convergence theory definition

What Is Convergence Theory?

How Industrialization Affects Developing Nations

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Convergence theory presumes that as nations move from the early stages of industrialization toward becoming fully industrialized , they begin to resemble other industrialized societies in terms of societal norms and technology.

The characteristics of these nations effectively converge. Ultimately, this could lead to a unified global culture if nothing impeded the process.

Convergence theory has its roots in the functionalist perspective of economics which assumes that societies have certain requirements that must be met if they are to survive and operate effectively. 

Convergence theory became popular in the 1960s when it was formulated by the University of California, Berkeley Professor of Economics Clark Kerr.

Some theorists have since expounded upon Kerr's original premise. They say industrialized nations may become more alike in some ways than in others.

Convergence theory is not an across-the-board transformation. Although technologies may be shared , it's not as likely that more fundamental aspects of life such as religion and politics would necessarily converge—though they may. 

Convergence vs. Divergence

Convergence theory is also sometimes referred to as the "catch-up effect."

When technology is introduced to nations still in the early stages of industrialization, money from other nations may pour in to develop and take advantage of this opportunity. These nations may become more accessible and susceptible to international markets. This allows them to "catch up" with more advanced nations.

If capital is not invested in these countries, however, and if international markets do not take notice or find that opportunity is viable there, no catch-up can occur. The country is then said to have diverged rather than converged.

Unstable nations are more likely to diverge because they are unable to converge due to political or social-structural factors, such as lack of educational or job-training resources. Convergence theory, therefore, would not apply to them. 

Convergence theory also allows that the economies of developing nations will grow more rapidly than those of industrialized countries under these circumstances. Therefore, all should reach an equal footing eventually.

Some examples of convergence theory include Russia and Vietnam, formerly purely communist countries that have eased away from strict communist doctrines as the economies in other countries, such as the United States, have burgeoned.

State-controlled socialism is less the norm in these countries now than is market socialism, which allows for economic fluctuations and, in some cases, private businesses as well. Russia and Vietnam have both experienced economic growth as their socialistic rules and politics have changed and relaxed to some degree.

Former World War II Axis nations including Italy, Germany, and Japan rebuilt their economic bases into economies not dissimilar to those that existed among the Allied Powers of the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain.

More recently, in the mid-20th century, some East Asian countries converged with other more developed nations. Singapore , South Korea, and Taiwan are now all considered to be developed, industrialized nations.

Sociological Critiques

Convergence theory is an economic theory that presupposes that the concept of development is

• a universally good thing
• defined by economic growth.

It frames convergence with supposedly "developed" nations as a goal of so-called "undeveloped" or "developing" nations, and in doing so, fails to account for the numerous negative outcomes that often follow this economically-focused model of development.

Many sociologists, postcolonial scholars, and environmental scientists have observed that this type of development often only further enriches the already wealthy, and/or creates or expands a middle class while exacerbating the poverty and poor quality of life experienced by the majority of the nation in question.

Additionally, it is a form of development that typically relies on the over-use of natural resources, displaces subsistence and small-scale agriculture, and causes widespread pollution and damage to the natural habitat.

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What is convergence theory in sociology?

This theory is one of social change that has been given by economic professor Clark Kerr in a book by him and his colleagues called ’Industrialism and Industrial Man’ in the 1960s. The convergence theory is the one which postulates that all the societies as they move from the early industrial development to complete industrialization tend to move towards a condition of similarity in terms of the general societal and technological norms. This is to say that as the societies move towards development they look become alike will similar structures, which means that the differences among the societies will reduce as they are ultimately on the same path of development. This would thus lead to a single global culture.

This theory given by Clark Kerr is what is known as the ‘logic of industrialization’ which he has also mentioned in his writing, this logic is the thesis of the theory and states that industrialization everywhere has similar consequences whether the society is a capitalist one or a communist one.

This convergence may reflect in the form of what can be called the ‘catch up effect’. This ‘catch up’ refers to the process of opening up the economy of a country to the foreign economy allowing the inflow of capital, this investment helps the economy to maintain pace with the more advanced societies, this process usually takes place when the society is introduced to the industrialization process. However, there might be cases when the reverse may happen i.e. the economy may diverge instead of converging. Such divergence takes place in the case of economies in which the foreign capital is not invested, this may be due to the political and social factors such as lack of education or job training, etc. often these nations are the ones that are unstable.

It is believed that the third world nations are supposed to get out of their conditions of poverty through the process of convergence as they take up the form of western industrial societies.

The convergence theory is often related to the study of modernization, it is believed that the path of development is the one that has been taken by the western industrial societies, which will be undertaken by every society in order to reach complete development and modernization. Thus there is a foxed pattern of development which will be followed. There is thus a convergence if the ideas attitudes and beliefs, thus the overall way of thinking and doing things.

Thus we see that while the convergence theory has made many countries into market economies such as the ones found in the western societies, as it has in Russia and Vietnam which were communist countries earlier and are now market economies.

https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/convergence-theories

https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic-of-industrialization

Sociology Group

Convergence Theory: 10 Examples and Definition

Viktoriya Sus (MA)

Viktoriya Sus is an academic writer specializing mainly in economics and business from Ukraine. She holds a Master’s degree in International Business from Lviv National University and has more than 6 years of experience writing for different clients. Viktoriya is passionate about researching the latest trends in economics and business. However, she also loves to explore different topics such as psychology, philosophy, and more.

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Convergence theory predicts that cultures worldwide will gradually grow increasingly similar due to globalization. 

According to this theory, the further nations progress along their industrialization journey towards becoming fully industrialized powers, they will increasingly emulate other developed countries in terms of technology and cultural norms , leading to one transnational culture .

So, as countries become increasingly linked and globalized, they will tend to imitate each other’s governmental systems (such as democracy rather than communism), economic models (capitalism, socialism, or a blend of both), and collective values.

Such a convergence process is believed to lead to a more homogenous world where nations and societies are increasingly similar. 

Definition of the Convergence Theory

The convergence theory states that as the world continues to develop, expansion in technology and globalization will cause cultures around the globe to increasingly become more similar in a process called cultural convergence (Hess, 2016). 

Over time, such a convergence of diverse social groups could lead to a unified global society with greater uniformity amongst its members.

According to Wilensky (2002),

“…convergence theory is the idea that as rich countries got richer, they developed similar economic, political, and social structures and to some extent common values and beliefs” (p. 3).

Bryant and Peck (2007) state that “the industrialization process is so strong it substantially transforms any society that is industrializing” (p. 189).

In other words, globalization and increased economic integration are believed to lead to a more homogenous world where different nations and societies become increasingly similar regarding their economic, political, and cultural practices. 

Convergence theory provides a helpful lens for studying sociological topics such as socioeconomic development, modernization, and globalization. 

Overall, convergence theory is a helpful tool for understanding the effects that increased global interconnectedness can have on societies and cultures worldwide.  

