Given limits on staff resources, and no new resources provided by the bill, it is implausible that the SEC could review and challenge more than a fraction of those assets. The result could be that the vast majority of the market might avoid even limited SEC oversight envisioned by the bill for crypto asset securities.

Third, the bill’s regulatory structure abandons the Supreme Court’s long-standing Howey test that considers the economic realities of an investment to determine whether it is subject to the securities laws. Instead, the bill makes that determination based on labels and the accounting ledger used to record transactions. It is akin to determining the level of investor protection based on whether a transaction is recorded in a notebook or a software database. But it’s the economic realities that should determine whether an asset is subject to the federal securities laws, not the type of recordkeeping ledger. The bill’s result would be weaker investor protection than currently exists for those assets that meet the Howey test.

Fourth, for those crypto investment contracts that would still fall under the SEC’s remit, the bill seeks to replace Roosevelt’s investor protection framework with fewer protections than investors are afforded in every other type of investment. Doing so increases risk to the American public.

Fifth, the bill specifically excludes crypto asset trading systems from the definition of an exchange and thus removes, for investors on crypto asset trading platforms, the protections that benefit investors on registered exchanges. These crypto trading platforms would be able to legally comingle their functions in a way that fosters conflicts of interest, may allow trading against their customers, and reduces custody protections for their customers.

Sixth, the legislation creates an exemption from regulation under this Act for any entity or organization that falls under a broadly defined category called “Decentralized Finance.” Any number of firms would qualify for the exemption, regardless of potential conflicts of interest. This would include firms that intermediate crypto securities transactions.

Finally, the bill could be read to functionally eliminate the current Regulation A and Regulation D offering restrictions for crypto securities by creating a new exempt offering framework. Non-accredited investors would be allowed to purchase crypto assets worth up to 10 percent of their net worth or annual income before the issuer would be required to provide any disclosure. That’s a lot of risk for ordinary investors to take on without disclosure.

Risks to the Broader Capital Markets

The self-certification process contemplated by the bill risks investor protection not just in the crypto space; it could undermine the broader $100 trillion capital markets by providing a path for those trying to escape robust disclosures, prohibitions preventing the loss and theft of customer funds, enforcement by the SEC, and private rights of action for investors in the federal courts. It could encourage non-compliant entities to try to choose what regulatory regimes they wish to be subjected to – not based on economic realities, but potentially based on a label.

What if perpetrators of pump and dump schemes and penny stock pushers contend that they’re outside of the securities laws by labeling themselves as crypto investment contracts or self-certifying that they are decentralized systems? The SEC would only have 60 days to contest their self-certification.

History has shown for 90 years that robust securities regulation both creates trust in markets and fosters innovation. There are countless examples of American companies across many industries that have made world-changing innovations while also registering their securities. It is through the securities laws that we get full, fair, and truthful disclosure that arms investors with the information they need to make investment decisions and enables regulators to guard against the types of fraud we’ve seen in the crypto field.

The crypto industry’s record of failures, frauds, and bankruptcies is not because we don't have rules or because the rules are unclear. It’s because many players in the crypto industry don’t play by the rules. We should make the policy choice to protect the investing public over facilitating business models of noncompliant firms.

[1] See Chainalysis, “2024 Crypto Crime Trends: Illicit Activity Down as Scamming and Stolen Funds Fall, But Ransomware and Darknet Markets See Growth” (Jan. 18, 2024), available at   https://www.chainalysis.com/blog/2024-crypto-crime-report-introduction/ (Independent analysts found more than $24 billion in crypto assets transferred via illicit computer addresses, almost $15 billion of which were from U.S.-sanctioned computer addresses); See also Khristopher J. Brooks, CBS News, “Cryptocurrency fraud is now the riskiest scam for consumers, according to BBB” (March 6, 2024), available at https://www.cbsnews.com/news/crypto-scam-risk-bbb-report/ (Retail investor fraud in crypto is rampant. Eighty percent of individuals targeted by crypto scams lost money, with 67,000 scams with a median amount lost of $3,800, according to data from the Better Business Bureau); See also Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Internet Crime Report 2023,” available at https://www.ic3.gov/Media/PDF/AnnualReport/2023_IC3Report.pdf (Approximately $3.94 billion in crypto assets was stolen in scams in 2023.).