10 Examples of Convergence Theory

• The spread of the English language : As countries become more intertwined, English has risen to the top as a global language of commerce, education, and communication. For example, in numerous nations worldwide, it is now employed as an aviation lingua franca, while many international businesses also rely on it when corresponding. In essence, English is the bridge that brings people from around the globe together.
• The rise of high-tech industries : As the world progresses and countries become more interconnected, they often follow similar industrial trends. For instance, biotechnology and information technology are two sectors in which many nations invest heavily; The United States and China both devote considerable resources to cyberspace security research.
• The increase of democracy : For a long time, democracy was considered a concept exclusive to the Western world and was only prevalent in European and American countries. Nonetheless, it has spread to many other nations in recent decades, indicating a trend toward the convergence of political systems toward democracy.
• The spread of consumer culture : The expansion of consumer culture has been accelerated by globalization, leading to an almost worldwide standardization in the types of products consumed. Today, many people worldwide go to McDonald’s, shop at Walmart, and wear clothing made by Nike.
• Religious convergence : As interfaith dialogue and progressive religious movements gain traction, we have begun to see a convergence of beliefs and spiritual practices across cultures. This shift towards accepting different faiths can lead to greater understanding among people from various backgrounds, fostering an environment where diversity is respected and celebrated.
• Social convergence : As countries become more interconnected, they adopt similar social norms and values. It is evident in attitudes toward gender, marriage, and sexuality. So, in some respects, societies are becoming more alike.
• The rise of the middle class : Countries worldwide are increasingly experiencing growth in their middle classes, leading to a convergence of lifestyles and behaviors. 
• The spread of mass media : As nations become more interrelated, they often adopt comparable preferences regarding the media they consume. It can result in a more integrated global culture and a greater mutual understanding of diverse cultures.
• The spread of education : Globalization has seen an increased spread of education across the world. Now, many countries are adopting the UK and US systems of education and teaching methods, leading to greater convergence in educational practices.
• The prevalence of global health : The increased spread of medical knowledge and the emergence of international health programs has led to a more unified approach to health care across nations. For example, more countries are adopting the World Health Organization’s guidelines and standards for health. 

Origins and History of Convergence Theory

In the mid-1960s, American sociologist Clark Kerr introduced a groundbreaking concept – the theory of convergence. It asserted that societies around the globe were continuously becoming more and more alike despite diverse cultural backgrounds (Brubaker, 2022) .

Kerr believed that this process was being driven by changes in technology, communication, and transportation that allowed for increased international trade and collaboration.

He argued that homogenizing cultures would create a utopian world without conflicts and disparities (Brubaker, 2022). 

Kerr’s ideas were developed further by other sociologists in the late 20th century. These theorists argued that convergence was more than just a simple process and could have a tangible impact on how societies interact. 

The technological version of Galbraith’s “convergence” has also gained wide popularity. He linked the future of the industrial system with the convergence of two systems – capitalist and socialist (Mishra, 1976).

Galbraith explained the inevitability of “convergence” because the large scale of production, characteristic of developed capitalist and socialist countries, requires an approximately similar planning and organization system.

One of the options for convergence was proposed by the outstanding Dutch mathematician and economist Tinbergen, who put forward the theory of “optimal order” (Don, 2019).

According to Tinbergen, as a result of the synthesis of both systems – some elements of “capitalist efficiency” and “socialist equality” – an “optimal system” is formed, the main principles of which are the peaceful coexistence and business cooperation of states (Don, 2019).

Today, convergence theory is used to understand the effects of globalization and how it impacts different societies. It also explains why specific trends, such as consumer culture and democracy, have become more prevalent in recent years. 

Overall, convergence theory has become essential for understanding the forces shaping our world today.

Convergence Theory vs. Divergence Theory

Convergence theory seeks to explain how societies become more alike, while divergence theory accounts for the ways in which they grow increasingly distinct.

Convergence theory suggests that countries adopt similar social norms and values as they become more interconnected (Hess, 2016).

On the other hand, divergence theory claims that as societies move further from each other geographically and culturally, they become increasingly dissimilar (Brubaker, 2022).

So, while some countries embrace same-sex marriage as an accepted form of union, other nations condemn it entirely. Divergence theorists explain this difference due to two societies growing apart and developing distinct values.

Ultimately, divergence and convergence theories explain how societies change over time. While the former focuses on differences between cultures, the latter focuses on similarities that might arise from increased global connections. 

Importance of Convergence Theory

Convergence is not just one of the hobbies or inventions but a requirement of the time associated with the search for socio-economic alternatives.

In particular, the 2020 economic crunch made it clear that the world could not adequately respond under the existing socio-economic model since its structure is based on methodological individualism.

Thus, the idea of the adherents of convergence was confirmed that the market form of economy applies only to a part of socio-economic relations and, in many cases, turns out to be harmful and powerless.

Furthermore, convergence theory also has implications for social cohesion and stability in any community.

As societies become more similar, there may be less social tension and conflict as people share similar values, beliefs, and practices, promoting social harmony and reducing the risk of civil unrest.

Notably, convergence theory can encourage international cooperation and collaboration. It suggests that countries can learn from each other’s experiences and adopt best practices to promote growth and development. 

Critique of Convergence Theory

As convergence theory has become highly regarded in many fields, it is still subject to criticism since ignores cultural and historical differences, overlooks power and inequality, and oversimplifies complexity .

1. It Ignores Cultural and Historical Differences

Convergence theory assumes that all societies will converge towards similar values, beliefs, and practices as they become more modern or more connected to the global economy. 

However, this assumption ignores that different societies have unique cultural and historical backgrounds that shape their development differently (Hay & Couldry, 2011).

For example, the modernization process in Japan has been very different from that in India or Brazil.

2. It Overlooks the role of Power and Inequality

Convergence theory often overlooks the role of power and inequality in shaping social change .

Furthermore, it disregards the fact that many societies may move in different directions, with some populations more likely to experience advantages from convergence than others.

3. It Oversimplifies Complexity

Convergence theory tends to oversimplify the complex social, economic, and political processes that shape social change.

This idea presumes that all societies will progress towards the same goal, regardless of any distinctions in economic standings or governmental systems.

In reality, many factors influence the development of societies, making it difficult to predict which direction a community will take accurately (Form, 1979).

So, while convergence theory may help understand broad trends, it cannot account for the unique characteristics of different societies or the subtle interactions between various factors. 

Convergence theory predicts that as the world becomes increasingly globalized, cultures worldwide will gradually grow more similar.

This theory argues that technological, economic, and political developments lead to a convergence of social structures and cultural norms. 

The convergence process could lead to a unified global society with greater uniformity among its members, thus providing a helpful lens for studying topics such as socioeconomic development, modernization, and globalization.

Its origins are traced back to the mid-1960s when Clark Kerr states that societies around the globe were continuously becoming more and more alike due to technological, communication, and transportation advancements.

Today, convergence theory is a valuable tool for understanding the effects of increased global interconnectedness on societies and cultures worldwide.

Brubaker, D. (2022).  Psychosocial political dysfunction of the republican party. New York: Archway Publishing.

Bryant, C. D., & Peck, D. L. (2007).  21st century sociology: A reference handbook. Thousand Oaks Sage Publications.