[2] See , e.g., SEC v. Coinbase, Inc ., 2024 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 56994, at *3, *43 (S.D.N.Y. Mar. 27, 2024) (explaining that “the challenged transactions fall comfortably within the framework that courts have used to identify securities for nearly eighty years");  SEC v. Genesis Glob. Capital, LLC , No. 23-cv-00287 (ER), 2024 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 44372, at *44-45 (S.D.N.Y. Mar. 13, 2024) (“Under both  Howey  and Reves, the SEC has plausibly alleged that Defendants offered and sold unregistered securities through the Gemini Earn program.”);  SEC v. Wahi , No. 2:22-cv-01009-TL, 2024 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 36788, at *21 (W.D. Wash. Mar. 1, 2024) (holding that, “under  Howey , all of the crypto assets that Ramani purchased and traded were investment contracts,” including to the extent that the assets were traded on the secondary market);  SEC v. Terraform Labs Pte. Ltd. , No. 23-cv-1346 (JSR), 2023 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 230518, at *43 (S.D.N.Y. Dec. 28, 2023) (stating that “ Howey’s  definition of ‘investment contract’ was and remains a binding statement of the law, not dicta” and finding that “[t]here is no genuine dispute that the elements of the  Howey  test – ‘(i) investment of money (ii) in a common enterprise (iii)with profits to be derived solely from the efforts of others’ [ ] have been met for UST, LUNA, wLUNA, and MIR [the crypto assets at issue]”);  SEC v. Ripple Labs, Inc. , 20-cv-10832 (AT), 2023 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 120486, at *19-20 (S.D.N.Y. July 13, 2023) (rejecting defendants’ argument that, in addition to satisfying the  Howey  test, all investment contracts must contain certain additional "essential ingredients" and finding that Ripple’s institutional sales of its XRP crypto token constituted the unregistered offer and sale of investment contracts and therefore securities);  SEC v. Terraform Labs Pte. Ltd. , No. 23-cv-1346 (JSR), 2023 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 132046, at *21-22 (S.D.N.Y. July 31, 2023) (rejecting argument that the Major Questions Doctrine “prevent[s] the SEC from alleging the company's digital assets to be ‘investment contracts’” and explaining that “Defendants cannot wield a doctrine intended to be applied in exceptional circumstances as a tool to disrupt the routine work that Congress expected the SEC and other administrative agencies to perform.”);  SEC v. LBRY, Inc. , 639 F. Supp. 3d 211, 221–22 (D.N.H. 2022) (granting summary judgment for SEC and rejecting fair notice defense, explaining that “[t]he SEC has not based its enforcement action here on a novel interpretation of a rule that by its terms does not expressly prohibit the relevant conduct. Instead, the SEC has based its claim on a straightforward application of a venerable Supreme Court precedent that has been applied by hundreds of federal courts across the country over more than 70 years.”);  SEC v. NAC Found., LLC , 512 F. Supp. 3d 988, 994 (N.D. Cal. 2021) (denying motion to dismiss and noting that motion “falls well short of demonstrating that the SEC's characterization of ABTC as a ‘security’ is implausible for pleading purposes”);  SEC v. Kik Interactive Inc. , 492 F. Supp. 3d 169, 174, 182–84 (S.D.N.Y. 2020) (granting SEC summary judgment on grounds that Kik offered digital currency Kin as a security);  SEC v. Telegram Grp. Inc. , 448 F. Supp. 3d 352, 371 (S.D.N.Y. 2020) (granting the SEC’s motion for a preliminary injunction notwithstanding Telegram’s argument that investors “bought Grams with the expectation to use them as currency” and not “with an expectation of profit”).