Don, F. J. H. (2019). The influence of Jan Tinbergen on Dutch economic policy.  De Economist, 167 (3), 259–282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10645-019-09333- 1

Form, W. (1979). Comparative industrial sociology and the convergence hypothesis.  Annual Review of Sociology, 5 , 1–25. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2945945

Hay, J., & Couldry, N. (2011). Rethinking convergence/culture.  Cultural Studies, 25 (4-5), 473–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/09502386.2011.600527

Hess, P. N. (2016).  Economic growth and sustainable development . London: Abingdon.

Mishra, R. (1976). Convergence theory and social change: The development of welfare in Britain and the Soviet Union.  Comparative Studies in Society and History, 18 (1), 28–56. https://www.jstor.org/stable/178161

Wilensky, H. L. (2002).  Rich democracies. Univesity of California Press.

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21.2 Explaining Collective Behavior

Learning objectives.

• Discuss the major assumptions of contagion theory and why this theory is no longer popular.
• Describe the central views of convergence theory.
• Explain how emergent norm theory takes a middle ground between contagion theory and convergence theory.

Over the years, sociologists and other scholars have proposed many explanations of collective behavior. Most of these explanations have focused on crowds, riots, and social movements, rather than on rumors, fads, and other collective behaviors that involve less social interaction. Table 21.1 “Theory Snapshot” summarizes these explanations.

Table 21.1 Theory Snapshot

Contagion Theory

Contagion theory was developed by French scholar Gustave Le Bon (1841–1931) in his influential 1895 book, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (Le Bon, 1895/1960). Like many other intellectuals of his time, Le Bon was concerned about the breakdown of social order that was said to have begun with the French Revolution a century earlier and to have continued throughout the 19th century. Mob violence by the poor was common in the century in cities in Europe and the United States. Intellectuals, who tended to live in relatively wealthy circumstances, were very disturbed by this violence. They viewed it as irrational behavior, and they thought that the people taking part in it were being unduly swayed by strong emotions and the influence of other people in the mobs.

Le Bon’s book and its contagion theory reflected these intellectuals’ beliefs. When individuals are by themselves, he wrote, they act rationally, but when they are in a crowd, they come under its almost hypnotic influence and act irrationally and emotionally. They no longer can control their unconscious instincts and become violent and even savage. In short, contagion theory argues that collective behavior is irrational and results from the contagious influence of the crowds in which individuals find themselves.

Contagion theory assumes that people in a crowd act emotionally and irrationally because they come under the influence of the crowd’s impulses.

Joanna – GREEKS PROTEST AUSTERITY CUTS – CC BY 2.0.

The views of contagion theory were popular well into the 20th century, but scholars came to believe that collective behavior is much more rational than Le Bon thought and also that individuals are not controlled by crowd influences as he thought.

Convergence Theory

Convergence theory is one of the theories that presented this new understanding of collective behavior. According to this theory, crowds do not unduly influence individuals to act in emotional and even violent ways. Rather, crowd behavior reflects the behavior and attitudes of the individuals who decide to join a crowd. Once they converge in a crowd, the behavior of the crowd is a consequence of their behavior and attitude. Instead of the crowd affecting the individuals in it, the individuals in it affect the crowd. Reflecting the adage that “birds of a feather flock together,” people who feel a certain way about a particular issue and who wish to act in a certain way tend to find and converge with similar people. The crowd they form then reflects their beliefs and desired activities. As Goode (1992, p. 58) writes, convergence theory

says that the way people act in crowds or publics is an expression or outgrowth of who they are ordinarily . It argues that like-minded people come together in, or converge on, a certain location where collective behavior can and will take place, where individuals can act out tendencies or traits they had in the first place. (emphasis in original)

Convergence theory does not deny that people may do something in a crowd that they would not do by themselves, but it does say that what a crowd does largely reflects the individuals who compose it. If we think of a mob or at least a small group of people who commit a hate crime—for example, gay bashing—we can see an application of convergence theory. The individuals who form this group are people who hate homosexuality and who hate gays and lesbians. The group violence they commit reflects these beliefs.

Emergent Norm Theory

Just after the mid-20th century, Ralph H. Turner and Lewis M. Killian (1957) presented their emergent norm theory of collective behavior, which downplayed the irrationality emphasized in earlier decades by Le Bon and other intellectuals. According to Turner and Killian, when people start interacting in collective behavior, initially they are not sure how they are supposed to behave. As they discuss their potential behavior and other related matters, norms governing their behavior emerge, and social order and rationality then guide behavior.

In at least two ways, emergent norm theory takes a middle ground between contagion theory and convergence theory. As should be clear, emergent norm theory views collective behavior as more rational than contagion theory does. But it also views collective behavior as less predictable than convergence theory does, as it assumes that people do not necessarily already share beliefs and intentions before they join a crowd.

Value-Added Theory

According to sociologist Neil Smelser, an important condition for protest is a precipitating factor: a sudden event that ignites people to take action. During the 1960s, several urban riots began when police were rumored to have unjustly arrested or beaten someone.

Anna – Busted… – CC BY 2.0.

One of the most popular and influential explanations of social movements and other forms of collective behavior is Neil Smelser’s (1963) value-added theory (also called structural-strain theory ). Smelser wrote that social movements and other collective behavior occur if and only if several conditions are present. One of these conditions is structural strain , which refers to problems in society that cause people to be angry and frustrated. Without such structural strain, people would not have any reason to protest, and social movements do not arise. Another condition is generalized beliefs , which are people’s reasons for why conditions are so bad and their solutions to improve them. If people decide that the conditions they dislike are their own fault, they will decide not to protest. Similarly, if they decide that protest will not improve these conditions, they again will not protest. A third condition is the existence of precipitating factors , or sudden events that ignite collective behavior. In the 1960s, for example, several urban riots started when police were rumored to have unjustly arrested or beaten someone. Although conditions in inner cities were widely perceived as unfair and even oppressive, it took this type of police behavior to ignite people to riot. A fourth condition is lack of social control ; collective behavior is more likely if potential participants do not expect to be arrested or otherwise hurt or punished.

Smelser’s theory became very popular because it pointed to several factors that must hold true before social movements and other forms of collective behavior occur. However, collective behavior does not always occur when Smelser’s factors do hold true. The theory has also been criticized for being a bit vague; for example, it does not say how much strain a society must have for collective behavior to take place (Rule, 1988).

Key Takeaways

• Contagion theory assumes that individuals act irrationally as they come under the hypnotic influence of a crowd. Collective behavior scholars now believe that collective behavior is much more rational than contagion theory assumed.
• Convergence theory assumes that crowd behavior reflects the preexisting values and beliefs and behavioral disposition of the individuals who join a crowd.
• Emergent norm theory assumes that norms emerge after people gather for collective behavior, and that their behavior afterward is largely rational.
• Value-added theory argues that collective behavior results when several conditions exist, including structural strain, generalized beliefs, precipitating factors, and lack of social control. All these conditions must exist for collective behavior to occur.

For Your Review

• Which of the four theories of collective behavior presented in this section do you most favor? Explain your answer.
• If riots are assumed to involve irrational behavior, how and why should that assumption affect perceptions of a particular riot and its possible consequences for public policy?

Bon, G. L. (1960). The crowd: A study of the popular mind . New York, NY: Viking Press. (Original work published 1895).

Goode, E. (1992). Collective behavior . Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Rule, J. B. (1988). Theories of civil violence . Berkeley: University of California Press.

Smelser, N. J. (1963). Theory of collective behavior . New York, NY: Free Press.

Turner, R. H., & Killian, L. M. (1957). Collective behavior . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Sociology Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Doc’s Things and Stuff

Convergence Theory | Definition

Convergence theory suggests that as societies develop, they begin to resemble each other more by adopting similar technologies, organizational structures, and cultural traits.

Understanding Convergence Theory

Convergence theory is a concept in sociology that examines how and why societies evolve to become more similar over time. This theory proposes that as nations undergo industrialization and economic development, their social structures, cultural norms, and institutions start to converge or grow more alike. This convergence is largely driven by advancements in technology, economic practices, and global communication.

Key Drivers of Convergence

Several factors contribute to the convergence among societies:

Technological Advancements

Technology plays a crucial role in convergence theory. As countries adopt new technologies, the way people live and work becomes more uniform. For example, the internet and mobile phones have changed how people communicate, access information, and conduct business worldwide, leading to similarities in social and economic practices.

Economic Practices

Globalization of economies is another significant driver. As countries engage in international trade and adopt capitalist economic practices, their economies tend to develop in similar directions. This includes shifts from agricultural to industrial and service-based economies, influencing societal norms and lifestyles.

Cultural Traits

Cultural convergence happens when societies adopt each other’s cultural elements, such as food, music, fashion, and language. This is often facilitated by global media and entertainment, which spread cultural products and values across borders.

Criticisms and Challenges

Despite its insights, convergence theory faces criticism. Critics argue that it oversimplifies the complex processes of social change and underestimates the persistence of cultural diversity. They point out that while some aspects of societies may become more similar, significant differences in values, beliefs, and social structures remain due to historical, geographical, and political factors.

Convergence vs. Divergence

While convergence theory focuses on the similarities that develop between societies, it’s important to consider the counterargument: divergence theory. Divergence theory suggests that despite global influences, societies maintain or even increase their differences due to local traditions, resistance to cultural imperialism, and unique developmental paths.

The Role of Globalization

Globalization is a key context in which convergence theory is often discussed. It has accelerated the processes that lead to convergence, such as the spread of technology and economic interdependence. However, it also raises questions about the balance between global influences and local identities.

Convergence theory offers a useful framework for understanding the global trends that lead societies to become more similar in various aspects. However, it’s essential to recognize the complexity of these processes and the role of both global and local factors in shaping societal development. Understanding convergence in the context of globalization helps us appreciate the nuanced ways in which the world is becoming more interconnected while also acknowledging the richness of cultural diversity.

References and Further Reading

• Form, W. (1979). Comparative industrial sociology and the convergence hypothesis.   Annual Review of Sociology ,  5 (1), 1-25.

This work is licensed under an Open Educational Resource-Quality Master Source (OER-QMS) License .

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1 Convergence Theory

• Published: January 2002
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This chapter discusses evidence for convergence theory, the idea that as rich countries got richer, they developed similar economic, political, and social structures and to some extent common values and beliefs. The analysis reveals that high levels of economic development and related changes in the occupational and industrial composition of the labor force result in two areas of convergence: the gradual spread of nonstandard schedules of work and the substantial and rapid growth of contingent labor in both manufacturing and service. Total annual hours of work declined from the late nineteenth century until about 1960, a trend that has continued in all rich democracies ever since.

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Atlas of Public Management

Convergence Theory

… a core concept in Policy Analysis and Process and Atlas101

Concept description

Ashley Crossman (reference below) describes convergence theory as the presumption that “as nations move from the early stages of industrialization toward becoming fully industrialized, they begin to resemble other industrialized societies in terms of societal norms and technology.”

She writes:

“The characteristics of these nations effectively converge. Eventually and ultimately, this could lead to a unified global culture, if nothing impeded the process.

“Convergence theory has its roots in the functionalist perspective of economics which assumes that societies have certain requirements that must be met if they are to survive and operate effectively.

“Convergence theory became popular in the 1960s when it was formulated by the University of California, Berkeley Professor of Economics Clark Kerr. Some theorists have since expounded upon Kerr’s original premise with the opinion that industrialized nations may become more alike in some ways than in others. Convergence theory is not an across-the-board transformation because although technologies may be shared, it’s not as likely that more fundamental aspects of life such as religion and politics would necessarily converge, though they may.

“Convergence theory is also sometimes referred to as the “catch-up effect.” When technology is introduced to nations still in the early stages of industrialization, money from other nations may pour in to develop and take advantage of this opportunity. These nations may become more accessible and susceptible to international markets. This allows them to “catch up” with more advanced nations.

“Convergence theory is especially important in public policy as many nations join multinational governance structures and follow best practices such as those established by the OECD.”

Atlas topic, subject, and course

Problem Definition and Agenda Setting (core topic) in Policy Analysis and Process  and Atlas101 Policy Analysis and Process .

Ashley Crossman (2017). What is Convergence Theory? How Convergence Affects Developing Nations,” ThoughtCo, at https://www.thoughtco.com/convergence-theory-3026158 , accessed 4 September 2018.

Page created by: Alec Wreford and Ian Clark, last modified 4 September 2018.

Image:  Quora, Does the Convergence theory in economics actually work in real life or is it essentially just a theory? at https://www.quora.com/Does-the-Convergence-theory-in-economics-actually-work-in-real-life-or-is-it-essentially-just-a-theory , accessed 4 September 2018.

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A Theory To Better Understand Diversity, And Who Really Benefits

UCLA students hold crosses, while taking part in a 2006 rally on campus to express their concerns about the lack of racial diversity in the student body. Mel Melcon/LA Times via Getty Images hide caption

UCLA students hold crosses, while taking part in a 2006 rally on campus to express their concerns about the lack of racial diversity in the student body.

Last week, Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos appointed Candice Jackson as the acting assistant secretary of the Office for Civil Rights. Jackson will oversee a staff of hundreds charged with responding to thousands of civil rights complaints every year, including some from students who feel discriminated against based on race, color, national origin, sex, ability, and age.

ProPublica reported that while an undergraduate at Stanford University, Jackson, a white woman, wrote an article for a student newspaper complaining about a section of a calculus course designed for "minority" students. The math class was an example of "racial discrimination" against white people, she wrote. In another op-ed for the paper, Jackson dismissed the needs of women "banding together by gender to fight for their rights." Might Jackson's words from twenty years ago fuel the idea that her office may not fully enforce Title VI and IX protections for people of color and white women? Do they signal that she may instruct her staff to elevate the complaints of white students or faculty who believe they are victims of racial discrimination?

A stronger line of inquiry begins with this question: what if these diversity policies actually improved the social position of white students and faculty?

Our Favorite Word — 'Diversity' — Is Under The Microscope At Mizzou And Yale

As an Asian American professor who teaches about race, I regularly find myself at the center of campus diversity programs and initiatives. I work at a public Midwestern university where approximately 90 percent of students and faculty are white. Because this lack of racial diversity is so conspicuous, my institution has sought to advance and measure its progress to racial equity for many years. I've led several of these efforts, some more effective than others: antiracist professional development, resident assistant training, campus climate surveys, Equity Scorecard , general education reform, etc. Initiatives like these can begin to dismantle institutional racism, or they can further entrench it. In any similarly-minded effort, the key factor is something called "interest convergence."

Interest convergence is a theory coined by the late Derrick Bell, law professor and spiritual godfather to the field of study known as critical race theory. Interest convergence stipulates that black people achieve civil rights victories only when white and black interests converge. The signature example is Brown v. Board of Education, which happened because it advanced white interests too, Bell argued. Specifically, desegregation raised the nation's prestige in world politics during the Cold War. Eventually, when interests diverged, the enforcement of civil rights was curtailed: Brown was undercut by later cases that sanctioned segregation for decades. Bell pointed to later affirmative-action triumphs as examples of renewed interest convergence.

Schools and universities are natural sites to observe interest convergence because inequitable access to quality education ensures white social advantage. However, recent dispatches from around the country might lead some to believe that black interests are not only ascendant on college campuses but are absolutely oppressive.

In March, Middlebury College, a small liberal arts school in Vermont, burst onto the national scene with its protest against a lecture by Charles Murray, co-author of The Bell Curve . A Middlebury professor was assaulted during the protest and later hospitalized for her injury. Earlier this month, students at Claremont McKenna College blocked the entrance to a room where conservative thinker Heather Mac Donald was planning to speak. Her book The War on Cops criticizes the Black Lives Matter movement and pushes the discredited theory of the "Ferguson Effect." Every week seems to bring a similar story of speeches interrupted or canceled on college campuses.

But speakers come and go, and it would be difficult to claim that a single protest is a systemic effort to discriminate against white people. However, campus diversity policies are sometimes misinterpreted as doing just that. Responding to a wave of antiracist student protests over the past two years, most memorably at the University of Missouri and Yale University, colleges and universities have begun to refashion their identities to make room for the secular trinity of equity, diversity, and inclusion. Some of these are indeed systemic efforts — rewriting curriculum, updating tenure and promotion policies, hiring Chief Diversity Officers — meant to change how institutions evaluate themselves, students, and faculty.

Interest convergence helps to explain diversity policies once we understand that institutions will lose more than prestige if they are perceived as unwelcoming or even hostile to students of color. Any college president can attest to how crucial the tuition of international students is to their institution's bottom line. A recent survey indicated that almost 40 percent of US colleges report declines in applications from international students, chiefly those from Middle Eastern nations, China, and India. Many students submitted applications before recent spikes in hate crimes and hate-group activity and before the current administration's efforts to make good on its promise to ban travel from six Muslim nations. Thus, the drop in yield of international students actually enrolling may be steeper than that of applications. Quite simply, it is in an institution's financial interest not to be seen as racist.

Institutions like the University of Oklahoma are hoping that changes they have already put into place will improve campus climate. In response to a 2015 viral video of fraternity members singing a racist song, OU implemented mandatory "diversity experience trainings" for its first-year students the following year. This initiative has not been well-received by all. Complaints arrived from members of OU's College Republicans, who charged that the trainings made them feel "uncomfortable" and forced "them to be 'politically correct.'" These comments might resemble the kinds of complaints that Candice Jackson's office will need to make sense of.

However, when the "OU Freshmen Diversity Experience" touts its professional benefits over its potential to reduce discrimination, its origin in interest convergence is evident. Diversity skills can be marketed to employers. "Businesses want to hire graduates who understand their role in building a truly inclusive culture," OU explains on the program's site, and so the Experience "uses research-based curriculum to equip students for future employment." Moreover, the training may even hamstring graduates who aren't white men. Researchers found that minority executives (white women and people of color) who promote diversity in the workplace are rated worse by their supervisors than are white men doing the same. The business model for diversity teaches students about cultural preferences and how to avoid offense, but it is ill-equipped to unpack social group power dynamics. This disconnect was painfully brought to life by a recent commercial featuring Kendell Jenner slipping a cold Pepsi into the hand of a white police officer in riot gear — to the cheers of a diverse crowd of protesters.

Students of color can benefit from diversity trainings and curricula, but the outcomes are not uniform and may even be counter-productive. This is because initiatives like OU's Experience were not designed for them or to reduce the discrimination against them. Next fall, the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences at the University of Iowa will roll out its "diversity and inclusion" requirement as part of its general education program. Matthew Bruce, a member of the executive board of the school's Black Student union, bluntly expressed his doubts about the requirement: "I don't necessarily see a course designed for people who are culturally incompetent as empowering students of color." Mandatory courses on "cultural competency" often further stigmatize and isolate students of color.

It's not only administrators whom student leaders work to hold accountable — faculty members have also been called out by students, partly because they are more familiar figures, but also because tenured faculty can seem to be able to get away with anything, including racism. And while student activists and an institution's governing board might find a lot to agree with over diversity-friendly personnel policies, faculty can struggle to locate their place within this kind of interest convergence.

In California, Pomona College entered the spotlight last year because of new diversity and inclusion tenure requirements. Pomona students volunteered examples of practices they would consider tenure-threatening. These included "Teaching an economics course on poverty using only white scholars" and "Saying things that are blatantly rude or disrespectful to students based on their background." Seemingly in response, the Oregon Association of Scholars recently released a report highly critical of what it calls "ideological litmus tests" for faculty hiring and evaluation. It names four Oregon public universities whose diversity policies allegedly violate academic freedom and unfairly target "non-left wing scholars."

Yet many faculty are in favor of personnel policies that reward them for bringing equity, diversity, and inclusion to their profession. Pomona's policy, however, is remarkable because it regards diversity as not "just a plus but a requirement" for tenure , according to Eric A. Hurley, a psychology and Africana studies professor who worked on the policy. At other institutions such as Virginia Tech, faculty "may" account for "diversity and inclusion" in applications for tenure and promotion, but they are not required to do so — a distinction its Provost made sure to emphasize publicly .

Weak diversity policies fail to change the status quo today because they trade binding commitment for symbolism and good intentions.

Interest convergence provides a lens for keener insight into policies that on the surface seem to offer obvious diversity benefits. For example, the Excelsior Scholarship, New York State's plan for free college tuition at its public colleges and universities, provides free tuition in exchange for a promise to attend college full-time, graduate on time, and live and work in New York for as many years as their scholarship was awarded. While the Excelsior Scholarship will no doubt boost college enrollments, its conditions assure that it will disproportionately benefit middle-class families and thus probably widen the racial educational gap — because Pell grants and other aid already pay tuition for poor students. And if the plan is ever broadly perceived as disproportionately benefiting students of color, calls for cutting or eliminating its funding are highly likely.

Might a period be on the horizon when a white student's discomfort in an ethnic studies class verges on a civil rights violation?

An institution might prepare for this day by understanding its diversity policies as naked interest convergence. This will entail making the case that white students and faculty benefit just as much from them as do their peers of color, if not more. But the core argument can no longer be the vague "compelling interest" of diversity. It must be economic. Instead of measuring qualitative outcomes such as "cultural competency" or "cognitive empathy," institutions might measure "salary upon graduation" or "promotions to full professor." Had affirmative action been consistently measured on similar merits, how much white people benefit from it would be common knowledge.

Interest convergence offers the most sobering and viable approach for the contentious issues around diversity and inclusion.

If white interests must continually be met so that they might leave behind a whit of racial justice, then the theory can make the future seem cynical or even hopeless. Interest convergence is not without its critics. Justin Driver has challenged it on multiple grounds, pointing out its contradictions and the necessary diminishment of black agency in its insistence upon the permanence of racism. But so much depends on our capacity to be open to the idea. Even if enduring white supremacy is a foregone conclusion, that fact does not preclude the possibility of individual righteous action, which is its own liberation.

David Shih is an associate professor of English at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. Follow him @ProfessorShih .

• white people
• civil rights
• white students

What Is Convergence Psychology?

Understanding how the brain takes in and interprets information can be essential to understanding human behavior. Convergence psychology explores how sensory details, such as sight or touch, are combined and evaluated to form perceptions, like recognizing a familiar face or learning a new skill.  

During the process of convergence, numerous inputs interact with one another to construct a complete understanding. At any given time within this perception-construction process, shadowing can occur when the information coming through one sense modality "shadows" information from other senses for comparison and evaluation. 

By looking at convergent psychological theories like Gestalt Theory alongside ideas like object constancy and distance-based perception , individuals may better understand what it means to understand complex visual functions, including the idea of convergence psychology. 

Introducing convergence psychology

Convergence psychology is a more modern area of study that aims to integrate various theoretical and methodological approaches in psychology to create a more comprehensive understanding of human behavior. This field recognizes the limitations of the traditional approach of studying behavior from a single perspective and believes that a holistic approach is necessary to depict human behavior accurately. 

Convergence psychology seeks to bring together diverse research methods, theories, and disciplines to create a complementary and collaborative understanding of the complexities of human behavior. Convergence psychologists aim to go beyond the confines of any one school of thought by welcoming divergent points of view. 

What is Gestalt theory?

Gestalt theory  is a psychological approach that focuses on how the human mind perceives and organizes stimuli. This theory emphasizes the importance of the human brain's ability to create meaningful patterns from the sensory information it receives. 

This theory postulates that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, showing that one's perception of an image or object depends on how one sees and organizes the various components. According to the theory, people's feelings, thoughts, and actions can be influenced by the need to impose order and structure on their surroundings. As a result, Gestalt theory sheds light on the mental processes behind one's observations of the world.

What are perception and constancy in psychology?

Perception and constancy are psychological concepts that help humans make sense of the world. Perception refers to how people interpret the information they receive through their senses, such as sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell. Various factors, including past experiences, expectations, and cultural background, can influence perceptions. 

On the other hand, constancy refers to the ability to perceive objects as constant and unchanging despite changes in stimuli. For example, a person may recognize a ball as a ball, even when it changes in size, color, or orientation. Understanding perception and constancy can provide valuable insights into human cognitive processes and how people interact with the world.

Potential benefits of adopting convergence psychology

The adoption of the convergence approach may offer benefits to clients in mental health settings. For example, it expands communication, allowing individuals to express their thoughts and emotions in unconventional ways that may be more natural. This process may enable clients to confront their challenges uniquely, leading to self-awareness and more profound personal growth. 

Additionally, using creative outlets can reduce stress, improve cognitive function, and enhance overall well-being. By working with a therapist or provider trained in convergence psychology, clients can gain a more comprehensive and holistic understanding of therapy. This viewpoint doesn't limit therapy to one viewpoint or way of treatment, allowing therapists to be integrative and take client needs into account. 

Convergence thinking and holism

Convergence thinking and holistic healthcare are newer concepts. Convergence thinking involves synthesizing ideas from multiple disciplines and industries to create innovative solutions to complex problems. On the other hand,  holistic care  emphasizes the interconnectedness and interdependence of all the parts that make up a system and how they work together to create a whole. 

These two concepts may transform how humans approach problem-solving and decision-making. By taking a step back and looking at the big picture, individuals and healthcare providers can foster more comprehensive, long-lasting, and valuable solutions for all parties involved. 

Object consistency and its role in perception

Object constancy is a vital concept in understanding perception. It refers to the ability to recognize objects and their properties despite changes in their appearance or position. Even if an object is seen from a different angle, under different lighting conditions, or partially obscured, people can identify it as the same object. 

The human brain uses past experiences and memories to create a mental image of each object and compare it to new visual information, allowing people to perceive it accurately. This ability is essential for everyday tasks, such as recognizing faces or finding one's car in a parking lot. 

The impact of distance on perception

Distance can have a profound impact on how one perceives the tone of a voice. Some people may misinterpret the meaning of a message based solely on the tone in which it is delivered. Numerous factors, such as stress, anxiety, and physical distance, can influence tone of voice. 

For instance, a message that may seem brusque or dismissive in person may be intended more neutrally or positively. A message delivered via email or text may be perceived as hostile or antagonistic if the tone is unclear. Therefore, it can be helpful to be aware of how distance can affect your interpretation of tone and to try to clarify any misunderstandings that may arise.

Exploring shadowing psychology and its relation to perceiving reality

Shadowing psychology  is a field related to convergence psychology that examines how individuals perceive reality. By studying how humans process and perceive sensory information, shadowing psychology provides insight into how the brain creates a cohesive world image. 

Through experimentation and analysis, researchers have uncovered a wealth of information on how the brain interprets and organizes sensory input and how individual experiences can influence perceptions of reality. Understanding shadow psychology can provide valuable insights into the nature of human consciousness and help individuals better understand the complex mechanisms behind perception. 

Identifying sources of stress with convergence psychology

Stress affects people of all ages and backgrounds. However, stress causes can vary, and identifying them may be critical to effectively managing them. With convergence psychology, identifying sources of stress may be more manageable, as this discipline combines psychology, neuroscience, and physiology to understand how the human brain processes emotions and thoughts. 

This approach allows for a more comprehensive view of stress, including hidden factors that can contribute to symptoms. Individuals can develop strategies to lessen the effects of stress on the body and mind by learning how stress manifests itself. 

Therapy using convergence psychology

Therapy can be a powerful tool to help individuals overcome mental health challenges. Convergence psychology takes a unique approach to therapy by incorporating cutting-edge technology and integrative methods. The benefits of convergence psychology therapy may include increased self-awareness, self-esteem, and overall well-being. In addition, by using virtual reality, biofeedback, and other advanced technologies, convergence psychology can create a more immersive and personalized therapeutic experience for clients. 

However, although this form of therapy can be beneficial, some clients may not have the means to get it in person. In these cases, online therapy through a platform like BetterHelp can be an effective alternative. Through an online platform, clients can meet with a provider from home and choose a session time that fits their schedule. In addition, you can express your preference for a therapeutic modality when signing up to get matched with a therapist who practices that method. 

In addition to the convenience of online therapy, studies have shown this method can be as effective as in-person therapy , with some individuals preferring the convenience and namelessness of virtual sessions. 

These principles may prompt transformation, shifting perceptions toward a more holistic framework. In addition, convergence psychology may be a tool in stress management responses by helping individuals identify potential sources of stress and developing strategies for responding to them. 

If you want to try convergence psychology therapy or another modality, consider contacting a licensed therapist online or in your area to get started.

• What Is Framing Psychology? Medically reviewed by Laura Angers Maddox , NCC, LPC
• What Is Dualism Psychology? Understanding The Body And Mind Medically reviewed by Melissa Guarnaccia , LCSW
• Psychologists
• Relationships and Relations

CONVERGENCE THEORY

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The Convergence Hypothesis: History, Theory, and Evidence

• Published: January 1998
• Volume 9 , pages 85–105, ( 1998 )

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• Farhad Rassekh 1  

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The hypothesis that per capita output converges across economies over time represents one of the oldest controversies in economics. This essay surveys the history and development of the hypothesis, focusing particularly on its vast literature since the mid-1980s. A summary of empirical analyses, econometric issues, and various tests of the convergence hypothesis are also presented. Moreover, the essay analyzes the implications of the hypothesis for economic growth, especially as it relates to underdeveloped economies.

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Econometric Aspects of Convergence: A Survey

The empirics of economic growth over time and across nations: a unified growth perspective

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Rassekh, F. The Convergence Hypothesis: History, Theory, and Evidence. Open Economies Review 9 , 85–105 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008279323832

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Convergence Theory Sociology Explained

In the convergence theory, the influences of a crowd do not encourage or dictate the actions of a person. Instead, the behavior of the crowd is already a reflection of how a person thinks or feels. It becomes a reflection of the combined attitudes of the individuals who have joined the crowd. Once those attitudes converge, behavior becomes a consequence.

Convergence theory is therefore an outward expression of who a person happens to be on any ordinary day. There will always be individuals within a crowd that may feel emboldened to do something they normally wouldn’t do on their own, but that attitude would still be an expression of their attitudes and desires.

This theory was first proposed in the 1960s by Clark Kerr, who was the Professor of Economics at UC-Berkeley. Ideas about convergence theory have been added to the theory since by others, including how nations converge together based on like-minded ideas just like people do to form a crowd.

Why Do Some Crowds Inspire Behavioral Changes?

The primary critique of the convergence theory in sociology is that some crowds bring like-minded people together, but other crowds inspire people to do things that they normally wouldn’t do. Behavioral changes occur in some crowds, but not others, because at the core of the individual, there is a desire to have some level of acceptance.

This need to have acceptance can also be seen at the nation-state level.

Some crowds perform group functions because of the social connections which form within them. If a group of people decide that they hate squirrels, then this hate becomes the social connection which binds them together. They will feel accepted by one another and this will cause them to work together to perform actions that are likely detrimental to the squirrels.

Some crowds inspire individuals to act in a way they normally would not because the individual feels a need to “over-perform” to find acceptance. The group and the individual have similar thoughts or ideas, but the individual does not feel the same level of social acceptance that others experience. That creates the need to perform an “impact behavior” as evidence of the individual’s sincerity.

In this instance, the individual looking to make an impact might go into town and break the window of a squirrel-related business. They might burn signs or flags that depict squirrels. You might even find them with a megaphone chanting anti-squirrel slogans. It’s done because there is an underlying hate of squirrels, which is mixed with an underlying need to feel accepted.

Why Do Like-Minded People Band Together into Crowds?

In the United States, there are fewer “open” Congressional seats today than ever before in the history of our country. One political party is almost guaranteed to consistently win specific districts in every state. Part of this is due to district redrawing to gain a political advantage, but the elements of convergence theory are in play as well.

People in the US are moving into neighborhoods with others that have similar thoughts and beliefs. Countries form treaties with others that have similar thoughts and beliefs. That reduces the variety of opinions, creates a stronger foundation for acceptance, and creates consistency along multiple spectrums of thought.

Like-minded people band together into crowds because it is comfortable for them to do so. There is no need to defend the basis of an opinion when everyone in the crowd shares the same opinion. People feel like they can be “right” without needing to put in the research it takes to prove they are correct.

So, why do some crowds turn violent and other crowds stay peaceful? The convergence theory in sociology would say that certain crowds are violent because the people who formed the crowd wanted to promote violence in the first place. Even if an individual in the crowd goes “over the top” and commits a heinously violent act on their own, the urge to do so was because of a gathering of people who appreciated the violence.

The individual seeking group acceptance wouldn’t be violent if the crowd would reject them because of their violence.

When we can recognize the composition of a crowd, then we can predict what actions the crowd might take. That allows us to recognize if we want to be part of it or if we want to disassociate ourselves from it.

There will always be individuals who fall outside of this spectrum, as there will be countries who chart their own course. With convergence theory, however, there will always be a desire to remain comfortable.

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Divergence, Convergence, or Crossvergence in International Human Resource Management

Divergence, Convergence, or Crossvergence in International Human Resource Management  open_in_new

Human Resource Management Review ( HRMR ) announces a call for papers for a special issue on “Divergence, Convergence, or Crossvergence in International Human Resource Management”.

The special issue is edited by Professor Akram Al Ariss (Université de Toulouse, Toulouse Business School) and Professor Yusuf Sidani (American University of Beirut, Olayan Business School).

[email protected]

[email protected]

Whether organizations and their HR practices are converging—becoming more similar—(convergence theory) or diverging in their practices (divergence theory) is a matter of intense scholarly interest. In their award-winning paper about values evolution, Ralston et al. (1993; 1997), proposed the crossvergence theory of values evolution. This perspective marked a departure from the traditional convergence/divergence theory of values formation. The convergence theory posited that values develop in sync with the prevailing technology in a particular society given the impact of technological development on other educational and institutional structures. As societies become more similar to one another in terms of industrialization and use of technology, values will eventually converge to Western capitalism, given that this is where most industrialization has traditionally occurred (Ralston, 2008). The divergence theory, on the other hand, argues that the socio-cultural influences are typically the prevailing forces that lead societal members to adopt specific values irrespective of other external drivers. The crossvergence theory argues instead that it is in fact a combination of sociocultural forces as well as “business ideology influences” that is the major force behind the formation of value systems. A similar term that has been coined in HR research is the “bounded convergence” perspective, which argues that HRM practices sometimes pursue hybrid models of HR (Zhang, 2012). 

Congruent to the above, this CFP invites scholars to explore these ideas in the realm of HR practices. To what extent do HR practices converge in line with what may be considered best practices in that regard, which are mainly developed in Western societies? Or is it the case that in any given society, sociocultural practices particular to that society have more impact in determining that society’s HR practices? Or are we instead witnessing a realization of the crossvergence theory, wherein a combination of factors molds HR practices. The crossvergence theory, as far as HR practices are concerned, has been understudied in HR scholarship. From the papers we are calling for, we would like to build an understanding of the trends of convergence/divergence/crossvergence of HRM processes and systems. Earlier HR research seems to be hinting at crossvergence in certain areas. Sidani and Al Ariss (2013), for example, suggest that MNCs operate in such a way that certain practices converge (given their global usage) while other practices diverge (given local contexts) thus leaning toward a crossvergence perspective. Brewster, Wood, and Brookes (2008) also find evidence of both similarities and differences in IHRM practices.  Brewster (2004) presents what he terms as “European perspectives on human resource management” suggesting the existence of institutional and cultural factors that do not conform to a pure convergence theory. Likewise, Rowley and Benson (2002) explore the difficulties and challenges facing HRM convergence theory in the Asian context (please refer to the SI in HRMR about the Chinese context, Zhang, 2012). Other contributions to HRMR also explore the existence of country/region-specific HR practices (for example Gooderham & Nordhaug, 2011; Huo, Huang, & Napier, 2002; Mayrhofer, Brewster, Morley, & Ledolter, 2011; Morley, 2004). The questions that we ask in this SI cover issues including to what extent we have a global HRM versus region-specific model of HR (North American model, European model, Asian model, Middle Eastern model, Nordic model, etc.)? Where do these systems meet and where do they part both in theory and in practice? In this special issue, we are interested in discourses that are currently present in the English language in various parts of the world. We are also interested in under-represented regions of the world, such as the Asian, African, and Latin American contexts in addition to other world experiences. We encourage researchers whose work entails investigating work practices in non-Western contexts to share their perspectives of HRM within their own contexts. The idea is to attract papers addressing these issues at the micro (i.e., individual and group) level with openness to the macro (organizational and societal) levels of analysis.

Some relevant questions (non-exhaustive list) are as follows:

• Are the assumptions of HRM that we understand in the West applicable in other world regions? What are the major concepts, models, and theories of HRM in those non-Western contexts and how do these enrich our understanding of divergence/convergence/convergence perspectives?
• What are some of the comparative features of HRM systems in different parts of the world, and at different levels of analysis?  What does this tell us about HRM and allied fields (e.g. organizational behavior, industrial/organizational psychology, labor relations)?
• What are the roles of individuals, groups, organizations, and institutions in creating similar or different approaches to HRM?
• How is HRM practiced in countries where most of the major employers are large government affiliated employers?  What differences do we see in such contexts in areas such as personnel selection, compensation, performance appraisal, attraction and retention, training and development, among others?
• HRM in Western contexts assumes a certain level of ‘rule of law’. How are HRM processes understood at the individual, group, and organizational levels where the rule of law is deficient or barely existent?
• What key new trends in HRM can be identified as international/global (e.g. Global Talent Management)? How do such trends stimulate empirical research, as well as critical examination of existing concepts, models, and theories?
• What is the impact of national cultures in developing a specific understanding for the role of HRM? Should we expect that variances along such dimensions (i.e. Hofstede, GLOBE etc.) would be reflected in different HR systems?

Consistent with HRMR ’s scope, conceptual and theoretical papers are welcomed (not empirical). Papers should be submitted according to the journal’s guidelines:

http://ees.elsevier.com/humres/

15th September 2014: Submit abstracts (maximum 1000 words) to the guest-editors.

15th October 2014:      Invitations to submit full papers will be sent out.

15th April 2015:           Submission of full papers for refereeing.

15th May 2015:            Authors will receive feedback.

15th September 2015: Full papers with revisions will be due.

2016:                           Journal volume to be published.

Brewster, C. (2004). European perspectives on human resource management. Human Resource Management Review ,  14 (4), 365-382.

Brewster, C., Wood, G., & Brookes, M. (2008). Similarity, isomorphism or duality? Recent survey evidence on the human resource management policies of multinational corporations.  British Journal of Management ,  19 (4), 320-342.

Gooderham, P., & Nordhaug, O. (2011). One European model of HRM? Cranet empirical contributions.  Human Resource Management Review ,  21 (1), 27-36.

Huo, Y. P., Huang, H. J., & Napier, N. K. (2002). Divergence or convergence: a cross‐national comparison of personnel selection practices.  Human Resource Management ,  41 (1), 31-44.

Mayrhofer, W., Brewster, C., Morley, M. J., & Ledolter, J. (2011). Hearing a different drummer? Convergence of human resource management in Europe—A longitudinal analysis.  Human Resource Management Review ,  21 (1), 50-67.

Morley, M. J. (2004). Contemporary debates in European human resource management: Context and content.  Human Resource Management Review , 14 (4), 353-364.

Rowley, C., & Benson, J. (2002). Convergence and divergence in Asian human resource management.  California Management Review ,  44 (2).

Ralston, D. A. (2008). The crossvergence perspective: Reflections and projections.  Journal of International Business Studies ,  39 (1), 27-40.

Ralston, D. A., Holt, D. H., Terpstra, R. H., & Kai-Cheng, Y. (1997). The impact of national culture and economic ideology on managerial work values: A study of the United States, Russia, Japan, and China. Journal of International Business Studies, 177-207.

Ralston, D. A., Gustafson, D. J., Cheung, F. M., & Terpstra, R. H. (1993). Differences in managerial values: A study of US, Hong Kong and PRC managers.  Journal of International Business Studies , 249-275.

Sidani, Y., & Al Ariss, A. (2013) Institutional and corporate drivers of global talent management: Evidence from the Arab Gulf region. Journal of World Business (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2013.11.005 .

Zhang, M. (2012). The development of human resource management in China: An overview.  Human Resource Management Review ,  22 (3), 161-164.

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symbolic convergence theory

Learn about this topic in these articles:, work of bormann.

…known as the originator of symbolic convergence theory (SCT) and its attendant method, fantasy theme analysis, which both explore how the sharing of narratives or “fantasies” can create and sustain group consciousness. For Bormann, these communal narratives encouraged group cohesion and fostered the development of a shared social reality among…

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What is the definition of convergence in distribution

This is the definition from wikipedia

A sequence $X_1, X_2, \cdots $ of real-valued random variables is said to converge in distribution, or converge weakly, or converge in law to a random variable X if $ \lim _{n\to \infty }F_{n}(x)=F(x) $, for every number $x \in \mathbb{R}$ at which F is continuous. Here $F_n$ and $F$ are the cumulative distribution functions of random variables $X_n$ and $X$, respectively.

I am confused by this definition because I can interpret it in two ways.

Let $E$ be the set of points on which $F(x)$ is continuous, then

$1)$ $\forall x \in E \ \forall \ \epsilon >0 \ \exists \ n $ s.t $|F_N(x)-F(x)|< \epsilon \ \ \forall N \ge n$

$2)$ $ \forall \ \epsilon >0 \ \exists \ n$ s.t $|F_N(x)-F(x)|< \epsilon \ \ \forall x \in E \ \ \forall N \ge n $

Which of the above correspond to convergence in distribution?

• probability-theory

2 Answers 2

The first one is what is meant. The latter of the two statements you mentioned would mean the convergence happens uniformly , i.e. there is a point at which the differences between the function and the limit is less than $\varepsilon$ for all $x$ simultaneously. This is much stronger than the first one, and usually statements like these are interpreted in the 'weak sense' (i.e. 1) unless otherwise indicated (in which case you would need to see the word 'uniform' somewhere).

I would interpret the text as:

$$\forall x: (F\text{ is continuous at } x)\implies \lim_{n\to\infty} F_n(x)=F(x)$$

Or, with your definition of $E$, that would be

$$\forall x\in E: \lim_{n\to\infty} F_n(x)=F(x)$$

which is what your first option describes. You could also describe this by saying that $F_n$ converge pointwise to $F$.

The secon is more restrictive and implies that $F_n$ converge uniformly to $F$.

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